School of Earth and Environment

Contents

Introduction to
Structural Geology
Workbook 1 Structural Geology - the Basics
School of Earth and Environment
Contents

Contents
Introduction to structural geology 4
1. Deformation, strain and stress 5
2. Brittle deformation 11
3. Ductile deformation 22
Acknowledgements and references 34

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How to use this workbook

This workbook covers basic structural geology
concepts that will be built on in later modules.
It is designed as a refresher course for those
who have not looked at the fundamentals of
structure for a few years. By the end of this
workbook you should be able to identify, describe
and understand the formation of a variety of
geological structures and to understand some
of the basic processes that result in and occur
during deformation.

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Introduction to structural geology

Structural geology is the study of how rocks Depending on lithospheric conditions at the time
deform and the processes of deformation. of deformation, rocks may respond to stress
Deformation is the change in shape, position in a brittle or ductile manner. During brittle
and/or volume of an object in response to applied deformation rocks fracture with strain localised
forces. It is closely related to the concept of strain along a plane whilst the rocks to either side
- the permanent change in shape (in 1D, 2D or remaining unaffected (e.g. faults and joints).
3D) of a rock body as a result of deformation, so During ductile deformation rocks change shape
closely related, in fact, the two terms are often smoothly and strain is pervasive throughout the
used interchangeably. However, deformation rock body (e.g. folds).
includes rigid translation and/or rotation (e.g. a
fault block that moves but undergoes no internal
strain) and volume change (e.g. compaction) of
a rock body, whereas strain is purely the change
in shape of a rock body.
 
Deformation is caused by forces acting on the
rock body. These forces maybe due to gravity
(vertical force) or the movement of the tectonic
plates (horizontal forces). The effect of these
forces on a rock depends on the area over which
they are applied: force/area=stress. Therefore,
at its simplest, stress causes strain.
 

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Worksheet 1: Deformation, strain and stress

Deformation: The change in shape, position Translation
and/or volume of a rock in response to applied During translation every point in a rock body
forces. Deformation is determined by comparing undergoes the same displacement. There is no
the rock’s deformed and undeformed states. It distortion and no change of shape
can be broken down into rigid body deformation  
(translation and rotation) and non-rigid body Rotation
deformation (strain and volume change). Rotation is the same as translation only with a
rotational component
Rigid body deformation  
Non-rigid body deformation
Rigid body deformation occurs where a rock mass Figure 2: A sheared trilobite. An example of non-rigid
body deformation (Miller, 2012).
moves or rotates with no change of shape (figure Strain
1). This is only detectable if there is an external Strain is the change in shape of a rock body
reference frame. An example is the rotation of during deformation (figure 2). Homogeneous / heterogeneous
the African continent since the Jurassic. This  
rotation can be recognised from palaeomagnetic Volume change
deformation
data. Volume change occurs where a rock body Homogeneous deformation
Translation Rotation increases or decreases in volume. In two Homogeneous deformation occurs where
dimensions this is a change in area. A rock deformation is constant across a rock body, that
body may retain the same shape if the volume is different parts of an object deform by the same
(area) change is the same in all directions or it amount (figure 3a). In homogeneous deformation
may change shape if the volume (area) change straight lines remain straight, parallel lines remain
varies. Compaction is an example of a change parallel and circles deform to ellipses.
Figure 1: Rigid body deformation involves translation in shape and reduction in volume due to vertical  
and/or rotation of an object. compression.
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Heterogeneous deformation Strain parameters

Heterogeneous deformation occurs where
the deformation varies across a rock body, so The strain parameters longitudinal strain and
different parts of an object deform by different angular shear strain are used to measure
amounts (figure 3b). homogeneous strain.
 
Whether deformation is homogeneous or Longitudinal strain
heterogeneous can depend on scale; a large Longitudinal strain is strain in a single direction
area of heterogeneous deformation may be (1D) or the change in the length of a line. It maybe
measured in units (centimetres, kilometres etc) Figure 4: Folded quartz vein, an example of
broken down into smaller areas of homogeneous negative elongation (R. Butler).
deformation for analysis. or expressed as the ratio elongation (e).
Elongation is negative (-) for contraction (the line
l1 - l0 has decreased in length) (figure 4) and positive
Elongation (e) = (+) for extension (the line has increased in length)
a)
l0
(figure 5) .

where:
b)
l0 is the original length of the line
Figure 3: a) Homogeneous deformation: straight lines
remain straight, parallel lines remain parallel and l1 is the new (observed) length of
circles deform to ellipses.
b) Heterogeneous deformation: different parts of an
the line
2cm
object deform by different amounts.

Figure 5: An extended belemite, an example of positive elongation. The

dark areas are the original fossil and white a calcite infill (J. Houghton).

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ψ
Longitudinal strain can be used to calculate the Shear strain is positive for a clockwise deflection
extension or contraction along a cross section of the marker and negative for an anticlockwise
where a single marker horizon can be measured deflection.
before and after deformation (figure 6). After
deformation

Angular shear strain Shear strain γ = tan ψ

Before
Angular shear strain is the strain in a plane (2D) deformation
or the change in angles. Angular shear is the where:
deflection of an orthogonal marker. This is the Figure 7: Angular shear of an originally orthogonal
marker (e.g. fossil with bilateral symmetry). Before
change in angle between a pair of lines that g is the shear strain deformation the base and mid lines of the fossil are
were originally orthogonal. An example of an orthogonal. Shear across the fossil results in the
orthogonal marker would be a fossil with bilateral y is the change in angle from the perpendicular deflection of these markers.

symmetry (the trilobite in figure 2).

Figure 8 shows sheared burrows (yellow lines).
Shear strain (g) is the tangent of the change in The burrows were originally perpendicular (white ψ
angle between the originally orthogonal pair of lines) to bedding (red line). The burrows are
lines (figure 7). now at approximately 50° to bedding giving a
3 3
shear strain of -1.2. Shear strain
2 2
is negative as the burrows have
rotated anticlockwise from their
kilometres

1 1
original position.
0 0

0 1 2
Figure 8: Sheared burrows in the limb of a syncline
Figure 6: The black marker horizon can be used to at Stackpole Key in Pembrokeshire (G. Lloyd).
kilometres
calculate the longitudinal strain across the section. See text for details.

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Strain in 2D - the strain ellipse

The strain ellipse is a method of representing the a)
X 90º
Strain ellipse
amount of strain a rock has undergone. It uses
90º
an initially circular marker that is deformed to an Original circular
marker
ellipse (figure 9). The strain ellipsoid is used for
strain in three dimension. b)
Where the 90º
The value of longitudinal strain depends on orthogonal lines 90º
of the strain
original orientation of a line. Lines that are Lines of indicator are
parallel or close to parallel with the Z axis will no finite parallel with
longitudinal the strain axes
contract, lines that are parallel or close to parallel strain Z angular shear
with the X axis will elongated and lines that are strain is zero.
parallel or close to parallel to the lines of no c)

finite longitudinal strain will undergo contraction

followed by elongation. The lines of no finite
longitudinal strain separate the zone of elongation Lines lengthen Lines shorten
(yellow) from the zone of contraction (blue).

The value/sense of angular shear strain depends Figure 10: Fossils a) and b) have their orthogonal
on original orientation of the orthogonal lines of lines parallel with the strain axes and show no
shear strain during deformation. Fossil c) is at an
the strain indicator. Where the lines of the strain angle to the strain axes and shows shear strain
indicator are parallel with the strain axes (X and Figure 9: The strain ellipse.
during deformation.
Z) shear strain is zero. Where they are at an
angular shear strain occurs (figure 10).
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Pure shear and simple shear Simple shear Pure and simple shear are end members of a
Simple shear is non-coaxial deformation (figure range of potential deformations within a plane.
Pure shear 11b). During deformation the strain axes rotate. An object can have the same initial shape and
Pure shear is coaxial deformation. Contraction The amount of rotation depends on amount of the same deformed shape (see figure 12) but
and elongation are parallel to the strain axes, so strain; the greater the strain, the greater the its deformation history – the path the rock took
there will be no rotation of the axes from their rotation. from its original to its final shape may be different
original positions (figure 11a). depending upon whether it underwent pure or
a) Pure shear b) Simple shear
a) Pure shear simple shear or some combination thereof.

Stress
Stress is defined as a pair of equal and opposite
forces acting on a unit area of a rock body.

b) Simple shear STRESS = Force/Area

Figure 13 illustrates the effects of the same force

applied over different areas.

On a large scale, movement of the plates and

gravity create the forces that act on rock layers,
Figure 11: Pure shear and simple shear of an Figure 12: Comparison of the development of with gravity acting vertically and plate movements
originally circular object. a) pure and b) simple shear strain ellipses. horizontally. On a smaller scale the picture
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a) Normal stress b) Shear stress

is more complicated with local stress fields Hydrostatic stress occurs where the principal
created by the effects of topography, pre-existing stresses have the same value: σ1 = σ2 = σ3. This
structures, burial, uplift, thermal effects from is the state of stress found in fluids and does
not cause strain, although it may cause a loss in
volume. For strain to occur a deviatoric stress
state where σ1 > σ2 > σ3 is needed (figure 15).
Figure 14: Normal stress (σn) acts perpendicular
to a surface. Shear stress (σs) act parallel to a Whilst there may be a generalized agreement
surface.
between the orientation of the principal stresses
The stress field acting on any particular point and the orientation of the axes of the strain ellipse
(the local state of stress) can be considered by localized stress fields mean a straight forward
1cm 1m
looking at the normal stresses acting on the point. correlation is often not possible.
Figure 13: When hit with the same force the small
These are known as the principal stress and they
are orthogonal to each other.
cube is more likely to shatter than the large cube,
illustrating the effects of the area over which a σ3
force is applied.
σ1 = direction of greatest
compression σ1 σ1
intrusions, contacts between rocks of different
properties, anisotropic rocks etc. σ2 = intermediate between

Stress on a surface such as bedding can be

σ1 and σ3 σ2
broken down into normal stress σn (sigma n)
which acts perpendicular to the surface and
σ3 = direction of least
compression or greatest
σ3
shear stress σs (sigma s) oriented parallel to the extension
Figure 15: For deformation to occur a deviatoric stress state is needed
surface (figure 14).
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Worksheet 2: Brittle deformation

Brittle deformation occurs where the stress Hangingwall: Fault block above the fault surface. Normal fault:
exceeds local rupture strength of the rock and the Hangingwall moves
rock fractures. Deformation is localised along a Hangingwall cut-off: Where a layer or feature down relative to the
plane with the rocks to either side of the fracture in the hanging-wall is cut by the fault. footwall.
unaffected. It occurs in lower temperatures and
pressures of the upper crust. Joints, fissures Displacement: The relative offset of points once Figure 17a: Normal fault
and faults are all examples of brittle deformation. adjacent on either side of a fault.
Thrust fault:
Faults Throw: Vertical component of displacement Hangingwall moves up
along a fault. relative to the footwall.
A fault is a surface or narrow zone A reverse fault is a high
with parallel displacement and Heave: Horizontal angle thrust fault.
offset of layers either side ne component of
pla
of the fracture (figure ult displacement along a Figure 17b: Thrust fault
Fa
16). fault.
Strike-slip:
Footwall: Fault block Footwall Hangingwall
Fault types Movement parallel to
beneath the fault the strike of the fault
Throw Displacement
surface. Dip-slip: plane.
Heave Movement parallel
Hangingwall
Footwall cut-off: Footwall cut-off to dip of the fault Figure 17c: Strike-slip fault
Where a layer or cut-off plane. Both normal,
feature in the footwall thrust and reverse Oblique-slip faults are a combination of dip-slip
Figure 16:
is cut by the fault. Normal fault showing the faults are dip-slip and strike-slip movement where the hangingwall
different terminology used to describe a fault. faults. moves obliquely with respect to the footwall.
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Normal faults Listric faults are normal faults that decrease

in dip with depth (Figure 19 and 21). The
A normal fault is a fault where the hangingwall hangingwall is folded into a roll-over anticline.
moves down relative to the footwall. It usually Listric faults often occur at a kilometre scale.
dips at about 50 – 60°, although local conditions
can cause this  to vary. Sigma o n e Domino faults are a series of parallel normal
is vertical and sigma three  is
horizontal (Figure 18).
1 σ faults and fault blocks that rotate during extension
Roll-over anticline
(Figure 20 and 22). In the idealized model, faults
have the same dip and the fault blocks are the
same size. The fault blocks behave in a rigid
manner and rotate at the same time and at
the same rate. This style of faulting leads
to space problems at the base of the fault
system which are usually accommodated
by ductile deformation along
σ3 σ 3
a weak layer such as salt or a
thick series of shales.
Figure 19: Listric normal fault with roll-over anticline.

σ2
60o

Figure 18:
Normal fault with
orientation of principal stresses Weak layer

Figure 20: Domino faults, before and after movement.

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Listric fault

Figure 21: Normal faults in a quarry

face. Note the small listric fault in the
top right hand corner (RDR).

Figure 22: Domino faults in lavas (Afar Rift Consortium 2012).

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Rotated fault blocks

Fault scarps

Figure 23: Rifting in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia.

Fault scarps in the foreground and tilted fault blocks in the background (Afar Rift Consortium, 2012).

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Thrust faults Thrust often run parallel to bedding Hangingwall flats

(flat) then cut up through the layers Hangingwall ramp
A thrust fault is one where the hangingwall moves (ramp) before finding another weak
up relative to the footwall (figure 24). It usually layer to follow (figure 25). The footwall
dips at about 0 – 30°, although local conditions and hangingwall are considered
can cause this to vary. Sigma one is horizontal separately when applying the terms Footwall flat Fo
and sigma three is vertical. As the hangingwall ramp and flat.
otw
all
ram
moves up the footwall older rocks are placed on No deformation p
in the footwall
top of younger rocks.
σ3 Where the thrust cuts upwards, the
rocks in the hanging-wall are forced to
Figure 25: A flat is the section of a thrust fault that runs
fold to accommodate the shortening parallel to bedding. A ramp is the section that cuts across
along the thrust. The resulting bedding usually connecting two flats.
fold is known as a fault bend
fold (figure 29). The layers in
the footwall remain underformed. Fold and thrust belts
Figure 28 shows the classic fold and thrust

σ1 σ1 Duplexes develop
displacement ceases up a ramp
as geometry found in the forelands of mountain
belts.
and the thrust cuts through into Thrust tip: Leading edge of a thrust fault where
σ2
30o
the footwall to create a new ramp. displacement ceases.
New thrusts form progressively in the Blind thrust: The foremost thrust of a sequence,
footwall and older thrusts are rotated which dies out before it reaches the surface.
Figure 24: and folded by younger ones. This Imbricate fan: A series of thrusts extending
Thrust fault with results in a well-ordered geometry with from a floor thrust to the surface.
orientation of principal stresses. predictive elements (figure 26 and 27).
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Roof thrust glides on same floor unit Except at its leading edge

Except where it climbs original ramp Floor thrust glides on same floor unit

Figure 27: The predictive geometry that results from the formation of a duplex. The roof thrust glides through
the upper white unit except where it climbs the original ramp and the floor thrust glides through the lower white
unit except at its leading edge.

Imbricates: A series of thrusts with the same dip Horse: A fault bound block within a duplex.
and branching from the same floor thrust, may Roof thrust: Uppermost thrust of a duplex.
be part of a duplex or imbricate fan. Floor thrust: Basal thrust of a duplex or imbricate
Branch lines: Where a thrust branches away fan, also known as a sole thrust.
from or onto a floor or roof thrust.

Imbricate fan Duplex

Horses
Imbricates
Thrust tip Roof thrust

Blind thrust Imbricate floor thrust. Thrusts

branch from this to the surface. Duplex floor thrust. Thrusts
Branch lines
branch from this to the roof thrust.
Figure 28:
Figure 26: Formation of a duplex Fold and thrust belt. For definition of terms see text.

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Figure 29a: Thrust fault with a fault bend fold in the hangingwall and undeformed footwall (Miller 2012).

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Fault bend fold

Undeformed footwall

Figure 29b: Thrust fault with a fault bend fold in the hangingwall and undeformed footwall (Miller 2012).

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a)

Strike-slip faults Bends in strike-slip faults result in areas of

compression or extension depending on the
A strike-slip fault is one where the fault blocks direction of movement relative to the bend.
move horizontally past each other. Sigma one
and three are both horizontal and sigma two is Where the bend is in the same direction as
vertical (figure 30). Where relative displacement movement, an area of extension develops and a
is to the right the fault it dextral, where it is to the pull-apart basin bound by the strike-slip fault and b)
left the fault is sinistral (figure 31 and 33). Strike- normal faults forms. This is known as a releasing
slip faults are usually vertical or close bend (figure 32a and 34).
to vertical. σ 2
Where the bend is in the opposite direction
to movement an area of compression Figure 31:
σ develops with localised thrusting and
3 folding. This is known as a restraining
a) Dextral
displacement: Fault blocks move to the right relative
to each other. b) Sinistral displacement: Fault
bend (figure 32b and 35). blocks move to the left relative to each other.

90o
Local uplift and
Pull-apart basin σ3 Fault bend
thickened crust σ1
σ3 σ1 σ1 σ3
σ1 σ3
b)
a) σ3
Figure 30: σ1
Strike-slip fault with
orientation of principal stresses. Figure 32: a) Formation of a releasing bend. b) Formation of a restraining bend.

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Figure 34a: Aerial view of dextral strike-slip fault, Nevada (Miller, 2012).

Figure 33a: Small scale pull-apart

filled with calcite fibres on sinistral
strike-slip faults (Miller, 2012).

Figure 35: Metre-scale folds

associated with a restraining bend along a strike-slip fault on the Northumberland Coast (J.Houghton)
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Figure 34b: Aerial view of dextral strike-slip fault, Nevada (Miller, 2012).

Figure 33b: Small scale pull-apart

filled with calcite fibres on sinistral
strike-slip faults (Miller, 2012).

Figure 35: Metre-scale folds

associated with a restraining bend along a strike-slip fault on the Northumberland Coast (J.Houghton)
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Worksheet 3: Ductile deformation

Ductile deformation occurs where rocks change salt). Folds, cleavage, boudinage and shear layering has no mechanical influence on the folds
shape smoothly, without breaking, in response to zones are all examples of ductile deformation. formed, such as when layers fold in response to
stress. This shape change is pervasive – it affects movement along a fault. This section looks at
all of the rock. Large scale ductile deformation Folds folds formed by active folding, but much also
occurs at higher temperatures and pressures and applies to folds related to faulting.
so deeper in the crust than brittle deformation. Folds can form on all scales and under a variety
However, ductile deformation can also occur at of conditions. Active folding is the response of Fold terminology (figure 37)
shallower levels in the crust in association with layers of different competence to layer parallel Anticline: A fold with older rocks in its core.
the formation of faults or in weaker rocks (e.g. compression Passive folding occurs where Antiform: A fold where the limbs close upwards.
Axial plane: A plane that connects all the hinge
lines through a fold, also known as the axial
rface
surface (3D term).
ne/su Antiform
Axial
pla Axial trace: Where only an edge of the axial
e lin
e plane is seen, e.g. when a fold is seen in cross
Hing
Profile plane section or on a map. The hinge line runs along
Hinge the top of the axial plane and so is also an axial
Limb trace (2D term).
Interlimb b
angle Lim Facing: The direction of younging along the fold
axial plane. In an upward facing fold the beds
are the right way up and get younger from the
Axial trace

e
zon
ing
e bottom to the top of the axial plane.
H
Hinge: Point of maximum curvature on a fold
Synform (2D term).
Figure 37: Hinge line: Line of maximum curvature along a
Terminology used to describe a fold.
fold (3D term).
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a) b)

Interlimb angle: The angle between pericline) form elongate domes or

the two limbs of a fold. basins.
Limb: Bed segments between hinges.
Profile plane: The true cross section Tightness
through a fold, perpendicular to the The tightness of a fold is a measure of
Figure 39: a) A non-plunging fold. b) A plunging fold.
axial plane. the interlimb angle, the angle between
Syncline: A fold with younger rocks at Folds can be classified in a variety of ways. the limbs (figure 40) and relates to the
in the core. Here are just a few (for more detailed fold amount of strain during deformation.
Synform: A fold where the limbs close classifications see Fossen, 2010 chapter 11).
downwards. Gentle fold
Orientation of a fold 180-120°

Orientation of a fold is defined by the orientation

Upright fold of its axial plane (figure 38) and its hinge line, Open fold

Decreasing interlimb angle

whether horizontal or plunging (figure 39). 120-70°

An upright fold has a vertical axial plane.

An inclined fold has a dipping plane and a Tight fold
Inclined fold
recumbent fold has a horizontal axial plane. A 70-30°
non-plunging fold has a horizontal hinge line,
whilst a plunging fold has a inclined hinge line.
Isoclinal fold
Recumbent fold 30-0°
Where a hinge line is straight the fold is said to be
cylindrical. Where a hinge line curves the fold
is non-cylindrical. Curvature of the hinge line
results in folds that close in the direction in which Figure 40: Interlimb angle: Folds become tighter
Figure 38: Orientation of fold axial plane. with increased compression.
their limbs converge. Double plunging folds (or
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Figure 42: Tight, inclined

folds, SW England (D.Paton)

Figure 41: Open, upright syncline

in Carboniferous limestone,
Stackpole Quay, Pembrokeshire
(E.Condliffe)

Figure 43: Isoclinal recumbent fold in Helminthoid Flysch, Apennines (RDR)

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a)

b) Dip isogons Class 1b) Parallel or concentric folds with

Dip isogons are a means of classifying folds constant layer thickness (figure 46).
based on the geometric relationship between Class 1c) Slightly thickened hinge zones and
their outer and inner profiles. Lines are drawn narrower limbs.
on the profile plane and connect points of equal Class 2: Dip isogons are parallel to axial trace,
c)
dip between the inner and outer surfaces of the known as similar or shear folds (figure 47).
fold. These show the changes in layer thickness Class 3: Dip isogons diverge towards inner
Figure 44: around a fold (figure 45). arc. The inner arc is more open than outer. This
a) Symmetric fold with neutral vergence. b) produces thinner limbs and thicker hinges.
Asymmetric fold verging to the right. c) Asymmetric Dip isogons reflect how a rock has
fold verging to the left.
responded to compression and can
Fold symmetry and vergence vary between different rock layers
The symmetry of a fold relates to its limb lengths within the same fold. Dip isogons
(figure 44). Symmetric folds have equal limb are divided into three groups on
lengths and the two sides of the fold are mirror whether the isogons converge,
images (figure 46). Asymmetric folds have a diverge or are parallel as they cross Class 1a Class 1b Class 1c

shorter and a longer limb (figures 47 and 48). A from the outer to the inner arc of the
series of folds with the same asymmetry are said fold.
α
to have vergence. The direction of vergence
is determined by the sense of displacement of Class 1: Dip isogons converge ά

the upper limb relative to the lower limb. When towards the inner arc. The inner arc
viewed down plunge, a fold verges to the right is tighter than outer arc. Class 1 Class 2
α=ά Similar Class 3
where there is apparent clockwise rotation of the is divided into three sub-classes:
folds
short limb and to the left where there is apparent Class 1a) Hinge zones are thinner
than the limbs. Figure 45: Different classes of dip isogons (after Ramsey, 1967).
anti-clockwise rotation of the short limb.
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Figure 46: Class 1b, minor folds with neutral

vergence in the hinge zone of the Rhoscolyn
anticline, Anglesey (J.Houghton).

Figure 48: Left-verging minor folds in

quartzite vein, Rhoscolyn, Anglesey
(J.Houghton).

Figure 47: Right-verging, class 2 minor folds in marble (B.Yardley).

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minor folds are symmetric. On They have sharp hinges and straight limbs
the limbs of the large scale folds (figures 50 and 52). Space problems as the
the minor folds are asymmetric. layers fold lead to ductile flow of less competent
The minor folds verge towards layers into hinge zone (figure 53).
the hinge zone of the larger scale
antiform. σ1 σ1

These geometric relationships

are particularly useful in the field
where the vergence of the minor
folds can be used to predict the
position of larger scale folds.
Figure 49: Geometric relationships between first and second order
folds. Black arrows give direction of vergence of the minor folds. Kink bands and chevron folds
Kink bands develop in well layer
Minor folds anisotropic rocks. They form
Large scale (or first order) folds often have minor as asymmetric folds where segments of the
(second order) folds associated with them, which layering rotate during deformation. The rotated
formed during the same phase of deformation. segments have sharp boundaries and angular
These folds form in the same stress field and so hinges. They often form in conjugate pairs with
have the same geometric features. The axial the opposite sense of rotation (figures 50 and
planes of the minor and large scale folds are 51).
parallel (figure 49).
Chevron folds likewise form in well layered rocks. Figure 50: a) Layered rocks. b) Kink band.
Within the hinge zones of the larger folds the They form by flexural slip between the layers. c) Conjugate pair of kink bands. d) Chevron folds

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Figure 51: Kink band in siltstone, Whitesands Figure 53: Less competent shales flowing
Bay, Pembroke (J.Houghton). into the hinge zone of the chevron folds, SW
England (D.Paton).

Figure 52: Large scale chevron folds, SW England (D.Paton).

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No slip
at hinge
a)

How rocks fold thicker, less well layers rocks (figure 54c). Strain
is concentrated in hinge zone with no strain along
Rock layers accommodate layer parallel limbs. It results in outer arc extension and inner
Slip
shortening by folding. This shortening may on bedding arc contraction across the hinge zone. Areas of
be taken up either along the limbs with slip planes on limbs
extension and contraction are separated by the
concentrated between or within the layers No shear neutral surface along which there is no strain.
at hinge
(flexural slip or flow) or concentrated around b)
Veins often develop around the outer arc of the
the hinge zone (tangential longitudinal strain). hinge zone where it is stretched and pressure
In both cases bed thickness will be maintained. solution cleavage (figure 55) or small scale
thrust faults in the inner hinge zone where it is
Flexural slip and flow compressed.
In flexural slip and flexural flow strain is Shear
within beds
concentrated in limbs and dies out towards hinge on limbs
(figure 54a and b). The limbs show opposite c)
senses of shear. Flexural slip occurs in well Outer arc extension
layered rocks usually in the brittle regime. The
slip is concentrated between beds or along Neutral
surface
incompetent layers (e.g. shale).
Inner arc
Flexural flow occurs in the ductile regime and contraction
strain is evenly distributed across the limb.
No
distortion of
Tangential Longitudinal Strain (TLS) limbs
Figure 55: Outer arc extension with wedge-
Tangential longitudinal strain (also known as Figure 54: a) Flexural slip. b) Flexural flow. shaped veins around the outside of the hinge
orthogonal flexure) occurs in more homogeneous, c) Tangential longitudinal strain zone (J.Houghton).

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Cleavage sigma one and are re-precipitated perpendicular

to sigma three. During this process clay
Cleavage is a secondary layering that develops minerals are concentrated into bands. This a)
in the rock as a result of deformation (figure 56). results in a cleavage with fine layers of soluble
It forms perpendicular to sigma one, is often and insoluble minerals giving the rock a banded
associated with folding and can be localized or appearance.
regional in extent.
Slaty cleavage forms by both the rotation b)
Cleavage is a foliation along which a rock can of minerals and pressure solution (figure
split. It occurs at the very lowest grades of 57). Pressure solution cleavage forms by
metamorphism and as the grade of metamorphism pressure solution alone and is particularly
increases it is replaced by schistosity common in limestones (figure 58).

Cleavage develops by the rotation of platy Cleavage refraction

minerals, growth of minerals in a preferred Cleavage refraction is the change in the
c)
orientation and by pressure solution. The lithology angle of dip of cleavage between layers of
of the rock is important as without phyllosilicates different competence (figures 56c and 59).
there is little to no cleavage development. The cleavage will have a lower dip in the least
competent beds and a higher dip in the more
Pressure solution competent. Incompetent beds contain
Pressure solution occurs where soluble minerals more phyllosilicates so tend to have better
go into solution in areas of high pressure and are re- developed cleavage. The cleavage forms
precipitated in areas of lower pressure. Pressure perpendicular to sigma one but then is
Figure 56: a) Before deformation. b) After deformation.
The grey layers are phyllosilicate-rich and develop a strong
solution cleavage forms where soluble minerals rotated by localized shearing along the cleavage. The yellow layer has fewer platy minerals and a
dissolve along grain boundaries perpendicular to bedding plane during deformation. weaker cleavage develops. c) Cleavage refraction.

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Figure 58: Pressure solution cleavage showing dark

insoluble bands and light soluble bands (R. Butler).

Figure 57: Slaty cleavage Note how the cleavage has

a lower dip than the bedding. This is because the beds Figure 59: Cleavage refraction.
here are on the overturned limb of a fold, Abereiddi Bay, Coarser-grained pale layers
Pembrokeshire (G.McLeod). have less well developed,
steeply dipping cleavage.
Finer-grained dark grey layers have better developed, shallower dipping cleavage. En echelon
veins in the darker layer suggests this layer has undergone shearing (E.Condliffe).

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Relationship between folding and cleavage can be seen this relationship can be used to lineation. Where the cleavage is associated with
Fold axial planes and cleavage both form establish the geometry of the fold. In the same folding this lineation is parallel to the fold axis/
perpendicular to the direction of maximum way that axial planes of minor folds verge hinge line.
compression (sigma one). Where folding and towards the hinge zone of the major antiform,
cleavage form in the same stress field the cleavage on fold limbs verges towards the
cleavage planes and fold axial planes will be antiform hinge zone. Look at the angle between Bedding/cleavage
lineation
approximately parallel to each other (figure 60). bedding and cleavage in figure 60. In hinge
The orientation of the cleavage will be constant zones the cleavage is perpendicular to bedding;
across the fold but, because the dips of the beds it has neutral vergence. Along the limbs the
vary, the angle between bedding and cleavage cleavage is at an angle to bedding. Where it
will change in a consistent manner round the appears rotated clockwise relative to bedding it
fold. verges to the right and where it appears rotated
anticlockwise it verges to the left.
At outcrop where only bedding and cleavage
Where the
Bedding/cleavage lineation cleavage
plane cuts
the bedding
it forms a
lineation on
the bedding
surface; the
b e d d i n g Figure 61: Left-verging cleavage. Bedding
Figure 60: The relationship between cleavage and folding. Black arrows give sense of cleavage cleavage intersection lineation is visible on the
vergence. See text for details. bedding plane (G.Lloyd).
intersection
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Figure 62: Axial planar cleavage (M.Miller).

Figure 63: Axial planar cleavage, Anglesey (G.Lloyd).

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Acknowledgments and references

Photographic sources: Bibliography: This module is based on the first year structural
Afar Rift Consortium, 2012. Afar Rift Consortium Fossen, H. 2010. Structural Geology. Cambridge: geology course of the Geological Sciences
website [online]. [Accessed 12th September, Cambridge University Press. degree programme at the School of Earth and
2012]. Available from www.see.leeds.ac.uk/afar/ Environment, the University of Leeds.
Park, R.G. 1997. Foundations of structural Author: Dr Jacqueline Houghton, School of Earth
Miller, M. 2012. Marli Bryant Miller Photography geology. London : Chapman & Hall. and Environment, University of Leeds.
website [online]. [Accessed 12th September,
2012]. Available from www.marlimillerphoto. Rowland, S.M., E.M. Duebendorfer and I.M.
com/ Schiefelbein. 2007. Structural Analysis and
Synthesis: A laboratory course in structural
Past and present members of staff, School of geology. Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Earth and Environment and Rock Deformation
Research (RDR) www.rdr.leeds.ac.uk/.

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