Republic of Somaliland (a) Ministry of Education & Higher Studies q paid hii, 7 PTvsit Colby Cee rc a 1* edition aaaSECONDARY Physics FORM FOUR STUDENT BOOK oS Ly ysies Writers 1. Abdikaritn Hassan Mubumed (ina Calicaaruf) 2. Alined Wags i ( Ahmed dheere) By, Mahafnous/Mahamed Ali 4. Mohamed*Osman Siciid (M.Somali) Cover Designer 1, Hamud Khaireh Yusuf 2. Liban Ali H.rabi Editors 1. Abdilahi Yusuf Warsame 2. Abdikarim Hassan Muhumed (ina Calicaaruf)CHAPTER L: KINEMATICS, Introductio |.1-Kinematies Motion graphs. 1.2 Equations for uniform acceleration. CHAPTER 2: DYNAMICS 2.1 Introduction. 2.2 Balanced and unbalanced forces. Newton’s law of motion. Newton’s First law of motion Inertia and Mass Newton's Second law of motion. Acceleration caused by gravity Air resistance and Terminal velocity Free falling motion 2.2 Momentum Newton's third law of motion Collision Impulse CHAPTER 3: USING VECTORS & PROJECTILE MOTION 3.1-Using vectors Combining vectors Resolution of vectors 3.2 Projectiles CHAPTER 4: CIRC 4.1 Introduction Centripetal acceleration Centripetal force 4.2 Angular velocity Application of circular motion Newton's Law of universal gravitation CHAPTER 5: FORCE & ENERGY 5.1 Work, Energy and Power Doing work Kinetic energy (KE) Contents 46 47 50. 33 54 54 65 67 6 n 7 79 5.2 Gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy Transformation... CHAPTER 6: DEFORMING SOLIDS 6.1 Introduct 6.2 Springs in series and springs in parallel Measuring young’s modulus CHAPTER 7: WAVES «....--» 7.1 BEHAVIOUR OF WAVES Jaded 7.1.0, Wave Motion 7111 Characteristics of Wave Motion 7.1.2. Type of Wave MotionProperties of longitudinal wave , 128 Properties of transverse wave a Characteristics of waves os Properties of waves CHAPTER 8: SOUND 8.1 Introduction ne 8.2 1-Properties of sound waves Doppler Effect . Musical note . CHAPTER 9: TELECOM: 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Barly history .........,.. Representing Information .. Basic communication System .. 9.3 Radio waves .. Radio system Electrical oscillations ......... Simple Radio Receiver . 9.4 Television CHAPTER 10: RADIOACTIVITY . 10.1 Introduction MUNICATION . 10.2 Characteristics of radioactive materials .. 10.3 Types of radiations é Alpha, beta and gamma radiation Alpha radiation (a) Beta radiation (B) Gamma radiation (7) 10.4 Nuclear Equations 10.5 Effects on the Nucleus ....... 10.6 Isotopes, Isobars and Nuclides 10.7 Rate of decay and half ~ life Nuclear energy... . a 10.8 Applications and Hazards of Radionetivity Applications of radioactivity .. Hazards of radioactivity CHAPTER 11: ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 11.1 Introduction . 11.2 Definition of electromagnetic induction 11.3 Faraday’s law oo... ceeessee ‘An induced Emf in a coil (Lenz's law) Lenz’s law Applications of electromagnetic induction (generator effect) . 11.4 Mutual induction (Transformer effect) .. Applications of mutual induction (transformer ‘Types of Current in a Transformer ‘Types of Transformer .EEeeu beeccren Oat erent ietiackete oases cere] {@.Use the equations of motion for uniform accelerated motion ina straight lines, eer aee Cra) Pee eee ee POU Re CodyIntroduction nomenon. It consists in the change Motion is the most fundamental and common physical ae rrotion of a body is influenced in position of bodies or their pails relative to one another. Ths rechanies is a fundamental by the bodies surrounding it, ic., by its interactions with them. A of mechan cate atea of physics, which studies the universal principles of MOOD: TH TT te analyze and predict the motion of bodies resulting from the differer of the particular interactions is considered by other branches of physics. Mechanics consists of two branches, kinematies and dynam 1.1 -Kinematics i Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion of, ae a (objects) and systems of bodies (groups of objects) without consideration of the forces that cause it, Kinematics is also defined as the study of motion in terms of distance, displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration. The term is derived from a Greek word “kinemat” or kinema (movement, motion). Characteristics of a Motion When dealing with motion the following terms are important: 1. Distance This is the length of the path between two poings without specific direction. Distance is therefore scalar quantity (this means it has only magnitude but no direction). The SI unit of distance is meter (m). For example, the little girl shown on the figure 1.1 starts her motion from the red spot, she moved a ee total distance of 12m > (im+2m+Im+2m+3m+3m), and so distance Figure 1. distance ana acs ae m travelled is 12m. Long distances can be measured in Km or mile, while short distances can be measured in meters, Centimeters and even millimeters, for example distance between Hargeisa and Borama is 118 km or 73.3 miles, Shown on figure1.2.2. Displacement: Displacement is the distance moved in specific direction. In another words, it is the shortest distance of the moving body from its starting position. Displacement describes an object's change in position. It shows the object’s final position with respect to its initial position and it’s a vector quantity, because it has both magnitude and direction, The SI unit of. displacement is meter (m). As shows figure 1.1 above, the total displacement of the little girls from its starting point is 3m 3. Speed: One of the most obvious aspects of an object in motion is how fast it is moving. Speed (v) is defined as the distance travelled by an object per unit of time. Speed is a scalar quantity. The Sl unit for speed is meters per second or m/s. other units are km/h or mile/hour © Speed is a scalar quantity, because it has only magnitude (or size) * Speed of a car is measured by an instrument called speedometer, as we learned in form one v There four classifications of speed exist: constant, non- uniform, average, and instantaneous speed. It is important to understand each and how all four speeds are related. Figure 1.3: car speedometer a) Constant speed Constant speed occurs when the object travels time. It is an example of uniform motion. ps b) Non-uniform Speed 790 If an object changes its speed while LP moving, the object is said to be in non ae oe uniform, speed. In the above figure, oe speed of the car varies at different interval of time. Therefore, speed of the Figuet-4’Non unilorn speed car is non-uniform. ©) Average speed ee Average speed is defined as the total distance traveled by an object per unit time. since speed is derived from two scalar quantities, distance and time, itis also a sealar quantity. The SI unit for speed is meters per second or m/s. d) Instantaneous speed sae i Instantaneous speed is the speed at a specific instant in time. It can be thought of as the speed that the speedometer reads at any given moment, he same distance in equal periods of 3 eee e oe eamzmmummse eee °@ ari4, Velocity (# This is the rate of change of displacement. It can also be defined lar direction. the rate of change of distance in a specific direction or itis the speed in a particull lacement by the time taken Average velocity can be calculated by dividing the change in displacement PY for the displacement to occur ole Total Displacement or — insymbols v Timetaken Average velocity Velocity involves speed and direction, therefore it is vector quantity and its unit is also meter per second (m/s). Velocity can be * Uniform velocity: if the change in displacement with time is constant. ¢ Instantaneous velocity: is the velocity at an instant or at a given time. 5. Acceleration: This is the rate of change of velocity. It is vector quantity. The average acceleration can be found by dividing the change in velocity by the time taken for the velocity to change. Ifa body has an initial velocity of “u” changes its velocity to “v” in time “t” then: x changeinvelocity Av ocolesaaahle) = aie Where u = initial velocity Y= final velocity The SI unit of acceleration is the meter per Second Square (m/s?), If the acceleration of a car is 10 m/s? it means the velocity of the car changes 10m/s for every second, * Acceleration can be positive acceleration (speeding up) or negative acceleration (lowing down). Negative acceleration is called retardation or deceleration * fa velocity is a constant (in both magnitude and direction) acceleration is said to be zero. of the bodyAcceleration Uniform acceleration Non-uniform acceleration An object has a non-uniform acceleration when either the velocity of the body does not increase at the same rate or the direction of the object changes. MAn object has uniform acceleration when itis traveling straight line and the velocity of the object is increasing at the same rate. Calculations of speed, velocity and acceleration: Now we have studied these formulae: and sia Yahye went to visit his parents for the long weekend. He traveled a total distance of 346 km, His total trip took him 4.5 hours. What was the average speed for his drive home? total distance traveled avet eed = ee change in time Figure 1.5: Averge speed ed throughout the trip was 77 knv/hr. he probably traveled faster than this He may even have stopped Yahye’s average spe for part of his trip and at some point he probably traveled slower. the car for a junk food break2. A man and a woman are walking with a speed of Sknv/h in opposite directions, as show on the figure. What is the difference between their speed and velocity? Solution: They have same speed of Skm/hr, but different Velocities because they have to travel opposite direction, A bus traveled covers a distance of 160km from Hargiesa to Berbera towards east in 3 hours in the moming and retums to Hargiesa in the evening Covering the same distance of 160km in the same z time of 3 hours. a) Calculate the average speed of the car? b) Calculate the average velocity of the car? 5 Figure 1.6: different velocity Solution Total distance travelled _ 160km+160km _ 320km _ a) Average speed = ——-—= “TSS reveled’ — 160km+160km Velocity = /Skayhr east = = = 533 Totoal time taken 3h3h che km/h Total displscement _ 160km~160km _ okm es ae ne = om =O knit BUNCE NII ren time taken| 3h+3h shi =o 4. A car is moving a long straight road increase its velocity uniformly from 30m/s to 70m/s in 5s, what its acceleration? Solution 1 =30 mis u_ 70-30 40m/s 5 5s 5. A car is travelling at 1Sm/s. how far will travel in 1 hour? Solution: B=V xt = (15m/s) (Ihr x 3600s/hr) =54000m =5.4km. 6, A car travels from one town to another 96km away in 1.2hours. What is the speed in kilometer per hour? Wh; °° of come a — ee v= 70mis cars averageSolution: v=Ssit = 96km / 1.2h = 80km/h The speed of a car is 72kmv/h. how far the car will move in 10s? Solution: 72kmn-1 = 2km _ 72kmx 1000mkm=* 7 = = h Thx 3600sh-1 _ ~ 20™/s S=Vxt = (20m/s) (10s) = 200m. A cyclist rides 2 km east and 2km north as shown in the figure below. The trip takes two hours in all. Find the car's; a) Total distance travelled? b) Total displacement covered? ©) Teaverage speed? d) The average velocity? Solution 4) Total distance = 2 km +2 km=4 km, displacement (S) Fil ierocetneng CS Ca naa 2 km noah ©) average speed = total distance /time = 4km 2h = 2k 4) average velocty = final placement time = 2.82km/2h= 1.14kmh Dkmeast Exercise 1. What is the average speed of a) acar that travels 400 m in 20 s, b) an athlete who runs 1500 m in 4 minutes? A train increases its speed steadily from 10 m/s to 20 m/s in] minute, a) What is its average speed during this time, in m/s? b) How far does it travel while increasing its speed? A motoreyclist starts from rest and reaches a speed of 6 m/s after travelling with uniform acceleration for 3 s. What is his acceleration? A vehicle moving with a uniform acceleration of 2 m/s? has a velocity of 4 m/s at a certain time. What will its velocity be : a) Is later, b) Ss later? oe 71g at 20 m/s is subject leration of 5 m/s”, how will it i 5 m/s”, how long wil . Ifa bus travelling at 2 is subject to a steady deceleration of take to come to rest? 15s. How far 6 A car has an instantaneous speed of 4.5nv/s. if he keeps this speed up for 15s. will he travel? 7. Aman fires a bullet from a gun. The bullet flies with a velocity of 200m/s. how long will the bullet to hit with a target of 800m away? An automobile travelling at 1Sm/s along a straight road accelerates to 80m/s in 5 second. What is the acceleration of the automobile? A car driver brakes gently. Her car slows down from 23m/s to 11m/s in 20s. What is it deceleration? 10. A train slows down from 60n/s to 20m/s in 50s, a) What is its acceleration? b) Write your answer in words? 11. The acceleration of car is 10m/s*. Ifthe car starts from rest, a) What will be its speed after 10s? ©) How long it takes to reach a speed 1000m/s? 12. A sprinter has an acceleration of Sm/s* during the first 2 seconds of the race. What velocity does she reach after this time? 13. A train increases its velocity from 6m/s to 10mvs. Calculate its acceleration? '4. A car traveling at 20m/s slows down to 10m/s in 2s, Calculate its acceleration? 15, Leaving bus stop, the bus reaches a speed of Sms after 10s. What i its acceleration? eo e © © CGE: eeChapter Ci Motion graphs The motion graphs which are used to represent the motion of object, these graphs change when the motion of the object changes. In case of linear motion graphs, linear graphs are made between the varying quantities with respect to the time. Varying quantity whose graphs are made with respect to time could be distance, yelocity, acceleration, so It can be distance- time graph ,this graph between distance and time which shows the variation in distance with time, speed - time graph, 1, Distance-time graph and displacement time graph The ph of distance/ displacement is plotted with respect to the time, Generally, time is plotted on he x -axis and distance/ displacement is taken on the y-axis of the coordinate system. A graph of distance travelled against time taken is called distance-time graph. And the graph of displacement covered against time taken is called displacement-time graph The slope of the distance-time graph tells us about the speed of the object while the slope of the displacement-time graph tells us about the velocity of the object. The area under the distance-time graph and the area under the displacement-time graph have no meaning, The gradient of the distance-time graph represent the speed (or velocity) of the motion of the object S(m) Verticalchange _ S2-Si. Gradient = 5 crizental change * tz —t Gradient = speed The value of the speed is given by the gradient of the line |Types of Distance-Time graph Reet eo 5 and z) of the stm) 1. Constant speed * Every point (x, y and 2) graph, speed is the same. / e = The body is traveling equal y Uniform speed distance with equal time y interval Ts) sd) * Gradient of the graph is zero, ta a oy 20 and bencolabectin stationary 7) s(m) * From the shape of the graph high speed 3 he sinoncetthe steeper the gradient, higher Penaecae the speed. greater the speed, 4. Non-uniform |= Gradient increases, so speed Speed increases and it is accelerating, "The gradient is negative so negative velocity means moving opposite direction,Example: 1 30 Solution a) It is 60km b) He took 10 hours ©) Given: v=? S= 60km = 10h ) He made two stops. The distance-time graph below represents the journey of a cyclist from small village to the Th From the graph; a) Determine the distance between the village and New-York city? b) How long did he take to complete his journey? ©) What was his average speed? d) How many stops did he make? €) How long did he stops for altogether? £) What was his average speed excluding stops? g) From the shape of the graph, which stage did he travel faster? €) At stage C, he was rest for | hour and stage E, he ‘was rest for 2 hours. For altogether he was rest for 3 hours f) Given: v= s = 60km t=7h g) Itis stage F. because of the steeper the graph, the greater the speed.Example: 2 The distance -time graph below represent the journey of return London. a train from London to Paris and the s(m) 4o0f- aocle £ BF + ID 180} Ts 10 20 30 40 50 60 70" From the graph a) Determine the total distance traveled by the train? b) How long did the train take to trave from London to Paris? c) What was its average speed? d) Calculate average velocity of the a) Total distance traveled by the train = 300m + 300m = 600m train? b) Train takes 30second to travel from London to Paris.| ©) Which stage did the train was ©) Given. 57, - 600m stationary? = 600m Va *p=— G5, = 9.2ms £) How long the train was stationary? 655 8) From the shape of the graph, which Ne stage did th 2 0 EOE Coe Ole ig ¢ train move faster? Displacement _ 0m J... [aaa Average velocity = ———_—__— = —~ = Om/s Timetaken 65s e) It was at stage C. f) The train was stationary for 15 seconds g) Atstage B, the train moves faster. e e © © @¢@""ETEZI™ ee «Cerys y One Example: 3 The displacement-time graph below shows the motion of a car. ae a) What is the final displacement of the cyclist? b) What is the total distance of the cyclist? ©) Convert the graph into distance-time graph? 4) What is the cyclist’s speed at 4s ii, t=8 iii. t= 12s The total displacement is -Sm. The minus sign indicates that the cyclist is moving 5m back of its initial position. b) The total distance travelled is 5m forward and 10m backward. Therefore it is 15m °) Distance (m) 15 10 5 ime (s) ° 5 10 15 20 d) i) Speed = AS/At = Sm/5s = Im/s. ii) Speed =AS/At = 0/5s = Ons. therefore the car is stationary. iii) Speed = AS/At = 10m/10s = Im/s.Exercise: i fferent times as it 1. The table below shows the displacement of racing car at ci travels along a straight road. — 4 3 Time (5) 0 1 a Same S56 340 Displacement (m) | 0 85 170 iy a) By inspecting the data find the car’s velocity? 4 Fl 2 ») Plot a displacement-time graph and use it to the car's speed ©) Describe the car's motion in words? Pt the graph shown below isa displacement-time graph of a moving object: displacement (m) TS a) Calculate the total distance travelled? b) Whats the final displacement? 6) Calculate the velocity of (OP, PQ and QRy? 4) Convert the graph into distance time graph? 3. The diagram betow shows the path ofa ball as it passes Be Meat eee HOPlayer A to player C through p h ‘Player © between threea) Calculate the total distance travelled by the ball? b) What is the total displacement of the ball? ©) Calculate the average speed of the ball? d) Calculate the average velocity of the ball? e) Explain why the value of the average speed is different from the value ofthe average velocity? 4. The figure below shows the distance-time graph of a moving car. 25) ) m N S Position ( ounsog ° Time (s) a) What is the total distance travelled by the car? b) Calculate the speed of the car for the first 5 seconds? c) What about the motion of the car for the last five seconds? 5. The graph shown below shows a displacement-time graph of a walking person. Displacement (m) 50 40 30: 12345678910: ds of the walk? ) How fast is the person walking during the first 30 seconds 5 seconds? b) Describe the motion of the person in words for the next 1 2 ©) What is the person’s velocity for the last 15 seconds? 4) Convert the graph into distance-time graph? At change of velocity AV time take At Gradient = Acceleration | Acceleration = ime graph and speed-time graph Velocity is a speed in a specific direction, Where there is no chai motion, a velocity-time graph looks the same as speed-time the case for an object moving at constant velocity. The displ time, which is the area of the shaded rectangle. Area under nge in the direction of staph. It is easy to see why this is lacement is simply velocity x speed-Time graph equals ‘V Gams)ee ert - Uniform Acceleration * Every point (x, y and 2) of the graph, acceleration is the _ same ‘4 = When a body moves Ts) with uniform | acceleration, its speed changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time, m/s) 2. Constant velocity = Velocity does not change, so acceleration is zero. Ts) vim/s) 3. The steeper, the From the shape of high acceleration gradient, the greater the graph steeper the the acceleration. gradient, higher the fow acceleration acceleration. Ts) ovale speedvelocty 4. Non-uniform | * Gradient acceleration increases, so velocity is = means ee changing ina different rate and c ime a ime it is accelerating. ~ | 5. Deceleration (or = The gradient is wine retardation) negative, so negative | acceleration means deceleration. | de velocity = deceleration |Examples: it ration and the For cach of the following graphs shown below, calculate the accele displacement covered? 1 a ee 5 Db vims4 ° it o; ° 5 10 1s th J ae a= slope of the V-t graph = 0 a= slope of the V-t graph S = are under the V +t graph = (10m/s — Oms/s)/5s = 2m/s? = (20m/s) (15s) $= area under the V-t graph =300m = 12 (10mvs) (5s) = 25m 2. describe the motion whose velocity time graph is shown below and convert in speed- time graph: velocity ‘AB= the body s moving witha uniform acceleration, BBC the bodys moving ata constant velocity. c (Ds decsleraing constanty unit comes to rest DDE= the bodys aceeratingconstantyn the EF =the body smoving wth norm velo nChapter fey it 3. The figure below shows the velocity-time graph of a moving, V (m/s) a) Calculate total distance travelled? b) Calculate Final displacement? Describe the motion of the car in words? t(s) Q d) Calculate the average speed of the car? 8 Calculate the average velocity of the moving car? Convert the graph into speed-time graph? a) Total distance = Ai + Az = Ys (40m/s) (40s + 20s) + % (20m/s) (20s + 10s) = 1200m + 300m = 1500m Therefore, the total distance travelled is 1500m, b) Total displacement = Ai + Az = ¥5 (40m/s) (40s + 20s) + ¥4 (-20m/s) (20s + 10s) = 1200m + (- 300m) = 1200m~ 300m = 900m Therefore, the total displacement covered is 1500m. ©) For the first 10s the car is moving with constant acceleration until it reaches to a speed of 40nvs, it maintains this constant speed in 20s and then it decelerates until it comes to rest with in 10s. Then the car begins to accelerate backward until it reaches to a velocity of 20m/s. it moves this velocity for 10s. d) Average speed = (total distance) / time = (1500m)/60s = 25m/sonoray(60s) = 15mv/s ©) Average velocity = (total displacement)/(time) = (900m)(605) i 0 t(s) * Pat Y=locity-time graph below shows the motion of acar traveled from town A to town vim/s) From the graph: 50] 40} a) Name parts of the graph labeled A, B and ») Determine the maximum speed attained 4 30 7 car? alaliea’ ©) Calculate acceleration of the car for the fis 4second? 10] 4) Calculate the total distance traveled by the ©) Calculate the average velocity the car? Caen acto 12,37 —>Ts) Be ve Solution a) Line A = uniform acceleration Line B = constant velocity Line € = deceleration b) Maximum speed attained by the car is 35m/s, Y Total distance traveled = total under the ©) Given: - 2 bh= 3(4)(35) = u=0 y= 35m/s A2=1xw=35 x 6= t= 4s =8.8m/s?Chapter Cut 5. The velocity-time graph below shows the part of journey of a train vim/s) 4 T 40) A From the graph. 30 a) Describe the motion of the train at stage A and stage C? C b) Calculate the deceleration of the traimat t stage C? c) Calculate the distance traveled during T deceleration? 2 16--. +T(s) c) Given: ) Atstage A, the train moves at constant velocity. ! iene At stage C, the train was decelerating Distance =Area =; bh ib b) Given:- i - th ae 38a ' 2/49) (@5mh) v0 , Distance =70m t= 4s =? a a= 8.75 mis* 6. Acar travels at a constant velocity of 20m/s for 100s and then accelerates uniformly toa velocity of 30m/s over a period of 50 seconds. This velocity is maintained for 125 seconds, before the car brakes to rest with a uniform deceleration in 25 seconds a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the car’s motion? b) Find the acceleration in each section of the journey by using your graph? c) Find the total distance travelled by the car? d) Find the average speed of the car over the whole journey?Solution a. V (mis) b. AtOA a=slope=0 At AB, a= slope = AV/At = (30m/s - 20m/s)/50s = 0.2m/s?. At BC, a= slope =0 At CD, a= slope = (0 - 30m/s)/25s = -1.2m/s2 ¢. Distance = area under V-t graph = Al + A2+A3 = 20m/s) (275s) + ¥ (10m/s) (175s + 125s) + ¥4 (25s) (30m/s) = 5500m + 1500m + 375m = 7375m 4. Average speed = distance travelled/ time = 7375m/300s = 24.58m/s, Stopping distance for cars: Stopping distance is the distance a vehicle travels from the point the drivers when he or she actually becomes stationary. It combines thinking distance distance (braking distance). hould stop, to and deceleration Here it is represented in a speed/time graph. mvs” cat runs into road deceteratio, n distance Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance a eChapter One The thinking distance is the distance travelled in between the driver realizing he needs to brake and actually braking and the braking distance is the distance taken to stop once the brakes are applied. Factors which can increase stopping distance are: Road condition: If the road is wet, for example, the vehicle will move more because there is less friction to stop it. + Driver’s reaction time: The thinking distance will be lengthened if the driver isn't concentrating or their reaction has been inhibited by alcohol or sleep deprivation for example, * Poor car conditions: such as bad tyres, poor brakes and heaviness. + The Speed of the car: A faster vehicle will travel more distance (d= x t). The chart below shows how the speed of a car affects the stopping distance. [il Braking. cistanc 4 Bl Traning astonce pe 100 80 distance travelled 60 40 ea 0 40 50 cy 70 speed of car in miles per hour ee e+ e eammmmmms» ee e¢ © @ es ¥|. The graph below shows the V-t graph of a cyclist. V(ms") a) What kind of motion is represented by AB, BC and CD? b) How long does the cyclist move with a constant velocity? ©) Calculate the acceleration along AB and CD? 2. The graph below shows how the velocity of a moving car changes with time. 8 15 10 Velocity (ms) 4 8 120 16 tao 18 20 a) Calculate the total displacement covered by the car? b) What is the average velocity of the car?Chapter One 3. The figure below is the speed-time graph of a school bus. 1 ik SPEED (mvs) a) What is the maximum speed of the bus? b) How long the bus was stationary? ©) Calculate the total distance travelled by the bus? d) What is the average velocity of the bus? 4. For the velocity-time time graph below: v (mis) a) Deduce the acceleration when t = Is and t= 8s? b) Calculate the total distance travelled? °) Find out the final displacement? d) What is the average velocity? © Calculate the average speed? f) Convert the graph into speed time graph? e e e e e © G@EUITETITN @ e ee etime along a ges with vyclist chang’ 5. The table below shows how the velocity of a motors straight road, Time (s) ee oe | Velocity (m/s) 0 {10 = ie a) Draw a velocity-time graph of the motion? ing the first 15 cyclist duri b) Use your graph to find the acceleration of the motorc -yclis' seconds and during the last 15 seconds? ia : cyclist’ ©) From your graph to calculate the final displacement of the motorcy d) What is the average velocity of the motorcyclist? 6. A cyclist is riding along a road when an animal runs in front of him. The graph shows the cyclist’s motion. He sees the animal at P, starts to brake at Q and stops at R. speed (mis) 10 |[£ Q ° ° Calculate a) The thinking distance? b) The braking distance (decelerating distance)? ©). The stopping distance? 7. The graph shows how the velocity of a motorbike oN changes when it ig ‘travellinChapter Cit) 25: 20 Velocity in metres per second 10. Time in seconds a) What was the change in velocity of the motorbike in the first 5 seconds? b) Write down the equation which links acceleration, change in velocity and time taken. ©) Calculate the acceleration of the motorbike during the first 5 seconds. Show clearly how you work out your answer and give the unit. d) A car is travelling on an icy road. Describe and explain what might happen to the car when the brakes are applied. other than weather conditions, which would increase the overall e) Name three factors, stopping distance of a vehicle. graph shows part of the journey of a train, 8. The velocity-time 300 400 500 0 100 200 oe the initial acceleration of the train. the distance travelled in the first 210s. the train travelled a distance of 3500 m. calculate the a, @ calculate (ii) Calculate b. Between 250s and 400 s ‘mean speed between 0 and 400 s. - 6 oem © 8 8 8 Ce.d uniformly to a speed ;, accelerate ( ort LOE clerated uniformly uni °- A car travelling with a constant speed of 20m/s for 108.0 of 60m/s for Ss.the car maintained that speed for 10s, am it brought to a rest for 5s, a) Plota velocity time graph for the motion of the car ») From the graph find out 1) What is the acceleration of the car while its speed was | i) What is the total displacement of the car iii) What is the average velocity of the car 10. A car is travelling at : ee of 72 km/h passes a stationary police car. increasing The police car immediately gives chase, velocity (kh) accelerating uniformly to reach a speed of 100 90 km/h in10h and continues at this speed until - he overtakes the other car. Find: n> a) The time taken by the police car to catch up 60 the car b) The distance travelled by the police car 2 when this happens. 20 10 t 1.2 -Equations for uniform acceleration Problems involving bodies moving with uniform acceleration c: using the equations of motion. There are four equations of mot them; they only apply (i) To motion in a straight line (ii) To an object movin, When you use these equations take the following steps: ¥ Step one: write down the quantities which you know and the Quantity which you want to know. Y Choose the equation which links these quantities an ¥ Calculate the unknown quantity. Here are four equations an often be solved quickly ion. Take care when you use ig with a constant acceleration id substitute in the values,Chapter « Equation 1: Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity. As equation this definition can be written as: Multiplying both sides by “t” gives: at=v-u By making “v” the subject of the formula we get veut at. eee « Equation 4: Average velocity = (total displacement)/ time V=Sit ian object has an initial velocity of “u” and final velocity “v”, its average velocity can be found by uv Average velocity = >— Therefore Saget By multiplying both sides by “t" gives (ut+v) 2 + Equation 2: ‘This equation is from equations (1) and (4). _(1) And $= Sx... Uae s= a=(v-u)/t. Multiplying these two equations together gives aS=[%(v + ue] [(v-w)/t] aS=%4 (v + u) (v-u) 2aS = v2- u? By making v? the subject of the formula gives° Equation 3: Equation 3, can be derived in two different ways ssa) velocity is “o" and tadiaal The graph below represents the motion of an object. Its intial velocity Velocity after a time “t” is “vy”. Displacement wea under the velocity-time graph. = area of rectangle + area of the triangle S=ut+%at, 2. From equations (1) and (4). (l) And s oo tn Then by substitution we get eo (ut utat) 2 veutat... xt p= 2utat) S=ut+%at..Chapter Examples: 1. The rocket shown below lifts off from rest with an acceleration of 20 m/s’. Calculate its velocity after 50s? =0m/s, a=20m/s%, 50s, au v=utat = 0+ (20 m/s?) (60s) = 1000 m/s. A car is travelling along a road at 8m/s. It accelerates at 1m/s? for a distance of 18m as shown below. How fast is it then travelling? u=8.0mst ar Solution: V2 = u2 + 2aS = (8m/s)? + 2(1m/s*) (18m) = 64m2/s? + 36m?/s? = 100m?/S? Therefore, V = y100m?/S? = 10m/s 3. A train shown below travelling at 20m/s accelerates at 0.5m/s? for 30s. How fast will it travel in this time? Solution: 20m/s, a=0.5m/s?, += 30s, s=? S=ut+ at? = (20m/s) (30s) + ¥ (0.5m/s?) (30s) ?= 600m + 225m = 825m eee e e CGI 0 eee eExercise: a wall of 18m de with es not collid 4. Accyclists travelling at 15m/s; she brakes so that she doe apart. What deceleration must she have? “4 Solution: u=15m/s, S=18m, v=0, atl V2 =u? + 2aS 0 = (15m/s)? + 2a (18m) 0 = 225m?/S? + 36m (a) -225 m?/S*=36m (a) Therefore a = (-225 m?/S2)/36m = -6.25m/s?, 1) A train starts from rest, and accelerates at 1 ms for 10 s. How far does it move? 2) A bus is going 30 ms‘ and stops in 5 s. What is its stopping distance for this speed? 3) A racing car going at 20 ms"! stops ina distance of 20 m. What is its sce Saend i 4) ‘A ball as auniform acceleration of 4 ms. Assume the ball starts from « t ; Determine the velocity and displacement a the end of 10 « ye? 5) A motorcycle has a uniform acceleration of 4 ms"! initial velocity of 20 ms". Determine the velocity 6) A caris initially stationary. It moves off with an a) How fast will it be moving after 10s? b) How far will it move in 10s? - Assume the motorcycle has an and displacement at the end of 12s. acceleration of 2m/s?2, €) How long will it ake to reach a velocity of 24m/g9CO Ey iw Cut a) Its acceleration? b) The distance travelled in this time interval? 10) A lorry starting from rest travels 36m in 6s. find a) Its acceleration? b) Its velocity after that time? 11) The velocity against time graph below shows the motion of a car along a straight road for a period of 30 seconds. a) b) Describe the motion of the car in words? From the graph, determine the car’s initial velocity and final velocities over the time of 30s? ©) Determine the acceleration of the car? d e) By calculating the area under the graph, determine the displacement of the car? Check your answer in “d” by calculating the displacement of the car using S=utt+4at? 6 eo 6 commmemms ec oc ¢ oe ERMtor jaboral i se Recording motion” ro tion of an object in a the mo! e used to record A ticker-tape timer is a device that can be used laboratory power supply LAP sin trolley start The table below shows ticker tapes of different motions Tape (take initial partof How spacing Doca ckogtiitnd PCRS eS oi) ML neste potted Seat) Large equally High constant velocity Sener tea j ==. | Median equally | Median constant velocity spaced dots == Very small equally Low constant velo spaced dots D =, Space between the epee "Space between the Bai clots decrcasegthe distance between the first and the last dot, This gives a way of measuring the average speed over a given time interval, Here is an example; Total distance travelled = 30cm. Total time taken = 5 ticks = 5 x 0, s= 0.18 Average speed = 30cm/0.1s = 300cm/s = 3m/s Example: Work out the average speed for each two successive points in the tape shown above? Calculate the average acceleration? Is this acceleration uniform or non-uniform? Speed = distance / time a) i, V=2cm/0.02s = 100cm/s ii, V = 4cm/0.02s = 200cm/s iii, V= 6cm/0.02s = 300cm/s. iv. V=8cm/0.02s = 400cm/s. v. V=10em/0.02s = 500cm/s. b) The increase in speed is 100cm/s for every 0.02s, so that the acceleration can be found by: a= AV/t = (100cm/s)/0.02s = 5000cm/s* = 50 m/s” Therefore the acceleration is uniform. . S06 6 + comme eo + + EMO [ _ ie P Chapte Objectives By the end of this chapter students will be nek ee Ce tL! De woe @ Describe terminal velocities in terms of Newtons laws of motion @ Define the Newton as 1 kilogram Torce’ls equivallent to 1 Newton Ce ee Ceo tnt as Pe eu Lt ar Pe el kei en] a atali eee ony (© Understand elastic and in elastic colsions by giving practical examples2.1 Introduction Balanced and unbalanced fo: Chapter Two mechanics concerned with the motion of bodies under the action o' namics deals with such concepts as why an object moves, and what v The main concept we are concemed with in the study of we is any kind of push or p an object. Thus, a force is required erefore describing motion in terms of force is called wa ball. Th fan object change’? What might cause one object to remain accelerate? Why is it generally casier to move a small object than ain factors we need to consider are the forces acting on an object by discussing the of this chapter, we begin our study of dynamics basic laws ees and masses and were formulated more than three centuries es are ees acting on it, we have to consider whether or not the: the two teams pulled with equal force in opposite direction, es OO > 300 N 300N hat are equal in size but opposite in direction are called tyalanced forces. They don't Whe hange in motion of the state of 1 anced forces wo forces acting on an object are not equal in size, we say that they are unbalanced I the forces on an object are unbalanced this is what happens an object that is: nat moving starts to move an object that is moving changes speed or direction. Trak speedup th dmction Smtr ore = - Unbalanced forces make the truck speed 4pResultant forces sultant force If the forces are The size of the overall force acting on an object is called the Fs ays 0. When the net force balanced, this is zero. The net force on the rope in the top of A if the forces acting on an on an object is ON, the forces acting on it are balanced fo Then the net force acting on an object are balanced, the object’s motion does not change Whe es tn the example abovel object is not 0, the forces acting on the object are unbalanced fore 70 -60=40N the resultant force is the difference between the two forces, which is Newton’s law of motion Newton further studied Galileo’s ideas on force and motion an\ ; laws that govern the motion of objects. These three laws are known as motion. The first law of motion is stated as: dd presented three fundamental Newton’s laws of Newton’s First law of motion: “A body will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in straight line unless acted on by an external unbalanced force.” Example: The book on table will remain on table unless some force is applied on it ‘The ball moving on ground stops by itself because of friction (external force). If there were no frictional forces, the moving ball will continue to move unless we stop it. In other words, all objects resist a change in their state of motion. In a qualitative way, the tendency of undisturbed objects to stay at rest or to keep moving with the same velocity is called inertia. This is why, the first law of motion is also known as the law of inertia. The word ‘inertia’ is derived from the Latin word ‘iners’ meaning a state of idleness. First law of motion is related to term “Inertia”, It’s the property of body by the virtue of which the body resists the external force. Inertia is the ability of an object to preserve its state of motion, Incitia depends on the !Saac Newton mass and the speed of an object. The greater a mass and vel object, the greater the inertia of the object, Also, the greater the inertia of an object, the greater the force needed to overcome Common examples of inertia in our day to day life: (1642-1727) The passengers fall forward when the bus suddenly stops, ‘Thi. ; ps. Thi di motion, the lower portion of body comes to rest but the upper porn’ © inertia of continue to be in motion. Portion of body 2. When westake fe branches, th fits and leaves fal. Th py While the fruits and leaves are in rest so, they fait ‘anches are in motion 3. The dust particles get removed when we shake particles reat ret wil he apetis moving see 4. When the person jumps from the moving bus, he ans (ame are removed. inertia of motion. Some distance due to. 5. Any moving body has momentum. Mathemato, F é ally, th It’s the product of mass and its velocity. © Momentum is denoted by eo ° @=IUm, ER 2 s 2 = the carpet. This is, because the locity of an Eelish physicist and mathemati(Ory tog Two P= mass x velocity mXV Experiment about inertia + Set a coin on a stiff playing card covering an empty glass tumbler standing on a table as shown in Figure below. + Give the card a sharp horizontal flick with a finger. If we do it fast then the card shoots away, allowing the coin to fall vertically into the glass tumbler due to its inertia. + The inertia of the coin tries to maintain its state of rest even when the card flows off. ey > ~~ Figure-7 When the card is flicked with the finger the coin placed over it falls in the tumbler. Activity 2 + Place a water-filled tumbler on a tray. + Hold the tray and turn around as fast as you can. + We observe that the water spills. Why? Observe that a groove is provided in a saucer for placing the tea cup. It prevents the cup from toppling over in case of sudden jerks. Inertia and Mass All the examples and activities given so far illustrate that there is a resistance offered by an abject to change its state of motion. If it is at rest it tends to remain at rest; if its moving it tends to keep moving. This property of an object is called its inertia. Do all bodies have the same inertia? We know that it is easier to push an empty box than a box full of books. Similarly, if we kick a football it flies away. But if we kick a stone of the same size with equal force, it hardly moves. We may, in fact, get an injury in our foot while doing so! Similarly, in experiment, instead of a coin if we use a small plastic, we find that a lesser force activity. A force that is just enough to cause a small cart to pick up eligible change in the motion of a train. This is because; in comparison to the cart the train has a much lesser tendency to change its state of motion. Accordingly, we say that the train has more inertia than the cart. Clearly, heavier or more massive objects offer larger inertia. Quantitatively, the inertia of an object is measured by its ind mass as follows: Inertia is the natural tendency of an mass. We may thus relate inertia a ural object to resist a change in its state of motion or of rest. The mass of an object is a measure of its inertia. is required to perform the a large velocity will produce am Newton’s Second law of motion a ‘The first law of motion indicates that when an unbalanced extemal force acts on an object, its Velocity changes, that i, the object ges acceleration. We would now like to study how the acceleration of an object depends on the force applied to it and how we measure a force. x e e e e «© Ei =m™ ee ee 39 |aight line. Ifthe forces are Unbalangy ving for the Newton’s second lay, ae Torce, mass and acceleration tant force applied on the objeg, The same is true for situations of uniform motion in st the net force is not zero, then we have a new situation 6210 Newton's Second Law investigate the relationship betwee? And how the acceleration of an object is effected by the rest and the mass of the object. Force, mass and acceleration ate, the ma ler nitude of the acceleration ‘m” to accele! jaw states that ‘ond law of motion. This |: s he acceleration object and is directly can be found by using Newton's s of an object is inversely proportional to the mss of the Proportional to the force that causes this acceleration mass m = 700kg mass m Itis easier to make small mass acceler a aot m (at constant f) aar (at constant m) f 1 m Doubling the force, the acceleration sing the mass, the z Bi! Halving the mass, the acceleration doubles Combining the results into one equation, we get aa mO fama Therefore (F=hma) Where K is the constant of proportionality and k =] Where F = resultant (or unbalanced) fore causing the acecteration a So ifm =1kg and a = Ims” then F = 1N. Substituting canwrite F = Ikgx Im/s? = Ikg m/s? The SI unit of the force is newton give a mass of Ikg an acceleration of Im’ in the ‘can be defined as “a force that IN = Ikg x Im/s? or simply i Resultant force cause objects to accelerate, since it ch : ‘The amount by which an object accelerates depends on? VelOCity of the o a) ‘The size and direction of the resultant force F v4 1b) And the mass ofthe object m fe e ¢ © ° SMT, 4 ee eChapter Two Examples: 1. Acyclist of mass 60 kg rides a bicycle of mass 20kg. When starting off the cyclist provides a force of 200N. Calculate the initial acceleration of the cyclist? Total mass = 60kg + 20kg = 80kg and Force = 200N. Fim = 200N/80kg = 2.5mv/s?. 2. Acar of mass 500kg is travelling at 20m/s. the driver sees red traffic light ahead and slows to halt in 10s. Calculate the breaking force provided by the car? a=(V—u)/t= (0 —20m/s)/10s = -2m/s?, F = ma = (500kg) (-2m/s*) = -1000N (The minus sign indicates that the force is a braking force and acts opposite to the direction of motion). A block of mass 2kg is pushed along constant velocity by a force of SN, when the push is increased to 9N, what is a) The resultant force? b) The acceleration of the object? a) When the object is moving with a constant velocity, the resultant force is zero (this means the forward force and the backward force are balanced) so the force against motion is SN. when the force is increased to 9N, the resultant force is 9N — SN =4N b) a=F/m=4N/2kg = 2m/s?. se |. Calculate the force needed to give a car of mass 800kg an acceleration of 2nvs*? A rocket has a mass of 5000kg. At a particular instant the net force acting on it is 200,000N. Calculate its acceleration? A motorcyclist of mass 40kg rides a bike of mass 60kg. As she sets off from the light, the forward force on the bike is 200N. Assuming the net force on the bike remains constant, what is the cyclist’s velocity after 5s? 4. The figure below shows a model of car of mass 40kg. Force agairistea — SOON a) What is the resultant force? b) What is the car’s acceleration? ©) If the frictional force against motion is increased to 1S00N. What happen to the car’s motion? 5. A wooden block of mass 5kg is pushed along a table with a constant velocity by a force of 10N. The force is then increased to 14N. calculate a) The resultant force? b) The acceleration of the block? 6. A-car of mass 100kg travelling at 36kn/hr is brought to rest over a distance of 40m. calculate “ee © © © qummommm « oo « 5force (weight) and their upward force (air resistance) balance each other.” im, e «© © © © SSTITEIIT™D @ «© e C0 a) The acceleration of the car? b) The average braking force of the car? A car of mass 500kg is travelling along a flat roa a car is 300N and the force of the air resistance against the © Rerreag ward force provided by the The fot Coane iene 200N as shown below 300N Calculate a) The acceleration of the car? to 300N? b) What happens to the car's motion if the force of air resistance increases to 200N! Acceleration caused by gravity - If you drop a balll or stone, it falls to the ground. It speeds up as it falls due to the pull of the earth’s gravity. Another name of this force is the weight of the object. Heavy objects have a greater weight than lighter objects, but if you drop over a cliff at a same time, they will fall at the same acceleration regardless of their weight. In fact, lighter objects fall more slowly than a heavy object because the force of the air resistance has a greater effect on the lighter objects which causes to reach a very low terminal velocity and the force of air resistance has almost no effect on the heavy objects, this cause to reach a very high terminal velocity. That is why heavy object fall more quickly than lighter objects. @ et. 7 | ° na! mg Body released Forces on Forces on by from rest body during es on body at acceleration terminal velocity When an object falls in air, the air ~resistant “fluid friction” acceleration, eventually air-resistant acting upwards equals the we; ; down wards. The resultant force on the object is then zero eae the clea balances the fiitional force the object falls ata constant velocity called tara nai whose value depends on the size, shape and weight of the object, emia “Terminal velocity is the constant velocity that falling objects Teach, when thei cirChapter Two The force that caused the acceleration due to gravity (weight) can be found by using Newton’s second law of motion as follows: F=maand W =mg Where, W = weight (downward force), m = mass of the object, g = acceleration due to gravity (gravitational field strength) On the earth g = 9.8m/s? (approximately 10m/s”) and on the mood g = 1.6m/s?. Air resistance and Terminal velocity When an object falls in air, at first it accelerates freely. At the start of the fall, the only force acting on it is its weight, but the air resistance opposes its weight. the air resistance apposing its motion increases as its speed rises, so reducing its acceleration. Eventually, air resistance acting upwards equals the weight of the object acting downwards. ies ulting force on the object is then zero since the weight of the object balances the air resistance. The object falls at a constant velocity called its terminal velocity, whose value depends on the size, shape, and weight of the object. A small dense object e.g. steel -ball - bearing has a high terminal velocity, and falls before weight equals air resistance. A light object e.g. a rain drop, or one with a large surface area e.g parachute has a low terminal velocity. The graph above shows how the velocity of the parachutist varies during a descent. The idea of a parachute is to greatly increase the force of air resistance, Then the terminal velocity is reduced, and parachutist can land safely. Terminal velocity depends on how big you are. For insects, ai resistance is much more important for human being, and so their terminal velocity is quite low. The r Causes of air resistance and its effects ; Air resistance is due to the colliding of an object with molecules of air. 4 falling object collides with air molecules during the downward fall. These air molecules create a force pushing upward which is opposite to the object's direction of travel. The amount of air resistance encountered by the object depends on three factors: 1: The speed of the object v- ’ ; The faster it goes the more air particles it collides with per second therefore the bigger the air resistance will be. If it is not moving the air resistance will be zero. 2: The surface area of the object A. fe! 4 The larger the surface area of the ‘object the more air particles it will hit into per second and the higher the air resistance will be. If itis very streamlined the area of intercept will be small and there will be less air resistance acting on it. e e e e e eax e e e e -‘speed (m/s) 38 6 340 me time (s) 0" Free falling motion Objects released from rest or thrown upward that move gravity alone is said to be in free fall Free fall is a uniformly accelerated motion, so the e are applicable, except the acceleration is changed to acceleration di Ic to gra Note: gravity. under the influence of uations of linear motion 8 is positive for downwards motion and g is negative for upwards [rey oe eee a utatExamples: |. A ball is thrown vertically upwards, with an initial velocity of 30m/s. a) How high will it rise? b) How high will it rise,when its speed is 20m/s? c) For how long will it be in the air? (Given that the acceleration due to gravity is 10m/s?) Solution: a) u=30m/s, g=-10m/s? v=0 b=? V=w +2¢h (0) = (30) + 2(-10) h 900 — 20h 900/-20 = 45m b) u=30m/s, g=-10m/s? V=20m/s h-? V=u'+2¢gh (20)? = 0)? + 2(-10) h 400 = 900 — 20h h=~ 500/-20 = 25m First we find the time taken to reach the maximum height, then the time that the ball —in air is twice the time taken to reach the maximum height. 30m/s v=0 g=-10m/s? t=? -30m/s)/ (-10m/s?) = 3s. u t=(V —u)/g = (0 — 30m/s)/-10m/s* Therefore the time taken in air = 2x 3s = 6s. ‘ed from the top of building and hit the ground with velocity of 20m/s An object releas (ignore air-resistance and take g=10m/s") a) How long will it be to reach the ground? b) How fai does it to reach the ground? Solution a) u=0 v=20m/s g= 10 m/s? t=(V-wy/g t=(20-0y/10 t=2 sec b) u=0, \ V=20m/s h=? , (20)? = (0) + 2(10) h 400 = 0 + 20h h= 400/20 = 20m Exercise: 1. An egg falls ofa table. The floor is 0.8m from the table-top. (Take g = 10m/s”) a) How long will take the egg to reach the floor? ) How fast will it be moving when it hts the floor? 2. The astronaut on the moon drops a spanner. It takes 1.7s to fall a distance of 2.3m. Determine the acceleration due to gravity on the moon?ok. s it reac 3. A climber, climbing a big cliff accidentally knocks loose a large rock. She sees it reaches the bottom of the cliff 8s later. (Take g = 10m/s*) ) What is the speed of the impact? b) How far did the rock fall? ©) What is the average velocity of the rock? 2.2 Momentum . Momentum is a property of an object with mass. I is a measure of its instantaneous kinetic energy and is a measure of how easy it is to change its velocity, i.e. to change its direction or Speed it up/slow it down. The higher the momentum, the harder it is to stop. Momentum is defined as the product of the mass of an object and its velocity. Momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (V) Momentum is a vector quantity. The direction of momentum is the direction of the velocity, The SI unit of momentum is kilogram meter per second (kem/s) or Newton second (Ns). Example 1 Calculate the momentum of a truck of mass 200kg travelling Sms" Answer P= my = 2000x5 = 1000kgms"! Example 2 A bieyele and a rider of total mass 100kg travelling at 6m/s increases its velocity to 10m/s, calculate : a) The initial momentum of the bicycle and the rider? b) The final momentum of the bicycle and the rider? ©) The change in momentum? Solution Initial momentum = mu = 100x6 = 600Ns Final momentum = my = 100x10 = 1000Ns Change in momentum = 100 ~ 600 = 400Ns.Chapter Two Reaction, Collision ere osc n both objects move separately ‘When both objects move together after collision, collision Momentum is conserved Momentum is conserved miui + mouz = mivi + m2 ‘my + mau = v(mi+ m2) Kinetic energy is conserved. KE is lost Total KE before collision equals The total mu? +5 mu? > ¥ (m+) KE after collision 1 1 eee a dn? +2 mou? = 2mivi245 mv: y miu? +5 mau gmivie + mov2' Conservation of momentum According to Newton’s third law of motion, when then two bodies collide two equal and opposite forces come into play. The time for which the two forces act must be the same for both objects. Consider two objects A and B that collides, A pushes B with a force Fa and B reacts by pushing A with an equal and opposite force Fa. e e e e > axtzkxxm 6 e ee - taMathematically this can be written as (Fa= Fo) We know that F = ma =m (V —u)/t Third law m(v-u) t -Fp. Since: F Then by substitution we get — D (the two objects are different) m(v-u) _-m(v-u) t mv: (the two objects are different) 1) __ma(v2-u2) multiply both sides of the equation by t t We get, mi(vi-u1) = -m2( 9) Therefore — myyvi — muy =-m: Thus myuy + m2u2 = Mivi + M2v2 mju + mato = total momentum before the collision mv; +m2v2 = total momentum after the collision mua Miu: + mu2 = mivi + my2 That is, “the total momentum before a collision equals the total moment collision”. This is the law of conservation of momentum. This law is cons Newton’s laws of motion. Exampk 1. A trolley of mass 2kg travelling at 3m/s collides with station, ‘ tr ‘The two trolleys stick together after the collision and move in sy ae Pe a rection as in the the destin ofthe first trolley. What i their common velocity? Before collision m=2kg,u=3m/s — m=1kg u=Om/s a Total momentum before impact = total momentum after i Mth + MU = my, + a gizue, second law jum after the sequence of the(2kg x3 m/s) + 0=(2 kgx V) + (1 kgx V) 6 kgm/s = (3kg) V V = (6 kem/s)/3 kg = 2 m/s Therefore, the common velocity of the two trolleys is 2m/s. 2, Two stationary rocks of masses 100kg and 200kg respectively are held together. An explosion between the rocks pushes them apart with no loss of mass. The velocity of the 100kg is 4m/s. find the velocity of the 200kg rock after the explosion? After the explosion Total momentum before impact = total momentum after impact MU, + mzUz = mv, + M2vz 0 +0 = (100 kg x - 4m/s) + (200 kg x V) V = (400 kgmv/s)/200 kg = 2 m/s 3. A 3kg mass with velocity 4m/s collides with stationary any 2kg mass, After impact, the 3kg mass continue indirection at 2m/s. the Ikg mass moves at 6m/s in the same direction as the 3kg mass. Is this an example of elastic or inelastic collision? Solution before = KEafter m, =3kg, % miu? +%muy = Y’mivi+% mv mi =3kg m2=Ikg m2= Ikg % BAY + ACO) B42) + 4 (1)6" vi=2m/s v2=6m/s ui = 4m/s 24j + 0j = 6] + 18) w=0 24) = 24) The collision is elastic Exercise: 1. A body has a mass of Skg. calculate a) Its momentum when it has a velocity of 2m/s? b) Its velocity when its momentum is 20kgm/s? Which one of the following bodies has a greater momentum, A 4g bullet moving at a velocity of 300m/s and a stone sliding at 20m/s? 3. What is the total momentum of a 2kg mass moving at 100m/s due east and 4 kg mass moving at 1SOm/s due west? (hint: take west as — ve and east as + ve) 4. A trolley “X” of mass 10kg collides travelling at 6m/s approaches and collides with another trolley “¥” of mass 20kg travelling at Sny/s in same direction as trolley “X”. If trolley “X” became stationary after the collision, calculate the velocity of trolley “Y”? ee oo 6 em 6 ol wl ef5. An object “A” of mass 20kg moving with a velocity of 3m/s makes a head on collision With object “B” of mass 10kg moving with a velocity of 2m/s in the opposite direction, [f “A” and “B” stick together and move in the direction of “A”, calculate their common velocity? Impulse Newton’s second law motion states F = ma and acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity a=(V —ujit. by combining these two equation gives Therefore, the rate of change of momentum is equal tothe force causing the change. Force (F) = change in momentum (Ap) / time (t) This formula tells that the reaction force (F) is inversely proportional to the interaction time. his relationship is very important and is used to design car safety devices and so many other things. For example, the front and the back of the cars are designed to crumple, in order to spread out the time of a collision and so reduce the force on you. A seat belt is designed to stretch slightly, so spread out the time of the crash even further, and so reduces the force on you to a safe level Air bags in some cars are designed in a same way to reduce the reaction force and safes the passengers in the cars. rear passenger cell crumple zone Ps).>, a 2 y Bm. - ess = e@ ese =This is also used for sporting events, for example in a cricket match as shown in the figure below: In a cricket match a fielder moves his arms back while trying to catch a cricket ball because the backward of his arms increases the interaction time between the ball of the arm, so this reduces the reaction force. Otherwise the ball may hurt the player or bounces back. Goal keepers use similar principle. We can write Newton’s second law of motion in terms of momentum change. Ft Ap — ‘The product of force and the time for which it acts “Ft” is called the impulse of the force. Impulse measures how hard and for how long a force acted. The SI unit of the impulse of the force is same as that of momentum (kg m/s or Ns). Impulse can also be obtained from the area under the force-time graph. Examples I. A soccer ball of mass 1 kg is kicked. The ball moves from rest to a speed of 10m/s. calculate the force of the kick if the interaction time is a) 0.01s. b) O.1s. a) F=Apit=[(Ikg x10nvs) - (I kg x 0)]/0.01s= 1000N b) F=Apit=[(Ikg x10m/s) (1 kg x 0)]/0.1s= 100N calculate Question a) The acceleration of the object? a) b) The force causing this acceleration? —_b) ©) The initial momentum of the object? ©) 4) The final momentum of the object? d) ¢) The impulse of the force? ° ) The rate of change of momentum? f) 2. A moving object of mass 100kg increases its velocity from 20m/s to 40m/s in 10s. Answer a=(V-u)/t= (40m/s—20m/s)/10s = 2m/s?. \ F=ma=(100kg) (2m/s’) 200N pi = mu = (100kg) (20m/s) =2000Ns p2 = my = (100kg) (40m/s) = 4000Ns Impulse = Ft = 200N x 10s = 2000Ns Rate of change of momentum = Ap/t = 2000Ns/10s = 200N bas ee ee SRS e e e e 5 |ane ght to re A motorcycle of mass 500kg is broug! braking force? Ee eo A force of 10N acts on a ball of mass SF A car of mass 1000kg is travelling at a velo Hy Calculate the force of the impact if it stops i a) 0.58? b) 0.01s? R from the view P Which time interval is preferable from the view F dag for a super marke The diagram below shows a force-time graph for a sup 30m/s in 10s: What is the average st from va e ball Find the impulse given to the ball in Js, it collides head with a wall sm/s oint of the passenger’s safety? t trolley of mass 60kg Aan The trolley is at rest prior to the force acting on Force (N) 10 : Time (s) 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 a) What is the change in momentum of the trolle 'b) What is the impulse given to the trolley? ©) What is the average force exerted on the trolley? 4) What is the speed ofthe trolley immediately 'y during this time interval? after it has been pushedUSING WEGTORS/&\PROJECTILE| MOTION oooes3.1-Using vectors Using vectors are much wider than using scalars learnt distinction between vectors and scalars earlier. ‘tude and direction. Let us look this has magnitude only while vector quantity has both bau the velocity of a moving objec, example of sealar/vector pair; speed and velocity: To define TT: defining the speed you have to say how fast it is moving and the direction it is ™ of a moving object, you have to say how fast it is moving. se vectors involve directions. You ee 1 should recall that a scalar quantity ous Here are some more examples of scalar and veetor quantities: vector quantities are usually Tepresented by arrows on diagrams. Examples of scalar quantities: distance, speed, mass, energy and temperarure- Examples of vector quantities: displacement, velocity, acceleration and, force. Combining vectors When we combine or add two vectors, we need to add both magnitude and direction. When a vector is represented graphically, its magnitude is represented by the length of an arrow and its direction is represented by the direction of the arrow. Here is an example of vector. sinle vector Two vectors acting a point can be replaced by single vector with the same effect. This is called the resultant of the vectors. Finding the resultant of two or more vectors is called vector addition. For example, take 2 steps in the forward direction, stop and then take another 3 steps in the forward direction. The result is that we have taken 5 steps in the forward direction, The final answer when adding vectors is resultant vector. The resultant di i tant di case will be 5 steps forward. lisplacement in this ‘When adding two or more vectors in straight line, algebraic sum and the sing of your final answer will So first, it is important to take account in to their dire resultant vector by using direction of resultant force. we can find the tell you the tions and w, 'se the sign conventionsing convections « Upward vectors are negative and downward vectors are positive. » Vectors to the right are positive and vectors to the left are negative. Eg, think about an airplane flying due east with velocity of 50 mis. the wind also blows due eat at 10 m/s. eee eee rom/s coms Some ; v The resultant vector is velocity of 60 m/s due east. Examples 1- Calculate the resultant force and its direction of each of the following figures. a 10N ¢ ™ 5N b- 30n<—— |_|] > 70N Solution a- Resultant force = 10N + SN = 15N to the right b- Resultant force = -30 N + 70 N=40N to the right 2- A cyclist travels 20 km to the north and 45 km to the south. How many kilometers he is away from his starting point (means what is the resultant Starting point displacement)? 45 km S Finishi 20 km NI Solution Resultant displacement is + 45km — 20 km = +25 km (25 km towards south)Exercise ther as shown in the 1- Two teams are pulling a rope against each 0 igure below Calculate the resultant force 2- A car moves forward with a velocity of 40 m/s and then he car. velocity of 57 m/s. Calculate the resultant velocity of th i ate the resultant force. 3+ The figure below shows a falling tennis ball. Calculate the resultant fo | positive Ma mg 10N ) 4- A parachutist weighs 1000N. When she opens her parachute, it pulls upward on her with a force of 2000N. a- Draw a diagram to show the forces acting on the parachutist. b- Calculate the resultant force acting on her. c- What effect will this force have on her? a | When two vectors acting at right angles upon a given point, the resultant vector is equal to the Square root of the sum of the two vectors, This means we use Pythagoras theorem to find resultant vector of two perpendicular vectors. For example, the figure below-left shows two Bespendielar free acting upon a given point. The direction ofresuttant veraor car se ca by using tan 0.Cee yew By tys R=resultant Vector, Ay = vertical Vector! By= Horizontal Vector Worked examples |- Two forces act on this shuttlecock as it travels through the a , calculate the resultant force and direction of travel. \eeal of travel € im ON Bon Given First, we have to draw a vector triangle Fasov Fe=6N F=8N R=? Fy=8n F=? To find the direction of travel (direction of resultant force) Solution R= Fx? + Fy? R= /(6N)2 + (8N)* the direction of travel is 53° below horizontal force. R=V36N2 + 64N? R= V100N? = 10N 2. An aircraft is flying due north with a velocity of 200 m/s. A side wind of velocity 50 ims is blowing due east. What is the magnitude and direction of the aireraft’s resultant velocity? ,Rae Vy=200 ms ate Solution R= (Vx? + Vy? ‘To find the direction of resultant velocity R= (GOm/sy* + (200 mse Tan = 22 = B= = 025 R= 2500 m/s? + 40000 m/s? y= 14° R = (42500 m?/s? = 206 m/s the direction of resultant velocity is 14°north of east Exercise 1. A 100N force and SON force act on a point P. the 100N force acts due north, and the a SON force acts due east. What is the magnitude and direction of the resultant force? A spider runs two sides of a table as shown in the figure below. Calculate the magnitude and direction of its final displacement. mude of the resultant vector of non- to find the direction of the ee vectors, use Itant vector. forces act upon a point as shown in the figure cloChapter Wy xs represents the resultant force. The two other sides of each of the two triangles represent the two non-perpendicular component forces. f Magnitude of resultant force direction of resultant force can be found using [Fl + F% —2F,Fy cos Os Fpsind. F,sin®. 1 +F¥, —2F,F; cos 0 Pe DEBE) or Exe eaene = Gis the angle between the two component forces * @,is the angle between resultant force and fi = @zis the angle between resultant foree and f * Fis the resultant force, f, and fare component forces * When expressing direction of resultant force from fi, we take A ABD applying the sine rule we Fysin®s F F & have = ab, = yew, rthen sin®, = When expressing direction of resultant force from fe, we take A ACD applying the sine rule we Fysin® F Fx ‘sins SinB = @, is the angle which opposes the resultant force = 0=0,+0, = 0; = 180° — @ (@ and @,are two adjacent angles of the parallelogram and they add up to 180°] ,then sin®, have: Worked examples 1- A force of 60 N and a force of 40 N act concurrently on a point P find the magnitude of their resultant force when the angle between them is 60°.