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NCOS51316 - Lecture8

The document discusses digital logic and digital systems. It covers topics like digital vs analog waveforms, reasons for widespread adoption of digital technology, digital logic representation, digital logic systems including combinational and sequential logic, logic circuits and gates like AND, OR, NOT. It also discusses truth tables, combinational logic circuits and Boolean algebra.

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Mosoha Tenei
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
28 views27 pages

NCOS51316 - Lecture8

The document discusses digital logic and digital systems. It covers topics like digital vs analog waveforms, reasons for widespread adoption of digital technology, digital logic representation, digital logic systems including combinational and sequential logic, logic circuits and gates like AND, OR, NOT. It also discusses truth tables, combinational logic circuits and Boolean algebra.

Uploaded by

Mosoha Tenei
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Digital Logic

Digital Systems Introduction


Digital vs. Analog Waveforms

+5 +5

1 0 1
V V
Time Time
–5
–5

Digital: Analog:

Only assumes discrete values Values vary over a broad range


continuously
Reasons for the widespread adoption and use of digital technology
• Digital data has certain advantages over analog in electronics applications:
• A major advantage of representing information in digital form is that digital systems are
resistant to error.
• Digital data can be processed and transmitted more efficiently and reliably than analog
data.
• Digital data has great advantage when storage is necessary.
– For example music when converted to digital form cam be stored more compactly
and reproduced with greater accuracy and clarity than is possible when it is in analog
form.
• Digital circuits use an alphabet composed of two symbols, known as 1 and 0 (on and off
or true and false or high and low). These are considered as logic levels.
• There are only basic operations in digital circuits, which are easy to understand.
• Digital technologies require Boolean algebra, which is very simple and can easily be
learnt.
• Digital ICs are reliable, accurate and the speed of operation is very high.
• Digital circuits have capability for memory, which makes these circuits suitable for
computers, calculators, watches, telephones etc.
• It is a very fascinating and challenging field of study because most of the latest electronic
systems are digital in nature.
Digital logic systems
• A digital system is a system whose inputs and outputs fall within a discrete,
finite set of values
• A discrete system with only two values of system variables: 1 and 0, on/off,
true/false, male/female
• An electronic circuit that operates on binary data
• The circuits within the system that carry out the elementary logical operations
are called gates.
• Digital Electronics makes use of 2 states:
– Logic High, or “1”
– Logic Low, or “0”
• The digital computer system is made up of 2 main types of components:
– The switching component and
– The storage component
• The basic building block of the switching component is combinational logic,
while that for the storage component is sequential logic.
• Two main types of digital logic systems
– Combinational
• Outputs dependent only on current input
– Sequential
• Outputs dependent on both past and present inputs
Digital logic representation
• Any digital logic system can be represented by a black box, having a set of input lines that
receive binary data, and one or more output lines.
Inputs Outputs

Logical System

• If the logic system is combinational, the output data is a logical function of the value of
the input data at the instant the output is measured.
• A combinational logic circuit is a circuit whose output depends only on its current inputs.
• For a sequential circuit the outputs depend not only on the present inputs, but on all the
previous inputs over a specific operating time.
• A sequential logic element’s output depends on its previous output as well as its current
inputs.
– A given input at time t does not always produce the same outputs.
• The two types of logic are interrelated.
– A combinational logic circuit can be converted into a sequential system by applying
feedback from some of the outputs to form additional internal inputs.
– A simple sequential circuit has memory/storage properties/ capabilities and a memory
circuit can be organised as a combinational logic function.
Digital logic systems
• Sequential logic
• Inputs and outputs overlap
• Outputs depend on inputs and the entire history of execution!
• Network typically has only a limited number of unique configurations
these are called states
• e.g., traffic light controller sequences infinitely through four states
• New component in sequential logic networks: storage elements to
remember the current state
• Output and new state is a function of the inputs and the old state
i.e., the fed back inputs are the state!

• Synchronous systems
– period reference signal, the clock, causes the storage elements to
accept new values and to change state

• Asynchronous systems
– no single indication of when to change state
Logic Circuits
• Many digital electronic processes are designed around “logic” circuits,
• A Logic circuit is also known as a decision making circuit.
• May have many inputs but there will be usually one output for a certain combination of
inputs and other output levels for other combinations of inputs.
• Logic Circuits
• Remember that digital signals have only two values,
– “1” and “0”, or
– “High Voltage” and “Low voltage”, or
– “On” and “Off”, or On 1 High Voltage
– “True” and “False”.
Low Voltage
Off 0

• Fundamental circuit common to all types of Digital logic systems are gates.
• A logic function is implemented with one or more gates and the relationships between
functions is governed by the laws of Boolean Algebra/ Logic.
• Digital Logic is ideally suited to help design digital electronic circuits because of its
binary nature.
• The operation of a logic circuit can be expressed using a function table or a truth table
and Boolean algebra.
• Truth table:
Truth tables and logic gates
– a table, which represents the various combinations of inputs with their corresponding outputs.
It is a useful way of describing the relationship between the inputs of a gate and its output.
– Truth tables are a means of representing the results of a logic function using a table.
– They are constructed by defining all possible combinations of the inputs to a function, and
then calculating the output for each combination in turn.
– Truth Tables list:
• All combinations of all possible inputs,
• Every Output for each combination of inputs.
– Because the inputs are two valued, a circuit with n inputs has 2n lines in its truth table.
• Gates
– All the circuits in a digital computer consist of nothing more than the interconnection of
primitive elements: gates.
– Gates are digital two state circuits because the input and output signals are either LOW or
HIGH voltages.
– A Gate is a two – state device that implements a binary connective.
– A binary connective is an elementary function of two input variables
– Gates are also considered as logic circuits.
– The gate processes the digital signals at its input terminals to produce a digital signal at its
output terminal.
– The particular type of a gate determines the actual processing involved.
Fundamental/ Basic logic gates
• The three fundamental types of gate are
– AND,

– OR and

– NOT gate.

• The rest (NAND, NOR, EOR(XOR)) can be derived from these


fundamental gates.
• The symbols used to represent the logic gates are in accordance with
ANSI/IEEE Standard 91-1984.
• This standard has been adopted by private industry and even the
military for use in documentation.
Basic Logic gates: NOT
• Inverter or the complementer
• It is the simplest of the gates because the output is opposite
of the input.
Basic Logic gates: AND
• This is a circuit with two or more inputs and a single output. The
output of an AND gate is true if and only if each of its inputs is also
in a true state. Implying that if one or more of the inputs is false,
the output will also be false.
• AND Gate: (Asks, are all inputs true?)
• The logical Operation for an AND gate is A.B

• Logic Function: Z=A.B


Basic Logic gates: OR
• The output is true if any one or more of the inputs is true, ie, if at
least one of the inputs is true.
• OR Gate: (Asks, is any input true?)
• Logical operation is A+B meaning A OR B
Non basic logic gates
• NAND
– NAND Gate asks, is any input false?

• NOR
– NOR Gate asks, are all inputs false?

• XOR
– XOR Gate, Exclusive OR Gate:
– Asks, are the inputs not equal?
– (Inequality test)
Circuits
• Circuits are built by combining different gates.
• For each circuit we can write the Mathematical or Logic
expression.
• So we say the Logic or Mathematical expression is used to
describe the behavior of the logic circuit.
• Example1: Write the logic expression for the following circuit

• Example 2: Write the logic expression for the following circuit


Digital logic: Combinational Logic
Combinational Logic circuits Intro
• Combinational Logic Circuits are simply circuits built using a
combination of AND, OR and NOT gates.
• The behaviour of digital circuits can be described in terms of
formal notation called Boolean algebra.
• All logic circuits are equivalent to Boolean expressions and any
Boolean expression can be rendered as a logic circuit.
• Boolean algebra allows us to analyse circuits containing gates and
sometimes enables circuits to be constructed in a simpler form.
• George Boole:- investigated the formal analysis of binary systems
long before the advent of electronics of computers.
– His logical algebra was developed to test the validity of propositions and
verbal statements.
– His theorems are relevant to operations, which are performed on binary
data in electronic systems.
Combinational Logic Circuits
• Aims
– To express the inputs and outputs of a system in
binary form
– To develop the relationships between these inputs
and outputs as a truth table
– To simplify the Boolean expression using algebra or
Karnaugh maps
– To select suitable electronic devices to implement the
required function: To built a circuit to implement the
function.
Boolean Algebra
• Algebra is the study of the properties of operations on numbers.
– Algebra generalizes arithmetic by using symbols, usually letters, to
represent numbers or unknown quantities.
– Algebra is a problem-solving tool;
– It is the mathematics of digital systems.
– Used to design digital circuits and to analyse their behaviour
– Basic knowledge of this algebra is indispensable to the study and
analysis of logic circuits.
• Digital Design is concerned with the conversion of ideas or
specifications into actual H/W, and Boolean Algebra is a tool that
facilitates this process
• Boolean Algebra permits an idea to be expressed in a mathematical
form and the resulting expression to be simplified and then
translated into the real h/w of gates and other logic elements.
Boolean Algebra cont’d
• Only 3 basic functions/operations are permitted in Boolean
Algebra i.e.
– Logical OR (A+B) denoted by a plus.
– Logical AND (A+B) denoted by a dot
– Negation or complementation denoted by a bar over a literal
or a variable.

• A Variable is a symbol (usually an uppercase letter of the


alphabet) used to represent a logical quantity.
• Can have a 1 or a 0 value.
• A literal is a variable or the compliment of a variable
• The arithmetic operation of subtraction and division do not exist
in Boolean Algebra.
• X + Y = X + Z can not be rearranged in the form (X + Y) – X =
(X + Z) –X which will lead to Y = Z
Laws of Boolean Algebra
• Boolean variables obey the same commutative, distributive and associative laws as the variable of
conventional algebra (ordinary algebra)
• Commutative Law • Complementation law
– A+B=B+A
– A.B = B.A
• Associative Law
• Absorption Law
– A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
– A.(B.C)=(A.B).C
• Distributive Law
– A.(B + C) = A.B + A.C • Zero Law
– A + (B.C) = (A + B) (A + C) 1+A=1
0. A = 0
• Idempotence Law
• Other Useful results
– A+A=A
– A. A = A
• Redundance / Absorption Law
– A + A.B = A
– A. (A + B) = A
• Identity Law
– 0+A=A
– 1. A = A
De Morgan’s Theorems
• 1. The complement of a sum (OR) of variables is equal to the
product (AND) of the compliments of the variables
• 2. The complement of 2 or more variables ORed is equivalent to
the AND of the complements of the individual variables

• Example:
– Apply De Morgan’s theorem to the expressions
 ABC)(A BC
Exercises will focus on:
• Draw truth tables
• To simplify
• To construct circuit diagrams
• To determine the functions represented by
circuits
Practice Question
• A circuit has four inputs, A, B, C, D representing
the 16 natural binary integers from 0000 to 1111
(i.e. 0 to 15).
• Input A is the most significant bit and D is the
least significant bit.
• The output of the circuit, F is true if the input is
divisible by a multiple of 4,5,6 or 7, with the
exception of 15, in which case the output is False.
Zero is not divisible by 4,5,6, or 7.

• Draw a truth table to represent the algorithm.


Write the expressions represented by the following circuits

A
B A
C
B Y

y C
• Write and simplify the output expression for
the circuit in the figure below:

• A company is controlled by a Managing Director A,
Financial director B & 2 elected members C &D. A
needs the support of one other and B needs the
support of 2 others to make a decision. Obtain the
truth table for the decision making strategies and
identify the voting when the decision goes:
– Against A
– Against B
Analysis of Combinational circuits
• Analysis used to determine what a circuit does:
– Verify that the circuit is combinational;
– Label all inputs, outputs and internal nets
– Write logic equations for internal nets in terms of
inputs
– Write logic equations for outputs in terms of input
and simplify

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