HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GENETICS

Prehistoric Genetics
According to Ostrander, et.al (2008) there was a claim that a current analysis in terms of
phylogeny (study of relationship among different organisms) that the evolutionary lineage of dogs
were the wolves. They were then been domesticated somewhere in East Asia during the time of
about 15,000 BCE. Evidences from archaeological and DNA imprints from North American dogs
suggest that they were actually originated from Asia. The artificial selection of dogs to be used in
herding, guarding, hunting and retrieving are some of the genetic influence of mammalian
behavior as stated by Scoot and Fuller (1965).

Early Historical Period of Genetics

According to Stent (1971), the first known theory of inheritance in Western thought
originated in Greece in the fifth century BCE and was taught by Hippocrates (“bricks and mortar
theory”). As opposed to what is known today to a “blueprint”, the hereditary material, Hippocrates
claimed that elements from all over the body are concentrated in the male semen and was formed
eventually into a human in the womb. He also accepted the notion in the inheritance of acquired
characteristics, because those Olympic weightlifter having bigger biceps eventually can have
children also with big biceps. Aristotle later on criticized his theory, because according to him,
those persons who have physical disabilities can produce normal children. Secondly, there are
traits that can be transmitted at old age but not during conception in the womb. Example of this is
hair color and baldness.

Classical Genetics

1. Leeuwenhoek (1632 – 1723)

The major contributions of Anton van Leeuwenhoek were his significant improvements to
the microscope that enabled him to observe what he termed “animalcules”, today called microbes
or microorganisms. Hence, his major contribution was to initiate a whole field of science that
eventually led to the development of cell theory and the identification of chromosomes.

2. Linnaeus (1707 – 1778)

Carl von Linné, better known by his Latinized surname, Linnaeus, was a Swedish
physician and biologist, concerned with the classification of biological entities. In 1735, he
published the first edition of “Systema Naturae” that, in its brief 11 pages, provided the seeds for
modern biological classification. His major contribution was to establish a set of rules for
classification that gradually became universally accepted.
Aspects of the Linnaean System:
a) Binomial nomenclature (two-names system) – the genus and species
b) External morphology
c) Hierarchical classification

3. Lamarck (1744 – 1829)

Lamarck, formally named Jean--‐Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet Chevalier de Lamarck,
is usually associated with the inheritance of acquired characteristics, a phenomenon that modern
biology terms (in a somewhat derogatory sense) as “Lamarckism”. He was the first to propose a
comprehensive theory of evolution and is credited as the “first modern evolutionist” because he
developed a comprehensive theory about the process of evolution. Lamarck formulated the
concept of change as a function of heritable transmission and adaptation to the environment but
he has been regarded as being of little worth on his concept of the inheritance of acquired
characteristics
 4. Lyell (1797 – 1875)
Charles Lyell, a Scottish lawyer turned geologist, authored the book “Principles of
Geology”, which greatly influenced Charles Darwin who was only young at that time. He compiled
and systematized the idea that became the foundation of modern geology. During Darwin’s
voyage, Lyell’s book became his basis on the idea that things change gradually over time
according to physical principles.

Birth of Modern Genetics

1. Darwin (1809 - 1882)

Charles Darwin was the son of a physician. He attended medical school in Edinburgh, but
he has the passion for collecting biological specimens rather than taking interest in human
anatomy and physiology. Because of this he dropped out of medical school. Darwin went to
Cambridge for a preparatory studies of becoming an Anglican priest, but his interest in naturalism
(observational biology) lead him to be a protégé of the botanist John Henslow. He was
recommended for the position of becoming a naturalist on HMS Beagle, a ship commissioned to
chart the waters along South America. During his voyage, he regularly sent specimens and notes
to Cambridge of his observations along the way. His collection and meticulous documentation
made such an impression on the scientific community. Aside from Lyell’s book on geology, he
was also impressed with Thomas Malthus’ “Essay on the Principle of Population”, which led him
to develop his theory on natural selection with the following principles:
a) Genetic contributions to individual differences fuel natural selection.
b) Environmental demands steer the direction of evolution.
c) Those organisms best adapted to the environmental contingencies reproduce
more than those less well adapted.
d) The subsequent generation has more copies of the “best adapted” genes than their
parents.
e) Over time, a new species arises.

2. Wallace (1823 – 1913)

Alfred Wallace bounded for an expedition to the Amazon to explore and collect species.
While on his way, his ship was sank along with the majority of his collection and notes. When he
was rescued, he returned to England and published two books and several papers. While in
England, he established associations with notable naturalists, among them was Charles Darwin.
His 1855 paper on evolution was read by none other than Charles Lyell, who immediately brought
it to Darwin’s attention and urging Darwin to publish his thoughts. Darwin took that advice and
started to work on a book the “Origin of Species”. In 1889, Wallace a leading thinker on evolution
defended natural selection with his book.

3. Galton (1822 – 1911)

Francis Galton was Darwin’s second cousin. His main contribution was on social sciences
and genetics. He establish a lab intended to study differential psychology, aims to analyze
individual differences. In 1865, he published the first empirical work on the genetics of individual
differences in behavior, and eventually elaborating it in his book “Hereditary Genius” in 1869.
Because of this achievement, some considered Galton as the father of behavioral genetics.

4. Mendel (1822 – 1884)

Gregor Mendel was an Austrian monk living in an Augustinian monastery in Brüun (or
Brno) in what is now the Czech Republic. He was influenced by an abbot (head of an abbey of
monks) who encouraged him intellectually, research, and spending much time mastering
mathematics, physics and chemistry. Later, he became particularly interested in the study of
hybrids, and began breeding common garden peas (Pisum sativum) in the mid-1850s. In 1865,
Mendel presented his work to the Brüun Natural History Society and published a paper
“Experiments in Plant Hybridization”. His paper was not taken seriously because he wrote laws
and presented data supporting principles of discrete inheritance rather than emphasizing about
genetic transmission through blended traits. In 1868, three years after he published his work,
Mendel became abbot of the monastery. He carried on with his research, but never presented his
results. After he died in 1884, the monastery burned all of his papers with many uncovered genetic
principles that we don’t know.

Cell Biology in Genetics

 In 1665, Robert Hooke used the term “cell” to describe the compartments of cork and
other plants because they reminded him of “cellula”, the small single--‐room dwellings of
monks.
 Anton van Leeuwenhoek, reported on single cell organisms.
 The development of the “cell theory” in 1838 – 1839 by German botanist Mathias
Schleiden and German physiologist Theodor Schwann. A major advance was the
detection of chromosomes and the unraveling of cell division.
 These “colored bodies” were first reported in the early 1840s by Karl Wilhelm von Nägeli
in plants and Edouard Van Beneden in animals, although the actual word “chromosome”
was coined several decades later. This discovery of the chromosome led to the
understanding of cell division.
 Through the work of Walther Flemming, Anton Schneider, Eduard Strasburger and
others in the late 1879s and 1880s led to the observations and proposed statements that
are acceptable today:
(1) Chromosomes were duplicated during cell division
(2) Each daughter cell received the same number of chromosomes
(3) Gametes contained half the number of chromosomes as an adult cell
(4) Fertilization involved the fusion of the nuclei of sperm and egg
(5) The resulting zygote had the full chromosome complement.

Genetics in an Integrated Approach

 In 1900, Mendel’s results were independently replicated by three people: the Dutch
botanist Hugo de Vries, the Austrian Erich von Tschermak, and the German Carl
Correns. With modern science and many published citations, Mendel’s work was finally
appreciated.
 English biologist William Bateson read Mendel and became an enthusiastic advocate.
He translated Mendel’s work into English and dubbed the new field “genetics,” He also
introduced the terms allele, zygote, heterozygote, and homozygote.
 In 1904, he along with Reginald Punnett (who gave us the eponymous Punnet Square)
described genetic linkage.
 In his lab, Thomas Hunt Morgan from 1910 to 1914 firmly united the Mendelian and Early
Cell Biology lines of inquiry. Using fruit flies (Drosophila), Morgan and his collaborators
proposed that genes were linearly arranged on the chromosome, giving us the “beads on
a string” model of the genome. They also demonstrated sex linkage and identified the sex
chromosomes.
 Alfred Sturtevant produced the first genetic map. Because of Morgan’s contributions, the
unit of distance along chromosomes was called a Morgan and one hundredth of that unit
is a centiMorgan (cM).

Source: HGSS: History of Genetics. © 2010. Gregory Carey