Principles of structural
geology and tectonic
analysis
Strain
In response to stress, rocks undergo
transformations that are decomposed in 3
operations:
Rotation
Translation
Deformation which corresponds to a change in
form
Strain is a change in shape or internal
configuration of a body
Strain
Strain is marked by
Transformation of an initial circle/sphere into
an ellipse/ellipsoid
The axis of deformation
Movement of particules defined by an
instantaneous velocity vector, defining flow
lines and finally trajectories
The kinematic notion, a function of time
Stress and strain
Rheology is the study of the relationships between
stress imposed on a body and resulting strains or
strain rates
Competence is a general term to describe the ease
with which a material can deform
In response to a stress, strain may be
Reversible, elastic deformation
Brittle, failure of a stressed body, at a certain
state, the solid rocks lose their internal
cohesion
Permanent, ductile flow without brittle
deformation
3 axis of deformation, a finite strain ellipsoid
Principal
strain directions, X, Y, Z
planes XY, YZ, ZX
changes in length e1, e2, e3
ratios Rxy, Ryz, Rzx
The Flinn graph for representing the
shape of any ellipsoid
X/Y
Y/Z
Ramsay & Huber, Academic Press Lim., 1983
Strain regimes
Deformation in rocks occurs under 2 strain
regimes:
Pure shear
Simple shear
Under combination of pure and simple
shear
Simple shear
A displacement which transforms an initial
square in a parallelogram where the
displacement vectors are all oriented
parallel to one set of the opposite sides of
the square and parallelogram. The vector
direction is know as the shear direction.
Transformation of a sphere in an
ellispoid, 2 strain regimes
/Z
/X
Pure shear
Simple shear
Choukroune, Masson, 1995
2 end-members
Pure shear
Axis of deformation
remains parallel (coaxial
and non rotational)
Flow lines tends to
become perpendicular to
the Z shortening axis
Deformation >>
Displacement
Simple shear
Axis of deformation
rotate (non coaxial and
rotational)
Flow lines are parallel to
the shear direction during
the deformation
Deformation <<
Displacement
Finite strain ellipsoid and strain regimes
Choukroune, Masson, 1995
The Flinn graph for representing the
shape of any ellipsoid
X/Y
Y/Z
Ramsay & Huber, Academic Press Lim., 1983
Change in geometry from coaxial to non
coaxial regimes
Coaxial
Non coaxial
Markers of the finite strain ellipsoid
Fold and boudinage structures
Boudinage is a structure produced during he
extension of competent layers enclosed in an
incompetent matrix
Deflection of cleavage around a competent
fragment of quartzite in an argilite
Ramsay & Huber, Academic Press Lim., 1983
Folding and boudinage in a Flinn graph
FLATTENING
Markers of the finite strain ellipsoid
Deformation of pre-tectonic objects
pebble, phenocryst, oolithe, redox spot,
fossil..
Mineral fabric and pressure shadows
Fabric is the geometric and spatial
relationships between the crystal
components making a rock, i.e. preferred
orientation of grain shapes and
crystallographic axis, the grain size
Pressure shadow is a region of low strain
protected from deformation by a rigid or
competent object in a rock of lower
competence
Pressure shadows in a Flinn graph
L>>S
L=S
S >> L
A linear type fabric: L>>S from the
Hakos mountains
A granitic orthogneiss
A linear type fabric: L>>S from the
Hakos mountains
A metaconglomerate
Sheared
Gamsberg
granite
XZ plane
1 single rock!
YZ plane
Sheared
rhyolite
XZ plane
1 single rock !
YZ plane
Partitioning and time
Homogeneous vs non homogeneous deformation
The definition of zones of homogeneous
deformation
The notion of bulk strain, an average strain in a
heterogeneously deformed material
Finite strain vs incremental deformation, notion
of progressive deformation
Increment from one stage to the next
Rate of change along the main strain axis and of
rotation defines the principal strain rates and the
vorticity
Definition of the strain regime by identification
and analysis of the markers of incremental
deformation
Pure shear and development of
structural elements
Crenulation and mechanical rotation
Pressure-solution, a deformation process
whereby material under stress goes into
solution at a localized point in a material,
this material is transported by flow or
diffusion
Recrystallisation
Transposition
Pure shear and development of folds ,
axial plane cleavage...
Pure shear and development of folds,
axial plane cleavage...
Progressive stages in fabric
development of a shale
Initial compacted
Ealiest deformation
Pencil structure
Embryonnic deformation
plane
deformation plane
deformation plane with
stretching lineation
Type of linear fabric
C
D
E F
Simple shear and development of shear
zone
A shear zone is a zone with sub-parallel
walls in which high deformations are
localized
Effects of non coaxial deformation
Plane strain ellipsoid
Markers of rotational deformation
Coexistence of deformation and displacement
planes, S/C/C structures
Assymetric pressure shadows and mineral
fabric
Folding
S C C structures
The S plane: the deformation plane, with no displacement
The C and C planes: the displacement planes with high
deformation (mylonitisation)
C
S
S
C
C
C//S
C
C
S C C structures: a
progressive phenomenon
t1
t2
C//S
t3
C
C
S C C structures
C
C
Assymetric pressure shadow
Assymetric pressure shadow
Cleavage bending
and helicitic
inclusions
Assymetric folds
and pressure
shadows
Fabric in a ductile simple shear zone
A reverse shear zone within the basement
inlier of the Damara foreland
C
Sheared porphyric granite
C
S//C
L downdip tectonite
Development of non cylindrical folds
during non coaxial deformation
Development of non cylindrical folds
during non coaxial deformation
Development of non cylindrical folds
during non coaxial deformation
Progressive developement of sheath
folds
Sheath folds from
the Ile de Groix
Sheath folds from the base of a thrust
nappe from the Variscan belt of France
Sheath folds from the base of a thrust
nappe from the Hakos mountains
Shear zones and shear zones
Geometry of the shear zones
developed in flattening
or constriction field
Gapais et al., Journ. Struct. Geol, 7, 1987
Change in geometry from coaxial to non
coaxial regimes
Coaxial
Non coaxial
Conjugate shear zones: a coaxial regime
NNW
SSE
S
C
S
vs a non coaxial regime...
C
S//C
