THE LOGGING PROGRAM

A logging suite should be selected on the basis of

• type of well--wildcat or development

• hole conditions--depth, deviation from vertical, hole size, mud type, and temperature
• formation fluid content--(fresh or salt) connate water
• formation type--clastic or carbonate
• economics--rig time, logging dollars, and so forth
Each tool is designed with a specific set of conditions in mind. Outside these limitations, the tool
will fail to provide the intended measurement, and its use is discouraged.

DEPTH, PRESSURE, AND TEMPERATURE

CONSIDERATIONS
The majority of logging tools are rated at 20,000 psi and 350° F. These parameters are adequate
for logging most holes. For higher temperatures, special tools may be available on a limited basis
from the logging service companies.

HOLE SIZE AND DEVIATION

Six inches is the standard minimum hole size for correct and safe operation of normal logging
tools. Slim-line, small-diameter tools are available for smaller-diameter holes on a limited basis.
Maximum hole diameter is difficult to define. Most pad contact tools (compensated formation
density logs, micro-focused logs, dipmeter, and the like) have spring-loaded, hydraulically
operated arms that push the relevant sensor pad against the borehole wall. The arms open to
about 20 inches, although this limit varies from tool to tool. If holes are deviated, good pad contact
might still be obtained, since the tool will tend to"lean" on the low side of the hole. However,
optimum performance cannot be guaranteed. Running a pad contact tool in a hole of greater than
20 inches in diameter is risky because the pad may not be able to make contact with the wall of
the wellbore. Similarly, tools that need to be run eccentered--for example, compensated neutron
tools--are less accurate in enlarged holes.
Resistivity devices, such as induction and laterolog, suffer in a progressive fashion as the
borehole gets bigger. Theoretically, there is no fixed limit to the hole size. In practice, however,
there is a limit because borehole corrections to the raw data become so large that nothing useful
can be determined from the logs.
Logging large-diameter surface holes may thus cause a problem. In this respect, the logging
program may dictate the drilling of a medium-sized borehole, which will subsequently be
underreamed to the desired gauge after logging.
In today’s offshore environment, the deviated hole is the norm rather than the exception. The
greater the angle of deviation from vertical, the greater the difficulties of physically getting a
logging tool to the bottom of the hole. In general, hole deviation greater than 40° causes problems
for wireline logging, and deviations in excess of 52° will require more drastic measures, such as
logging on the end of drill pipe. A number of techniques have been tried to get logging tools safely
to bottom. Among them are

• keeping the openhole section as short as possible

• removing centralizers and standoff pads
• using a "hole finder," a rubber snout on the bottom of the logging tool string
 • using logging tools especially adapted to be run to the bottom of the hole on drillpipe
In difficult situations, the hole may have to be logged through open-ended drillpipe with a slim
logging tool physically pumped down by mud circulation. Using this technique, holes with
deviations as high as 65° have been logged.

LOGGING PROGRAMS
Most logging programs call for a minimum of an SP-Resistivity log, along with a measurement of
porosity. However, where hydrocarbon reservoirs are more difficult to evaluate, a variety of
porosity devices may be required to provide more accurate porosity data and lithology information.
In addition, the reservoir engineer, the completion engineer, and the geophysicist may need
additional information for evaluation and completion of the well. With the addition of computers to
aid in formation evaluation, such comprehensive logging programs offer greater utilization of the
measurements recorded.
Mud resistivity, formation water resistivity, hole conditions, and formation types dictate the type of
devices needed. The extent of the logging program is also a function of the information obtained in
previous wells.
A cross-reference list of tool nomenclature of the various service companies is presented in the
Reference Section under Service Company Terminology.

INFLUENCE OF THE MUD PROGRAM

The mud type influences the choice of logging tool, especially the choice of resistivity tool.
Air-drilled holes, which have no conductive fluid in them, must be logged with an induction device.
Likewise, holes drilled with oil can only be logged with an induction log. Where conductive fluids
are in the borehole for logging operations, the choice between induction and laterolog devices is
controlled by the salinities of the mud and the formation water.

• Fresh muds and salty formation waters favor the induction log.
• Salty muds favor the laterolog.
All samples should be protected from excessive fluid losses so that porosity and saturation can be
adequately determined. Bit cuttings can be sufficient to interpret lithology and determine proper
constants for log evaluation formulas. Thus, the mud program should be designed for both the
drilling and the logging operations.
It is possible for a logging program to succeed or fail strictly because of the design of the mud
program. For example, filtrate from a high-water-loss mud can invade a formation so deeply as to
mask the measurement of true resistivity, reduce the amplitude of the spontaneous potential
curve, obscure the detection of the residual hydrocarbons, and result in water recovery on a
drillstem test from zones that would otherwise produce oil. Invasion of oil from oil-base or oil-
emulsion muds can increase the resistivity (Rxo) and decrease the water saturation (Sxo) of the
invaded zone. This effect would erroneously indicate the presence of oil in water-bearing
formations, or reduce formation porosity values calculated from microresistivity devices.
The practice of "mudding up" just before reaching the objective zone affects interpretation when
mud filtrate invades the formation beyond the radius of investigation of the resistivity device.
Friable formations, as well, drilled with natural high-water-loss muds are usually badly washed out
and can prevent the logging tools from going down the hole because they hang up on ledges
and/or bridges. Borehole contact devices cannot obtain effective contact with the side of the
borehole in highly rugose holes and will give erroneous measurements. Normally, the extent of
washouts through shale is in proportion to the water loss of the muds (i.e., the higher the water
loss, the larger the washouts). Since many development and semi-wildcat wells are drilled with
natural high-water-loss muds through the shallower formations, reliable analysis of logs through
these intervals is most difficult. The decision to drill with natural high-water-loss muds through
shallow formations is normally based on the erroneous assumption that the shallow formations are
of no interest. However, the logs through the shallow formations are invariably consulted later to
find zones for recompletion, to determine prospects for new hydrocarbon-bearing zones in the
area, to locate and evaluate high-pressure zones, and for general correlation work.

DECIDING WHEN TO LOG

Most logs should be run just prior to running the casing string. Once casing is set, logging choices
are severely limited.
It is recommended that openhole wireline logs be run (1) if hole conditions suggest that a section
of hole could be "lost" (caving, washouts, etc., which would contraindicate the running of a logging
tool), (2) if cuttings indicate that an unexpected formation has been encountered, and/or (3) if one
is otherwise "lost" structurally.
However, one’s enthusiasm for running logs must be tempered somewhat by the economic and
practical realities of service company price lists and fee structures. Each time a logging truck is
called, a setup charge is assessed to cover costs of mobilization. In addition, a depth charge is
assessed per foot of hole from surface to total depth. Finally, a survey charge is assessed over the
actual interval logged. The full cost of a logging operation is thus, more than anything else, a
function of the depth of the well. To log a l00-ft section at 10,000 ft is an expensive proposition,
while a 4000-ft survey at 5000 ft total depth is probably less expensive.
STUCK CABLE OR TOOLS
Wireline logging involves a risk or sticking, in either of two ways. Either the tool will stick and the
cable in the hole above the tool will remain free, or the tool will remain free while the cable will be
stuck further up the hole above the tool. Figure 1 illustrates the difference.

Figure 1

Once the system is firmly lodged, the first thing to do is determine whether the problem lies with
the tool or the cable. The standard procedure is to apply normal logging tension on the cable and
let it sit for a few minutes while the following data are gathered:

• the present depth of the tool

• the cable’s surface tension just before getting stuck
• the cable type and size
• the cable-head weakpoint rating
The cable is marked (using chalk or friction tape) at the rotary table, and a T-bar clamp is securely
positioned around the cable, just above the rotary table. If the cable should break, this clamp will
hold the cable end at the surface to prevent all the cable from snaking down the hole and landing
in a tangle on top of the tool.
The winch operator then applies 1000 lb of tension on the cable and measures the distance that
the cable mark has moved at the rotary table. This distance amounts to the stretch produced in
the elastic cable due to 1000 lb of extra tension. Now, the length of free cable can be estimated
from a stretch chart or from knowledge of the stretch coefficient. If the length of free cable so
determined proves to be the present logging depth, then the tool is evidently stuck and the cable is
free. On the other hand, if the length of free cable is less than the present logging depth, then the
cable itself must be stuck higher up the hole.
In the case of a stuck tool, pulling on the cable will achieve one of three results.

• The tool will pop free,

 • the weakpoint will break (leaving the tool in the hole but saving the cable), or
• the cable will break at the point of maximum tension at the top sheave.
Of the three, the first is most preferred. Of the remaining two, the breaking of the weakpoint is
preferred. But which will occur first? Will the cable part at the surface before the weakpoint
breaks? Figure 2 will help to explain the tensions involved.

Figure 2

CAUSES OF STICKING
Differential pressure sticking of the cable occurs as the cable cuts through the mudcake. One side
of the cable is exposed to formation pressure while the other side is exposed to the hydrostatic
mud column. The resulting difference in pressures will force the cable against the formation, and
the resulting friction stops any further cable movement (Figure 3). Other cases of sticking may be
attributed to ledges, borehole caving, severe doglegs or corkscrewing of the borehole.
 Figure 3 .

With these factors in mind, it is safe to say that the risk of sticking a tool increases with dogleg
severity, length of the tool, and the amount of time that has passed since the last conditioning trip.

ALTERNATIVES TO FISHING
There are a number of alternatives available for recovering the stuck tool and/or cable:

• Leave the cable attached to the tool and run a side-door overshot.
• Use the "cut and thread" overshot technique.
• Break the weakpoint, recover the cable, and fish for the logging tool with the drillpipe,
or push it to the bottom of the hole and mill it up.
Figure 4 illustrates the different methods.
 Figure 4

The side-door overshot is not recommended at depths greater than 3000 ft. Historically, the cut
and thread technique is the surest way to recover a stuck logging tool.
LOG QUALITY CONTROL
The need for log quality control has been documented in a number of studies, such as the one by
Neinast and Knox (1973). Errors made in recording the logs may render them useless as
formation evaluation tools.
It is the responsibility of the well operator’s representative to ensure that the best quality logs are
obtained. Service company personnel expect a representative to be available and in the logging
unit during the logging operation. Logging operations should be discussed with the logging
engineer before and after the job.
The most critical time during a logging operation comes when the tool is within 1000 feet of the
bottom of the well. The logging engineer must not be distracted during this time, but must be
allowed to perform the operation with a minimum of interruption.
After each log is complete, it should be reviewed with the engineer as thoroughly as possible. Ask
for an explanation of any abnormal curve responses, equipment failures, or hole problems; then
make sure that the engineer enters the information in the "remarks" column of the log heading.
This may be done after the first print is completed, but before further prints are made. If there is
any question about validity, the log should be rerun before the crew rigs down. A general rule of
thumb is to log about 200 feet of repeat section in a relatively smooth hole in order to verify the
accuracy of the log. Everyone is reluctant to go back in the hole after rigging down. However, once
pipe is set, it is impossible to get another resistivity survey of any type.
No matter how competent and conscientious an observer may be, there are ways in which bad
logs can defy detection at the wellsite. To this degree, log quality also depends on the
competence and integrity of the logging company’s engineer. Perhaps the most important
objective is to develop relationships of mutual trust with the logging company personnel. Further
details of log quality control procedures are available in Bateman (1984).

PRACTICAL CHECKS
Logs consist of two kinds of data--the log data (the curves), and the heading and calibration data.
Remarks may be added to either. The calibrations are objective verifications of log quality. Learn
what they mean and how to use them.
Depth-related log measurements include one or more repeat sections, usually about 200 feet.
These records are a valuable, though not conclusive, indication of correct tool operation, and
should be examined carefully on every log run.

ACCEPTANCE STANDARDS FOR LOGS

Although a large percentage of logs may contain some degree of erroneous data, it is unfair to
intimate that such logs are worthless. Though a log may be corrected visually or mathematically, it
sometimes must be rerun before valid conclusions can be made. The cost of rerunning the log
might thus outweigh the significance of the error. When the log is not rerun, the error should be
noted on the heading in the "remarks" column and also noted on the log opposite any zone of
interest.
For more serious errors, it is a mistake to think that a bad log is better than none. Since a bad log
may adversely influence important decisions, it is imperative that the log be rerun. The problem, of
course, is to determine whether to accept or reject a questionable log. One reliable method for
determining a bad log is to ask, "Is the interpretation accurate? When in doubt, rerun the log. Also
ask, Can everyone who will use this log see the error and/or be able to perform an accurate
interpretation?" If in doubt, rerun the log.
A clear-cut criterion for acceptance or rejection of a log is difficult to establish, because situations
differ from one log run to the next. Good judgment should outweigh written instructions when
deciding whether to accept or rerun a log. The following guidelines should assist in making such
decisions.
OVERALL TECHNICAL QUALITY
The technical quality of the data may be affected by many factors:

• equipment malfunction
• rugose borehole
• sticking tools
• logging engineer’s errors
• tool rotation
• excess logging speed
• deviated wells
• tool eccentricity
• formation alteration

REPEATABILITY
In many instances, an anomaly over a logged interval may indicate the possibility of a malfunction.
This should be resolved by repeating the log across that section, since the problem may be
significant. It is interesting to recall that the spontaneous potential (SP) was originally an anomaly
that interfered with measurement of formation resistivity.
Properly functioning resistivity tools, run under conditions that are within their capability, nearly
always repeat very well. As a functional check of the equipment, a repeat section of 200 feet or
more is routinely run, and should be required, except in unusual circumstances.
Aside from equipment failures, factors that might cause poor repeat sections include washed-out
holes (particularly those of extremely noncircular cross section), variable tool centering
(particularly in large holes with fairly high mud conductivities), the presence of metallic "fish" in the
borehole; and comparing an up run with a down run (which may appear quite different with some
types of equipment).
Repeatability with a previous log run may be affected by time-related phenomena as well, such as
varying invasion profiles. Invading filtrate can penetrate deeper, migrate vertically, accumulate as
"annuli," or dissipate altogether with the passage of time. The log response, particularly of the
shallower-reading devices, may continue to change for many days after the well is logged. Though
unusual, such changes can be very troublesome; but from the viewpoint of log quality they are
usually recognizable. The changes occur only in the invaded sections, not in the shales or other
impervious rocks.

OFFSET LOGS
If the well is in a developing field, available offset logs are likely to be useful, especially in an
unfamiliar or geologically complex area.

ABSOLUTE LOG VALUES

Comparison of log readings with known absolute values is seldom possible, but when it can be
done, this positive crosscheck should be used. Formations that consist of pure, zero-porosity
minerals such as halite, anhydrite, or limestone can be used to check log readings. The table
below lists these natural benchmarks for several common tools.
Table 1: Tool Response in Common Benchmark Environments
Expected Value for Various Tools
 Benchmark Sonic Density Compensated Photoelectric
µs/feet)
(µ (g/cc) Neutron Factor (Pe)
Limestone

Salt 67.0 2.04 -2.0 4.65

Anhydrite 50.0 2.98 -1.0 5.05

Sulfur 122.0 2.02 -3.0 5.43

Casing 56.0 - - -

Casing can sometimes be used as a check. All caliper tools should read the same in casing. The
diameter indicated is usually slightly greater than that of new casing due to drill-pipe wear. The two
diameters measured by a four-arm caliper should be equal. The sonic should read about 56
microseconds per foot in un-bonded casing.

DEPTH MEASUREMENTS
Measurement of depth is perhaps the logging company’s most basic function, but one that tends
to get lost among the more glamorous parameters. Absolute depth control is provided either by a
calibrated sheave or by magnetic marks placed on the logging cable every 100 feet. In either
case, the operational procedure for obtaining accurate depth control is rather rigorous, and if
followed properly will almost always result in accurate depth measurements. This is one of the
places where it is advisable to be on terms of mutual trust with the logging engineer. It may be
possible to detect evidence of inaccurate depth measurements, but absolute verification is very
difficult.
Compare logger’s TD and casing depth with those reported by the driller. Watch for excessive tie-
in corrections with previous log runs and check the apparent depths of known markers.
Relative depth control means ensuring that all measurements are on depth with each other. All
curves recorded on the same trip in the hole should tie in with each other, within plus or minus 6
inches. In addition, each subsequent log should match the base log within 2 feet in straight holes
and 4 feet in highly deviated wells (greater than 30°).

LOGGING SPEEDS
The logging speed in feet per minute is indicated by gaps or tick marks along the edge of the film
track. Acceptable logging speeds depend on the type of log, the type of unit (computer or
conventional), the intended use of the data, and the type of formation being logged. Normal
routine logging speeds are listed in the table below.
Table 2: Recommended Logging Speeds

TTool FFt/min FFt/hour RRemarks

Resistivity Log 100 6000

Resistivity + Gamma Ray 60 3600 GR for correlation

Sonic Log 60 3600 Slower if sonic signal is noisy

Dipmeter Log 60 3600

Microresistivity 40 2400