A

Report
On
Contemporary Issues
Titled

“CONFLICT RESOLUTION AND NEGOTIATION SKILL”

Submitted By: - Submitted By:-

Neha Pokharna Miss. Nidhi Tak
Sem.-2nd
Department of Management Studies
Poornima School of Management
ISI-2 VI, RIICO Institutional Area, Sitapura
Jaipur (Rajasthan) 302022

Acknowledgement
I like the opportunity to offer my gratitude to all the people who directly or i
ndirectly help me in the successful completion of the project.
First of all, I would like to acknowledge Miss. Nidhi Tak Mam (Faculty) to guide
me in this project. I would also like to thanks to my all other faculty members
for their valuable support.
A deep sense of gratitude is owned to Mr. R.K. Aggarwal Sir (Advisor) who extend
ed his support & assistance throughout the year. Needless to say their knowledge
& experience had served as a continuous source of encouragement & motivation
I have express my sincere thanks to my project guide, Miss. Nidhi Tak Mam, for g
uiding me right from the inception till the successful completion of the project
. I sincerely acknowledge her for extending their valuable guidance, support for
literature, critical reviews of project and the report and above all the moral
support she had provided to me with all stages of this project.
Abstract

Conflict resolution and negotiation skills

It is a process of resolving or managing a dispute .Any conflicts that arise nee
ds to be attended at the right time for the welfare of the society as well as sm
ooth functioning of the organization. Negotiation is the cooperative process whe
reby participations try to find a solution of the involve parties.
Conflict can be at time within yourself, when you feel that you lack some of the
values that you always wanted to adopt. This conflicts which can be very distur
bing at times can also stake somebody’s life. the conflicts can be taken care of w
ith a self discipline strategy. It can be prevented and gradually resolved tactf
ully for a long run.
This concept is globally practiced in the organization to increase the efficienc
y of employees & effectively improve their work.
The methodology involved is choosing of the topic and then searching its seconda
ry data on internet and business related magazines and analysis of it.
Limitations that I faced are time crunch and unavailability of primary data.

Executive Summary
Conflict Resolution
Conflict is psychological state of mind when people are in dilemma whether to do
or not to do a thing, is a state of conflict. In organization, conflict may imp
ly difference of opinion with persons or groups and some time they manage to sho
w down and slow down other and plan strategies for that.
Conflict resolution practice has largely focused on conflict taking place in pub
lic, as if it was set on a theater stage with an audience watching the interacti
ons unfold. In reality, conflict plays out behind the scenes, unobserved by the
conflict analysts and system designers. Kolb and Bartunek, editors of Hidden Con
flict in Organizations, bring to light the dynamics of informal conflict resolut
ion.
Negotiation Skills
Negotiation is considered as a compromise to settle an argument or issue to bene
fit our self as much as possible. It is a process by which the parties or grou
ps resolve the matter of dispute by holding the discussions and an agreement whi
ch can be mutually agreed upon. It also refers to closing a business deal or bar
gaining on some product. It is an act of discussing an issue between two or more
parties with competing interest in order to reach an agreement.
The purpose to resolve a conflict in an organization at right time prevents the
employees from leaving the organization. It increases productivity and efficienc
y, create climate of trust among the employees. It serve as cementing force in g
roup and incredible unity it is witnessed even in a heterogeneous group at time
of tension.
Negotiation strategy mainly emphasises on friendly relationship and prevent disp
ute. It handles aggressive behaviour of the people and maintains relations betw
een them. All problems solved cooperatively through integrating or problem solvi
ng negotiation.
The scope of conflict resolution is very vast. It is practiced in globally in ev
ery organization. It is at personal level, national and even international level
. It is seen from shop floor to the top management in an organization.
Firstly in methodology the topic was selected for study then the relevant second
ary data is searched in various magazines, journals and news-paper. Internet has
provided right type of data. The concept of conflict resolution and negotiation
skills were observed in real life and their importance traced out. The secondar
y data is analyzed and a suitable conclusion has been drawn from it.
The limitation while making the report mainly was lack of time and unavailabilit
y of primary data because of that the study was less rational and as it was tota
lly dependent secondary data.
At the last the conclusion is that conflict are a part and a parcel of human lif
e. It is very important to resolve it from an organizational point of view, ther
efore manager should nature and causes of conflict and how various parties can b
e coordinated to make meaningful contribution.

Overview of the report is missing

Don’t put in headings, keep i in para
CONTENTS
1. Acknowledgements……………………………………….1
2. Executive Summary………………………………………2
3. Abstract…………………………………………………….3
4. Research and Methodology……………………………...5
a) Title of the study
b) Duration of project
c) Objective of study
d) Type of resources
e) Scope of study
f) Limitation of study
5. Core Study…………………………………………………8
6. SWOT Analysis……………………………………………45
7. Conclusion…………………………………………………48
8. Bibliography………………………………………………..49

Research and Methodology

Title of the project –
“Conflict Resolution & Negotiation skills”
“Duration of the study”- don’t put dates
This is a very long term project so we have been provided with a period of one m
onth for the completion. To make it easy this period was bifurcated into 5weeks
as follow:
Week 1: submission of blue print for studies (18-04-09)
Week 2: submission of abstract. And finalization of abstract (28-04-09)
Week 3: collection of secondary data (preliminary assessment) (11-05-09)
Week 4: selection and final compilation of secondary data (18-05-09)
Week 5: finalization of report (29-05-09)

Objective of Study
The study was based on some objectives which are as follows-
To study and explore the basic theory of conflict resolution.
To study the type and methods of resolving of conflict.
To know how the methods can be used in practical life.
The purpose to resolve a conflict in an organization at right time prevents the
employees from leaving the organization. It increases productivity and efficienc
y, create climate of trust among the employees. It serve as cementing force in g
roup and incredible unity it is witnessed even in a heterogeneous group at time
of tension.
Negotiation strategy mainly emphasises on friendly relationship and prevent disp
ute. It handles aggressive behaviour of the people and maintains relations betw
een them. All problems solved cooperatively through integrating or problem solvi
ng negotiation.
Types of Research:-
The Research which I completed is based on secondary data. It is descriptive in
nature.
Descriptive research is also called Statistical Research. The main goal of this
type of research is to describe the data and characteristics about what is being
studied. . Although this research is highly accurate, it does not gather the ca
uses behind a situation. Descriptive research is mainly done when a researcher w
ants to gain a better understanding of a topic for example, a frozen ready meals
company learns that there is a growing demand for fresh ready meals but doesn’t k
now much about the area of fresh food and so has to carry out research in order
to gain a better understanding. It is quantitative and uses surveys and panels a
nd also the use of probability sampling.
Descriptive research is the exploration of the existing certain phenomena. The d
etails of the facts won’t be known. The existing phenomena facts are not known to
the persons.
Through this project I understand many phenomena about many facts. I used many c
harts to understand about inflation to know the effects of recession.
Scope of Study
Since the topic ”conflict resolution and negotiation skills” is very wide and compre
hensive. The study has been practiced all over the world that is covering every
possible global aspect. This is used in personal level, organizational level etc
. In organization from shop floor to top management the strategy for conflict re
solution are used.
Limitations of the study
It is easy to find and collect secondary data. However, we need to aware of the
limitations the data may have and the problems that could arise if these limitat
ions are ignored.
Since we collected the secondary data which has many limitations such as
:
• Secondary data can be general and vague and may not really help companies with d
ecision making.
• The information and data may not be accurate. The source of the data must always
be checked.
• The data may be old and out of date.
Company publishing the data may not be reputable.

Core Study

Conflict
Conflict is defined as a process of hampering other’s effort by blockage, causing
is frustration. It is malfunction and traditionally. However modern view point i
s that the conflict can be both functional and dysfunctional. The general source
s of conflict are communication, structure and personal variables while its gene
ral causes may be various factors obtained in the parties and the situation. Con
flict has been classified as intrapersonal and organizational. The major types o
f intrapersonal conflict are frustration, role conflict and goal conflict. The o
rganization conflict is classified as institutional and emergent. In other way,
organizational conflict is also classified as formal and pseudo. It has been str
essed that management of a conflict is a managerial responsibility which must be
perfumed by using appropriate technique. Among the technique to manage conflict
are: Dominance, avoidance, smoothing, compromise, system restructuring altering
human variable and problem solving.
Conflict is when two or more values, perspectives and opinion are contradictory
in nature and have not been aligned or agreed upon yet. The conflict can be at t
imes within your, when you feel that you lack some of the values you that you al
ways wanted to adapt, or when some of your perspectives towards your job collide
s with that of the organization you work for. This conflict which can be very di
sturbing at time can also stake some body’s life. The conflict can be taken care o
f with a self disciplined strategy of your own. It can also be prevented and gra
dually resolved tactfully in the long run.
The manner in which this mind state is handled is called “managing”. So, the managem
ent of the conflict that surrounds you always is called “Conflict Management”. Confl
ict management can be termed as the methodology or the technique that is impleme
nted with the interest and goodwill of the parties involved. The conflict can at
times yield a positive result to the whole scenario, at same time there can be
negative aspect to the same issue and to take the matter to right direction is C
onflict Resolution.
Conflict occurs between people in all kinds of human relationships and in all so
cial settings. Because of the wide range of potential differences among people,
the absence of conflict usually signals the absence of meaningful interaction. C
onflict by itself is neither good nor bad. However, the manner in which conflict
is handled determines whether it is constructive or destructive (Deutsch & Cole
man, 2000). Conflict is defined as an incompatibility of goals or values between
two or more parties in a relationship, combined with attempts to control each o
ther and antagonistic feelings toward each other (Fisher, 1990). The incompatibi
lity or difference may exist in reality or may only be
Perceived by the parties involved. Nonetheless, the opposing actions and the hos
tile emotions are very real hallmarks of human conflict. Conflict has the potent
ial for either a great deal of destruction or much creativity and positive socia
l change (Kriesberg, 1998). Therefore, it is essential to understand the basic p
rocesses of conflict so that we can work to maximize productive outcomes and min
imize destructive ones. This paper will briefly describe some common sources of
conflict, the levels of social interaction at which conflict occurs, and the gen
eral strategies of approaching conflict that are available.
Understanding Conflict
Conflict is the “behavior of an individual, a group, or an organization which impe
des or restricts (at least temporarily) another party from attaining its desired
goals.
It may be defined as a sharp disagreement or a contradiction in interests and id
eas. Conflict becomes dysfunctional if it results in poor decision-making, lengt
hy delays over issues which do not importantly affect the outcome of the project
, or a disintegration of the team’s efforts.
A party to the conflict will be satisfied when the level of frustration has been
lowered to the point where no action against the other party is contemplated. W
hen all parties to the conflict are satisfied to this extent, the conflict is sa
id to be resolved.
Four Basic Categories of Conflict
• Intrapersonal [within a person]-
Incompatibilities within a person s cognitive-informational processing
system having to do with Goals, Actions, Outcomes.
• Interpersonal [between people]-
Incompatibilities between the GAO s of two, or a few, people
• Intragroup – [within a group]-
Incompatibilities between two or more people in a group concerning the
GAO s of the individuals, and those of the group. It can also be an incompatibi
lity between the GAO of an individual and those of a group.
• Intergroup – [between groups]-
Incompatibilities between various members whose GAO s are incompatible
with each other, but are consistent with those of their respective groups.
Sources of Conflict:
Early reviews in the field of conflict resolution identified a large number of s
chemes for
Describing sources or types of conflict. One of the early theorists on conflict,
Daniel Katz (1965), created a typology that distinguishes three main sources of
conflict: economic, value, and power.
1. Economic conflict –
Involves competing motives to attain scarce resources. Each party wants to get t
he most that it can, and the behavior and emotions of each party are directed to
ward maximizing its gain. Union and management conflict often has as one of its
sources the incompatible goals of how to slice up the “economic pie”.

2. Value conflict
Values conflict involves incompatibility in ways of life, ideologies – the pr
eferences, principles and practices that people believe in. International confli
ct (e.g., the Cold War) often has a strong value component, wherein each side as
serts the rightness and superiority of its way of life and its political-economi
c system.
3. Power conflict
Power conflict occurs when each party wishes to maintain or maximize the amount
of influence that it exerts in the relationship and the social setting. It is im
possible for one party to be stronger without the other being weaker, at least i
n terms of direct influence over each other. Thus, a power struggle ensues which
usually ends in a victory and defeat, or in a “stand-off” with a continuing state o
f tension. Power conflicts can occur between individuals, between groups or betw
een nations, whenever one or both parties choose to take a power approach to the
relationship. Power also enters into all conflict since the parties are attempt
ing to control each other.
It must be noted that most conflicts are not of a pure type, but involve a mixtu
re of sources. For example, union-management conflict typically involves economi
c competition, but may also take the form of a power struggle and often involves
different ideologies or political values. The more sources that are involved, t
he more intense and intractable the conflict usually is. Another important sourc
e of conflict is ineffective communication. Miscommunication and misunderstandin
g can create conflict even where there are no basic incompatibilities. In additi
on, parties may have different perceptions as to what are the facts in a situati
on, and until they share information and clarify their perceptions, resolution i
s impossible. Self-centeredness, selective perception, emotional bias, prejudice
s, etc., are all forces that lead us to perceive situations very differently fro
m the other party. Lack of skill in communicating what we really mean in a clear
and respectful fashion often results in confusion, hurt and anger, all of which
simply feed the conflict process. Whether the conflict has objective sources or
is due only to perceptual or communication problems, it is experienced as very
real by the parties involved.
Escalation of Conflict:
A final source of conflict is more additional than basic, that is, it comes in a
fter the conflict has started. Conflicts have a definite tendency to escalate, i
.e., to become more intense and hostile, and to develop more issues, i.e., what
the parties say the conflict is about. Therefore, escalating conflicts become mo
re difficult to manage. The process of escalation feeds on fear and defensivenes
s. Threat leads to counter threat, usually with higher stakes at each go-round.
Selective and distorted perception justifies a competitive and cautious approach
as opposed to a trusting and cooperative one. Through Deutsch’s crude law of soci
al relations (1973), competition breeds competition, rather than cooperation. Th
e self-fulfilling prophecy comes into play. Each party believes in the evil inte
ntions of the other and the inevitability of disagreement, and therefore takes p
recautionary actions which signal mistrust and competitiveness. When the other p
arty then responds with a counteraction, this is perceived as justifying the ini
tial precautionary measure, and a new spiral of action and counteraction begins.
Through the norm of reciprocity, stronger attempts to control are met not only
with stronger resistance, but more contentious attempts to gain the upper hand.
With each succeeding spiral of conflict, polarization grows and the parties beco
me more adamant and intransigent in their approach to the situation. Even though
the intensity of the conflict may moderate for periods of time, the issues rema
in, and a triggering event induces conflictual behavior with negative consequen
ces, and the conflict has moved one more step up the escalation staircase. When
parties become “locked in” to a conflict they are usually unable to get out by thems
elves, and the intervention of a third party in the role of arbitrator, mediator
or consultant may be required.

Type of Conflict
1. Individual level Conflict
2. Group Level Conflict
3. Organizational Conflict

1. Individual level Conflict

Human behavior is need motivated. A person joins any organization basically to s
atisfy varying needs. He faces a conflict within himself when he perceives that
organization is not satisfying his needs in accordance with his perceived standa
rds. In the words of Keith Davis, “organization is the system of medieval which su
ppress and subjugate their victim individual. He lives in helpless conformity, s
tripped challenge for psychological fulfillment. Individual level conflict can b
e divided into two categories
a) Intra-individual conflicts
b) Inter-individual Conflicts
A) Intra-individual conflict:-
It arises within a person and are of psychological nature, the natu
re remains conflict-ridden, but he fails to perceive it. However, they may be la
tent or overt. Such conflicts are generally related to the goals of a person wan
ts to achieve or roles in the manner he wants to achieve. Hence, intra-individua
l conflict are of three type
i) Conflict due to frustration
ii) Goal Conflict
iii) Role Conflict
Conflict due to frustration-
It occurs when motivated drive is blocked. Before a person reaches its desired
goal. It can useful in behavioral analysis and specific aspect of on-the-job beh
avior. Theft of company property and even violence on the job may be a form of a
n aggressive outcome to job frustration.
Goal Conflict
Another common source of conflict for an individual that has both negative and p
ositive features, and two or more competing goals, for ease of analysis three se
parate type of Goal conflict is generally identified.
Approach-Approach Conflict
Approach Avoidance Conflict
Avoidance- Avoidance Conflict
Role Conflict
When expectation of a role are materially different or opposite from the behavio
r anticipated by the individual in that role, he tends to in role conflict becau
se there is no way to meet one expectation without rejecting the other.
There may be Four type of role conflicts.
Intra sender role conflict
Inter sender role conflict
Inter role conflict
Role Self Conflict

B) Inter-Individual (Personnel) Conflict

It arises between two individual having competition for achieving scarce thing,
such as power, status, position, promotion or resources or they may pick up conf
lict due their divergent opinions, attitude or values.This Disagreement may aris
e due to variety of reasons.

2. Group Level Conflict

Conflicts may occur at group level. A group constitutes two or more persons who
interacts in such a way that each person influence and is influenced by others.
Group exists in every organization and they affect the behavior of their members
. They not only affect the behavior of their members rather they have impact on
other groups also and organization as whole. This interaction between group itse
lf and within the groups due to behavior of people and influence used by them re
sult in group level conflict.
It can be broadly classified into two categories as per following
3. Organizational Conflict
In an organizational situation conflict may manifest itself in a number of diffe
rent methods. Such conflict may be within the organization itself . Intra-organi
zation conflicts may be again in various forms, for example, at individual level
and at group level. Since , these are all parts of the organization , the confl
ict among them are of much concern to the organization.
Intra-Organization Conflict –
The reasons of conflict in an organization are many but mainly thre
e kinds of internal strains can be identified.
A. Horizontal Conflict -
It refers to conflict between employees or department at the same hierarchical l
evel in an organization. The source of conflict between department consists of p
ressures towards sub-optimization. Each department may sub-optimize by independe
ntly trying to achieve its own department’s goals,
B. Vertical Conflict :-
It separate people in various level of the occupational ladders in organization.
It refers to any conflict between different levels in an organization. It occur
s usually in superior-subordinate relations.
C. Line and Staff Conflict :-
Controversy and conflict are inherent in the concept of line and staff. It is no
t an easy task to divide and distribute expertise, authority and roles in equita
ble quantities between the line generalists and staff specialists.
The concept authorizes the splitting of various function in two categories
1) Hierarchical 2) Non- Hierarchical.
• Inter-Organization Conflict :-
Inter organization interaction results in conflict among different organizations
. However, it is necessary that such interaction may result in conflict.
Inter-Organizational Conflict may include
i) Conflict between organization pursuing similar objective.
ii) Conflict between government agency and organization.
iii) Conflict between head office and manufacturing unit.
The Circle of Conflict
Author Gary T. Furlong provides one of the most comprehensive sources for
conflict resolution models in his book The Conflict Resolution Toolbox: Models &
Maps for Analyzing, Diagnosing, and Resolving Conflict. The Circle of Conflict
is a model offered by Furlong and focuses on the various causes, or drivers, of
conflict. According to this model, the six most common drivers of conflict are
:
• Values—one’s belief systems, ideas of right versus wrong, etc.
• Relationships—stereotypes, poor or failed communications, repetitive negative beha
viors, etc.
• Externals/Moods—factors unrelated to the conflict, psychological or physiological
issues of parties in conflict
• Data—lack of information, misinformation, too much information, data collection pr
oblems
• Interests—each party’s wants, needs, desires, fears, or concerns
• Structure—limitations on resources like time and money, geographical constraints,
organizational structure, authority issues (Furlong 30)

Furlong’s Circle of Conflict resembles a pie graph divided into six equal parts in
which values, relationships, and externals/moods drivers appear in the top half
and data, interests, and structure drivers appear in the bottom half of the gra
ph (see figure below). The main premise of this model is that conflict can be m
ore easily resolved if discussions are focused on drivers in the bottom half of
the circle (data, interests, and structure). According to Furlong, concentratin
g on these drivers—things over which parties have some control—offers a more direct
path toward managing the dispute.
Furlong contends that when conflicting parties allow their discussion to stray
into drivers in the top half of the circle (values, relationships, and externals
/moods), conflict will likely escalate. Because these drivers represent areas t
hat are not generally within a party’s control, it is best to avoid them. Changin
g another’s perceptions of perceived past wrongs or dealing with external issues w
ould make any disagreement worsen. Conversely, individuals in conflict can work
together to change data problems, allay another’s fears, and overcome geographica
l constraints. These drivers are in the bottom portion of the circle of conflic
t, where, according to Furlong, most of the real resolution work should focus.
The Conflict Resolution Model
Patrick Lencioni presents conflict resolution model. Lencioni’s model is a serie
s of concentric circles centered around a point of conflict.
This model proposes four different types of obstacles that prevent issues from b
eing resolved. According to Lencioni, the obstacles closest to the center of th
e model—i.e., the issue—are the easiest barriers to overcome, with obstacles becomin
g increasingly more difficult to overcome as one moves outward from the center o
f the model. These barriers include:

Informational obstacles (circle closest to the issue or conflict)—the easiest issu

es for most people to discuss; individuals must exchange information, facts, opi
nions, and perspectives if they want to move toward resolution.
Environmental obstacles (the next circle out)—the atmosphere in which the conflict
is taking place; the physical space, office politics, individual moods, and com
pany culture can all have an effect on the resolution process.
Relationship obstacles (the next circle out)—issues between the people involved in
the conflict; prior unresolved legacies or events among the parties, their repu
tation, or even position in the organization may affect how people work through
conflict.
Individual obstacles (the outermost circle)—issues that are specific to each perso
n in the conflict; individual experiences, IQ, EQ, knowledge, self-esteem, and e
ven values and motives all play a part in causing and eventually resolving confl
ict
Lencioni explains that the key to this model is to understand that these obstacl
es exist during discussions. When a conflict arises because of a particular obs
tacle, the group should consider the model to decide whether to address the issu
e. Lencioni contends that if parties choose not to address and resolve an issue
, they should agree not to let it affect their ability to resolve the larger con
flict.
Lencioni also states that obstacles at the outside of the circle are more
difficult to resolve, largely because they involve personalities and other issue
s that are not easy to change. In this way, this conflict resolution model rese
mbles Furlong’s Circle of Conflict model as they both reveal hot-button issues man
agers should avoid when attempting to resolve conflict. Certainly, the issues t
oward the outside of the circle in Lencioni’s model and those in the top half of F
urlong’s model are the most challenging. Parties that are able to talk about thes
e types of issues must trust each other because doing so involves some type of p
ersonal risk.
Clearly, the methods available to resolve conflicts are numerous. There is cert
ainly no right or wrong way to solve a problem. What is right for one conflict
may be wrong for another; it all depends on the situation and variables involved
.
The two conflict resolution models presented here illustrate that conflict most
often happens when the emphasis is on differences between people. In their book
Dealing With People You Can’t Stand, authors Dr. Rick Brinkman and Dr. Rick Kirsc
hner cleverly describe it this way, “United we stand, divided we can’t stand each ot
her”. In short, when people concentrate on what they have in common with one anot
her instead of their differences, relationships run smoothly and conflict is sig
nificantly minimized.
Levels of Conflict:
Conflict can occur at a number of levels of human functioning. Conflict in your
head between opposing motives or ideas is shown by your “internal dialogue” and is a
t the intrapersonal level. Beyond that, the primary concern here is with social
conflict, i.e., conflict between people whether they are acting as individuals,
as members of groups, or as representatives of organizations or nations.
1. Interpersonal conflict
It occurs when two people have incompatible needs, goals, or approaches in their
relationship. Communication breakdown is often an important source of interpers
onal conflict and learning communication skills is valuable in preventing and re
solving such difficulties. At the same time, very real differences occur between
people that cannot be resolved by any amount of improved communication. “Personal
ity conflict” refers to very strong differences in motives, values or styles in de
aling with people that are not resolvable. For example, if both parties in a rel
ationship have a high need for power and both want to be dominant in the relatio
nship, there is no way for both to be satisfied, and a power struggle ensues. Co
mmon tactics used in interpersonal power struggles include the exaggerated use o
f rewards and punishments, deception and evasion, threats and emotional blackmai
l, and flattery or ingratiation. Unresolved power conflict usually recycles and
escalates to the point of relationship breakdown and termination.
2. Role conflict
It involves very real differences in role definitions, expectations or responsib
ilities between individuals who are interdependent in a social system. If there
are ambiguities in role definitions in an organization or unclear boundaries of
responsibilities, then the stage is set for interpersonal friction between the p
ersons involved. Unfortunately, the conflict is often misdiagnosed as interperso
nal conflict rather than role conflict, and resolution is then complicated and m
isdirected. The emotional intensity is often quite high in role conflict since p
eople are directly involved as individuals and there is a strong tendency to per
sonalize the conflict.
3. Intergroup conflict
It occurs between collections of people such as ethnic or racial groups ,departm
ents or levels of decision making in the same organization, and union and manage
ment. Competition for scarce resources is a common source of intergroup conflict
, and societies have developed numerous regulatory mechanisms, such as collectiv
e bargaining and mediation, for dealing with intergroup conflict in less disrupt
ive ways. Social-psychological processes are very important in intergroup confli
ct (Fisher, 1990). Group members tend to develop stereotypes (oversimplified neg
ative beliefs) of the opposing group, tend to blame them for their own problems
(scapegoating), and practice discrimination against them. These classic symptoms
of intergroup conflict can be just as evident in organizations as in race relat
ions in community settings. Intergroup conflict is especially tense and prone to
escalation and intractability when group identities are threatened. The costs o
f destructive intergroup conflict can be extremely high for a society in both ec
onomic and social terms.
4. Multi-Party Conflict
It occurs in societies when different interest groups and organizations have var
ying priorities over resource management and policy development. These complex c
onflicts typically involve a combination of economic, value and power sources. T
his complexity is often beyond the reach of traditional authoritative or adversa
rial procedures, and more collaborative approaches to building consensus are req
uired for resolution.
5. International conflict
It occurs between states at the global level. Competition for resources certainl
y plays a part, but value and power conflict are often intertwined and sometimes
predominate. The differences are articulated through the channels of diplomacy
in a constant game of give and take, or threat and counter threat, sometimes for
the highest of stakes. Mechanisms of propaganda can lead to many of the same so
cial-psychological distortions that characterize interpersonal and intergroup co
nflict.
Methods of Conflict Resolution:
Regardless of the level of conflict, there are differing approaches to deal with
the incompatibilities that exist. Conflict can result in destructive outcomes o
r creative ones depending on the approach that is taken. If we can manage confli
ct creatively, we can often find new solutions that are mutually satisfactory to
both parties. Sometimes this will involve a distribution of resources or power
that is more equitable than before, or in creating a larger pool of resources or
forms of influence than before. Creative outcomes are more probable when the pa
rties are interdependent, i.e., each having some degree of independence and auto
nomy from which to influence the other, rather than one party being primarily de
pendent on the other. Given interdependence, three general strategies have been
identified that the parties may take toward dealing with their conflict; win-los
e, lose-lose, and win-win.
Win-Lose Approach
The win-lose approach is all too common. People learn the behaviors of destruct
ive conflict early in life – competition, dominance, aggression and defense permea
te many of our social relationships from the family to the school playground. Th
e “fixed pie” assumption is made, often incorrectly, that what one party gains, the
other loses. The strategy is thus to force the other side to capitulate. Sometim
es, this is done through socially acceptable mechanisms such as majority vote, t
he authority of the leader, or the determination of a judge. Sometimes, it invol
ves secret strategies, threat, innuendo – whatever works is acceptable, i.e., the
ends justify the means. There is often a strong we-they distinction accompanied
by the classic symptoms of intergroup conflict. The valued outcome is to have a
victor who is superior, and a vanquished who withdraws in shame, but who prepare
s very carefully for the next round. In the long run, everyone loses.
Lose- Lose Strategy
The lose-lose strategy is exemplified by smoothing over conflict or by reaching
the simplest of compromises. In neither case is the creative potential of produc
tive conflict resolution realized or explored. Disagreement is seen as inevitabl
e, so therefore why not split the difference or smooth over difficulties in as p
ainless a way as possible? Sometimes, this is indeed the reality of the situatio
n, and the costs are less than in the win-lose approach, at least for the loser.
Each party gets some of what it wants, and resigns itself to partial satisfacti
on. Neither side is aware that by confronting the conflict fully and cooperative
ly they might have created a more satisfying solution. Or the parties may realis
tically use this approach to divide limited resources or to forestall a win-lose
escalation and outcome.
Win-Win Approach
The win-win approach is a conscious and systematic attempt to maximize the goals
of both parties through collaborative problem solving. The conflict is seen as
a problem to be solved rather than a war to be won. The important distinction is
we (both parties) versus the problem, rather than we (one party) versus they (t
he other party). This method focuses on the needs and constraints of both partie
s rather than emphasizing strategies designed to conquer. Full problem definitio
n and analysis and development of alternatives precedes consensus decisions on m
utually agreeable solutions. The parties work toward common and superordinate go
als, i.e., ones that can only be attained by both parties pulling together. Ther
e is an emphasis on the quality of the long term relationships between the parti
es, rather than short term accommodations. Communication is open and direct rath
er than secretive and calculating. Threat and coercion are proscribed. The assum
ption is made that integrative agreements are possible given the full range of r
esources existing in the relationship. Attitudes and behaviors are directed towa
rd an increase of trust and acceptance rather than an escalation of suspicion an
d hostility. The win-win approach requires a very high degree of patience and sk
ill in human relations and problem solving.

Resolution Strategies
Gather new information: To process new information that helps an individual or g
roup modify their incompatible Goals, Actions, and/or Outcomes, or perceptions o
f them. (Upon gaining new information, people in conflict may realize that they
are not in conflict after all, or need not be.)
Therapy: To engage the services of a trained professional to help an individual
or group understand their GAO s.
Fight: To win by imposing one s point of view at the expense of the other disput
ant s.
Flight: To lose by strategically opting out of the conflict because the calculat
ed risks of fight (or other strategies) are too high.
Avoidance: To postpone until a later time dealing with the conflict in anticipat
ion of some type of resolution which is not eminently available.
Negotiation: Disputants discuss in a rather formal way, the incompatible GAO s b
etween two individuals or groups with the express intent of understanding each o
ther s viewpoints, and reaching a win-win solution. Negotiation is like Mediatio
n without the 3rd party. Communication is key in this method.
Mediation: When a neutral third party facilitates the negotiation process so tha
t power, articulation and knowledge differences are neutralized. There are four
main types of meditation (see next section).
Arbitration: When a neutral third party directs the negotiation process and rend
ers a "fair" solution to the conflict. (This sort of directive strategy is often
used by teachers.)
Litigation: When the disputants empower the justice system to render a solution
to their conflicts. Most of the time, the system is so complicated that each dis
putant must engage an attorney to represent his/her side of the conflict. Most c
onflicts are resolved by negotiation between the attorneys; only about 5% of cas
es are left to a judge or jury to decide.
Eight Steps for Conflict Resolution
Step 1:
 Know thyself and take care of thyself
Understand your perceptual filters, biases, and triggers
Create a personally affirming environment (eat, sleep, exercise)
Step 2:
Clarify personal needs threatened by a dispute
Substantive, procedural and psychological needs
Look at BATNA, WATNA, and MLANTA
BATNA: Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement
WATNA: Worst Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement
MLANTA: Most Likely Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement
Identify desired outcomes from a negotiated process
Step 3:
Identify a safe place for negotiation
Appropriate place for discussion/private and neutral
Mutual consent to negotiate/appropriate time
Role of support people (facilitators, mediators, advocates), as needed
Agreement to ground rules
Examples of Ground Rules
1) One person speaks at a time.
2) We will make a sincere commitment to listen to one another, to try to underst
and the other person s point of view before responding
.
3) What we discuss together will be kept in confidence, unless there is explicit
agreement regarding who needs to know further information.
4) We agree to talk directly with the person with whom there are concerns, and n
ot seek to involve others in "gossip" or "alliance building."
5) We agree to try our hardest and trust that others are doing the same within t
he group.
6) We will support the expression of dissent in a harassment free workplace.
7) We agree to attack the issues, not the people with whom
Step 4:
Take a listening stance into the interaction
Seek first to understand, then to be understood
Use active listening skills:
Take a breath
Remove distractions as much as possible
Sit or face the other person directly with an open posture
Focus on listening as your first priority
Step 5:
Assert your needs clearly and specifically
Use “I” messages as tools for clarification
Build from what you have heard – continue to listen well
Remain open
Remain flexible
Step 6:
Approach problem-solving with flexibility
Identify issues clearly and concisely
Brainstorm – or generate options – while deferring judgment
Be open to problem definitions
Clarify criteria for decision-making
Step 7:
Manage an impasse calmly, patiently and respectfully
Clarify feelings
Focus on underlying needs, interests and concerns
Caucus, if appropriate
Step 8:
 Build an agreement that works
Is the agreement fair? Balanced? Realistic?
Implement and evaluate
Types of Mediation
Facilitative:
In this first and most basic style of mediation, the "mediator structures a pro
cess to assist the parties in reaching a mutually agreeable resolution. The medi
ator asks questions; validates and normalizes parties points of view; searches
for interests underneath the positions taken by parties; and assists the parties
in finding and analyzing options for resolution. The mediator does not make rec
ommendations to the parties, give his or her own advice or opinion as to the out
come of the case, or predict what a court would do in the case. The mediator is
in charge of the process, while the parties are in charge of the outcome." Facil
itative mediation was the only style that existed in the 1960’s and 70’s.
Evaluative:
In Evaluative Mediation, the mediator plays a much more direct role in the outc
ome of the dispute. Generally used in legal situations, evaluative mediators mee
t with parties separately and assist them in reaching a resolution by pointing o
ut the weaknesses of their cases, predicting what a judge or jury would be likel
y to do, and making recommendations to the parties as to the outcome of the issu
es. Evaluative mediators are concerned with the legal rights of the parties rath
er than their needs and interests, and evaluate based on legal concepts of fairn
ess. Evaluative mediation was developed in the 1980’s as a result of the increased
number of court-ordered and court-referenced mediations.
Transformative:
The transformative mediator uses the modes of the facilitative style but structu
res the mediation so that disputants recognize each other’s needs, interests, valu
es, and points of view, in order to reach a mutually agreed upon resolution. By
taking responsibility for their disputes and the resolutions, the two parties ca
n transform their relationship and leave the mediation feeling their voices have
been heard, understood, and respected. An over-reaching goal is a “long-lasting c
hange in how the disputants approach and deal with conflict” (Foster). The mediato
r attempts to remain impartial throughout the proceedings, attempting to bring “em
powerment and recognition to the resolution process, not opinions or advice” (Fost
er). Transformative mediation is a product of the mid 1990’s. When done well, tran
sformative mediation is often the most productive method in schools.
Narrative:
More of a mediation technique within Facilitative or Transformative Mediation th
an a fully formed mediation style, Narrative Mediation uses storytelling to get
disputants to view the conflict from a distance and imagine what it would be lik
e if the conflict was not an issue between them. The parties then work with the
mediator to turn this story into a contract and/or a reality.
Wisdom On Conflict Resolution
“Conflict is a collision occurring between teacher and student where their behavio
rs interfere with each other’s attainment of their own needs, and thus both partie
s own the problem." - Thomas Gordon, creator of Teacher Effectiveness Training (
T.E.T.), as quoted in Wolfgang "Communicating is a process whereby each party un
derstands what the other has to say and formulates responsive messages in a way
to create further understanding".
"There are some interpersonal conflicts you really need to win, by fighting if n
ecessary, and there are some you really need to lose."
Mediation is a voluntary and confidential process in which a neutral third-party
facilitator helps people discuss difficult issues and negotiate an agreement. B
asic steps in the process include gathering information, framing the issues, dev
eloping options, negotiating, and formalizing agreements. Parties in mediation c
reate their own solutions and the mediator does not have any decision-making pow
er over the outcome.
Arbitration is a process in which a third-party neutral, after reviewing eviden
ce and listening to arguments from both sides, issues a decision to settle the c
ase. Arbitration is often used in commercial and labor/management disputes.
Mediation-Arbitration is a hybrid that combines both of the above processes. Pr
ior to the session, the disputing parties agree to try mediation first, but give
the neutral third party the authority to make a decision if mediation is not su
ccessful.
Early Neutral Evaluation involves using a court-appointed attorney to review a
case before it goes to trial. The attorney reviews the merits of the case and en
courages the parties to attempt resolution. If there is no resolution, the attor
ney informs the disputants about how to proceed with litigation and gives an opi
nion on the likely outcome if the case goes to trial.
Community Conferencing is a structured conversation involving all members of a
community (offenders, victims, family, friends, etc.) who have been affected by
a dispute or a crime. Using a script, the facilitator invites people to express
how they were affected and how they wish to address and repair the harm that res
ulted.
Negotiated Rulemaking is a collaborative process in which government agencies s
eek input from a variety of stakeholders before issuing a new rule.
Peer Mediation refers to a process in which young people act as mediators to he
lp resolve disputes among their peers. The student mediators are trained and sup
ervised by a teacher or other adult.
Types of Disputes that Can Be Addressed Through Conflict Resolution
Conflict resolution can be used to help resolve almost any type of dispute. Fami
ly mediators, for example, help people with divorce, custody issues, parent-chil
d or sibling conflicts, elder care issues, family business concerns, adoption, p
remarital agreements, neighbor disputes, etc. Other types of conflicts that resp
ond well to alternative dispute resolution include workplace disputes, labor/man
agement issues, environmental/public lkpolicy issues, health care disputes, inte
rnational conflicts, and many others.
Negotiation
A city wants to annex a nearby subdivision with known water quality problems tha
t potentially threaten the public water supply. Residents want safe and dependab
le water, but are concerned about the cost of hooking up to sewer and water serv
ices. City officials and residents bargain to determine how connection costs wil
l be shared and homeowner financing will be structured. This is a relatively com
mon situation in many communities — two groups with related but differing nterests
,and the need to act. Finding a solution acceptable to both sides is what negoti
ation is about. Negotiation is part compromise, part new solution, and part mutu
al agreement. It is a blending of perspectives to come up with an answer accepta
ble to everyone involved. It involves
finding a way each party can win. The bottom line to finding compromise is struc
turing an agreement acceptable to all parties. The process of getting there, how
ever, can be difficult. Individuals who help secure such agreements can exhibit
considerable skill and understanding of human motivation and behavior. Indeed, s
eemingly irreconcilable differences can be bridged when the parties sincerely wa
nt to do so, and someone can help them find common ground. While few local offic
ials may have inclination to assert themselves as expert negotiators, the skills
involved are used in many situations. Understanding a few of the principles emp
loyed by professional negotiators may help resolve some of the ordinary confli
cts common to local government.
`
A Foundation and Building Blocks for Negotiating
Trust is a significant factor to successful negotiation. A sense of trust determ
ines how much risk individuals are willing to take with one another. Trust is bu
ilt over time, based on the reputation an individual or group. Once lost, trust
is difficult to regain. Being reliable, making intentions clear, and following
through on commitments are more important to reaching agreement than whether gro
ups agree with one another’s positions. This sense of trust become the foundation
for the willingness to enter into a collaborative process. The negotiation proce
ss is as important as the outcomes achieved. How an agreement was accomplished w
ill be remembered by participants long after the agreement. Whether people feel
good about the outcome will depend on their perceptions of how meetings were co
nducted, if trust was established, if interests were combined, and how individua
ls were made to feel respected, involved, and heard. Thus, attention to the proc
ess is critical to successful negotiation. Negotiation facilitators and particip
ants can do a number of things to enhance the process and make a solution
more likely. They can:
be conscious of the difference between a person’s interest, or the general goals
being sought, and a person’s position, or their stated solution;
be creative in seeking solutions, as one idea may stimulate others;
be fair in conducting the process, conceding points or seeking external
corroboration of information when needed.
be prepared before committing to an agreement.
be an active listener, focusing on the meaning of others’ words.
be aware of the relative priorities of relationships between participants.
be clear about the alternatives to a negotiated agreementas the option that migh
t be improved through
Approach and Style for Negotiation Process
A negotiating stance is the approach or style to be taken in the negotiating pro
cess. Choice of the negotiating stance is frequently determined by the desired o
utcome, whether it is compromise, win-at-all-costs, or forging solutions to maxi
mize all participants’ benefits. Each stance has strengths. It may be appropriate
to use different stances in different situations, or even to change as the nego
tiation proceeds. When stakeholders have vastly different stances, a mediator ma
y be needed. Following are several common negotiating stances.
Collaboration:
Everyone involved is an equal participant, and the focus is on maximizing everyo
ne’s benefit. This approach typically requires a good deal of time and effort, but
the outcomes are usually durable, given that all participants had at least some
of their interests incorporated into the outcome. Collaboration is used when pa
rticipants have a mutual respect for one another, and the desire is to maintain
amicable long-term relationships.

Compromise:
Participants in a compromise situation remain equal, but it is expected that eve
ryone will have to give up some aspects of their desired outcomes. Compromise us
ually achieves a temporary solution and avoids long-term damage to relationships
. A compromise can be achieved without a prolonged process. Here, we make note o
f the important distinction between compromise of one’s principles versus compromi
se on a choice or a course of action.
Competition:
While everyone remains an equal participant in the process, the emphasis here is
to maximizeindividual gain without concern for the collective whole. Some may c
ome out winners and others losers. Competition is frequently used when basic rig
hts are at stake or where precedents are to be set. The emphasis is on winning.
Accommodation:
Participants in an accommodating situation are no longer equal. Some participant
s may have a greater stake in the issue, leading to some sort of concession. A c
oncession can be viewed as goodwill or a sign of weakness if used too frequently
. It can also indicate a lack of interest or preparedness related to an issue.
Avoidance:
When an issue is of little concern to some parties or other issues are more pres
sing, the situation may be avoided entirely. This usually leads to a “lose-lose” out
come or decisions by default. Conversely, avoidance can be used to gain time to
obtain needed information or diffuse tensions at times when little constructive
discussion is likely to occur. In this case, setting a time and date to resume d
iscussions can be helpful.

Strategies of Successful Negotiation

A negotiation process usually follows this general format. All parties:
• share their interests and positions.
• brainstorm ideas for potential solutions.
• evaluate the ideas in the context of the broadest range of interests.
• discuss the ideas and trade aspects of the positions in order to make the idea w
ork.
• state a solution.
• evaluate the solution for feasibility, legality, cost and practicality.
• use a decision-making process, such as voting or consensus, to come to agreement
on the solution.
• return to the discussion if the solution is not accepted.
• put the solution in writing and sign it, once it is found.
• prepare for implementation.
The process sounds straightforward enough, but getting to the solution can be a
challenge. The objective of each participant is to get as much of their position
accepted as possible.
Following are some of the ideas negotiators use when bargaining a position. Good
facilitators of a negotiation also will be aware of these techniques and actual
ly encourage them to get closer to agreement.
Be sincere, upbeat, enthusiastic.
Give the impression from the start that this is a welcome opportunity to work to
gether as collaborators in
resolving an important issue, not as adversaries. Exude confidence that a soluti
on will be found.
Look for corollary advantages as the process progresses.
As the interests of various participants are more fully examined, unexpected adv
antages to your position are likely to emerge. Be aware of this possibility and
be prepared to reconsider a position, calling “time out” if necessary to more fully
evaluate developments or to communicate with outside partners.
Be willing to engage in trading.
When asked for a concession, routinely ask for one in return. This can have mult
iple beneficial effects. It can improve your overall position in getting your in
terests met. The concession you are giving increases in importance. If it wasn’t i
mportant why would you ask for something in return? Finally, it shows that you t
ake trading seriously.
Don’t diminish your interests by selling short.
Assert to the other participants that there are many advantages to accepting you
r perspective on the issue. All of the potential advantages you offer can be tre
ated as bargaining chips to be asserted at the right time. The right time is tha
t point when the chip can have greatest effect in turning the discussion back to
the place you want it to be. Far from manipulative, it is smart negotiation.
Before an agreement is concluded, it is common to get concessions or add to your
interests as the negotiations progress, even if these were items initially reje
cted.
Don’t be afraid to suggest that certain issues be revisited. Connect the suggestio
n to something more you
can bring into the discussion. Be willing to relent, but don’t be afraid to push
a bit. Seeking “add-backs” is common and frequently successful.
Be careful about agreeing to the first proposal on the table.
Experienced negotiators will often send up a “trial balloon” to get a sense of the o
ther participants. It helps them to assess how others are likely to react to fut
ure proposals. A good negotiator will use this information to gauge what others
are willing to buy into, where there was hesitation, or where others’ sticking poi
nts lie. This helps them to craft more serious proposals later and provides cruc
ial information about timing. By agreeing too quickly, others’ suspicions will be
aroused or they will assume they should have held out for more.
Be aware of, and use body language effectively.
Visual expression is one of the most powerful means of communication. When a pro
posal is made or a concession suggested, react visually to reinforce your stance
. Without being theatrical or condescending, a raised eyebrow, a small gasp, or
a slap of your cheek can communicate much more than words. Don’t roll your eyes; t
hat would be a condescending gesture. Shaking or a nodding your head, leaning fo
rward to listen, or asking for clarification shows your interest and involvement
. These types of gestures can convey an image of involvement, concern, and empat
hy, all of which will make others more favorably disposed to your views.
Be aware of your own vulnerabilities.
Don’t make decisions when tired, preoccupied, hurried, or if you don’t fully underst
and all implications.
Having to come back later is better than committing to something out of haste or
fatigue. Reneging on an agreement will be much worse than slowing the flow of t
he process.
Have a last-minute concession prepared in the event the process stalls as it nea
rs
completion because of the other party’s need to save face.
Sometimes the discussion can reach an impasse because one party realizes their p
referred outcome is not
going to happen. Sometimes pride or embarrassment gets in the way when a person
realizes he or she has to concede. These are natural emotions, and a good negoti
ator can overcome this by having a concession ready. Even a small concession can
break the impasse and get the discussion moving forward. The timing of the conc
ession is key. At the point of heightened tension or pending collapse, even a sm
all concession will appear to be a major breakthrough.
Know your best and worst alternative solutions well enough to know when it is
Time to leave the negotiating table.
There may be a point where your interests are not being met. Participation in ne
gotiation is voluntary, and
nothing prevents a person from walking away. In fact, the gesture of leaving can
cause others to rethink their positions. Do not do this as an empty gesture. Do
so because your interests are not being met, and let the others know. For great
est effect, this should be done matter-of-factly and not in a fit of anger.
Once an agreement is reached, get it in writing, making it a document that all i
nvolved will sign.
An agreement may be made in theory, but until it is in writing and signed by all
parties it is not final. A signature indicates a commitment to implement a solu
tion, or at least not stand in the way. Any required follow-up or other future d
iscussions also should be part of the agreement.
Do not make a commitment to begin or implement a solution until the agreement ha
s been signed.
Only a signed agreement, specifying the final solution and the responsibilities
of all parties, is a mandate for action.
Conflict And Negotiation
Negotiation is generally defined as "a communication process we use to reach an
agreement or resolve conflict". For many years, the attention of conflict resear
chers and theoretists was directed to the laudable objective of conflict resolut
ion. The gradual shift over the last years form a focus on resolution to a focus
on settlement has had an important implication for the conflict field. It has i
ncreased the importance of understanding negotiation, which id a method of settl
ing conflict rather than resolving it. The focus is not attitude change but an a
greement to change behavior in ways that make settlement possible. The shift in
favour of techniques of conflict settlement has involved the interest and attent
ion of practitioners in great many fields, ranging divorce mediators to negotiat
ors operating in business, labour, or international disputes.
One of the ways for effective conflict settlement is "enlightened self interest"
(Robin J.Z. 1989) which is a behaviour that allows moving towards your objectiv
es in negotiation, and at the same time make it possible for other party to appr
oach his/her goal. It is an amalgam of pure individualism and cooperation, in wh
ich you need to find some way of getting what you want – sometimes maybe more or l
es than you considered before – by leaving the door open for the other side to do
well. The most popular anecdote on this point is the tale of two sisters, who ag
ree over the division of an orange between them (Fisher & Ury, 1981). Each would
like the entire orange. The solution is to split it 50-50, which although is fa
ir, it is no necessarily wise. One sister proceeds to peel the orange, discard t
he peel and eat her half of the fruit; the other peels the orange, discards the
fruit, and uses her part of the peel to bake a cake. The key in any negotiation
and conflict settlement is to understand each sides underlying interests, needs
and values instead of focusing on each sides positions.
It is tempting for parties to a conflict to begin by experimenting with a set of
adversarial, confrontational in the hope that these will work. People usually m
ake a mistake by thinking why not give hard bargaining a try a first, since if m
oves such as threat, bluff or intimidation work as intended, the other side may
give up without much of a fight. The problem is that once one has left the path
of joint problem solving it may be very difficult to return again. It is far eas
ier to move from cooperation to competition than the other way round.
Negotiation is one of the tools that help settling a conflict; I would even say
that also one with the most creative opportunities. Negotiators have well-recogn
ized interests in the outcome, either in getting a settlement It is always bette
r to try negotiating the conflict first than give it away and let an arbitrator
decide about a solution. Although it is not always possible, it gives a chance t
o focus on a problem and preserve relationship. Sometimes its wise to engage a t
hird-party inviting a mediator into play. We should keep in mind that the less c
ostly solution is one that is focused on joint problem solving – interests; then r
ights and power, but only when there is no other solution. Focusing on interests
, compared to focusing on rights or power, tends to produce higher satisfaction
with outcomes, better working relationships and less recurrence.
Case Study- 1
Conflict Resolution Process
I. Background:
Starting in 1995, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS) had entrust
ed a task to monitor the administrative and financial management process in the
general management system within the Ministry. Since 1998, the task evolved and
led to the existence of General Inspectorate, which is composed of Inspectorate
of Education and Inspectorate of Administration and Finance. Due to the limited
number of human resources within the Inspectorate of Administration and Finance
and yet-to-be-perfect training in management of the Ministry, a number of irreg
ularities in the education system have arisen and consequently complaints have b
een passed on to the Ministry for justice and some others have been published th
rough newspapers. This has drawn the attention of the Ministry s management and
thus there is a demand to carry out the inspection in order to find out the trut
h.
II. Conflict Resolution Structure:
One of the major responsibilities of the Inspectorate of Administration and Fina
nce is to conduct an investigation into the process of administrative and financ
ial management and to find a possible solution to any kind of irregular miscondu
ct in the management system in accordance with the complaints and the Ministry s
mission order. There is one particular unit within the Inspectorate of Administ
ration and Finance responsible for receiving complaints from education personnel
who lodge the complaints in person or through the media publishing irregular mi
sconduct in the education service. The received complaints are numbered and repo
rted by the person in charge to the Director of Inspectorate who then decides, t
o the extent of the complaint, whether the case involves the finance or administ
ration management. The case is then sent to the Office of Administration and Fin
ance Inspection/Conflict Resolution so that it can be submitted to a higher leve
l for decision-making as to whether there is a need to go down to investigate at
the scene or leave it to the provincial level to find a possible solution as a
preliminary step while waiting to further study the feedback. In case of the for
mer, when all necessary data has been collected from and the contents of the dat
a agreed upon by the two conflicting parties, the Inspectorate of Administration
and Finance reports to the Ministry s management committee for decision, i.e. b
y convening a meeting to discuss the data from investigation or calling the Mini
stry s disciplinary committee members consisting of a Secretary of State in char
ge of inspection as Head of the Committee, Inspector General, Directors General
and other line high-level officials concerned as members for a meeting in order
to evaluate the fraud or misconduct. The decision reached at the meeting will be
then submitted to the Minister for final decision or possible measures, i.e. in
structing the Personnel Department to issue a written warning to the person comm
itting mistakes or giving a verbal warning, imposing administrative penalties, r
elocating his/her dutystation, or dismissal, etc.

III. Basis of Reference for Judgment:

Law on the Code of Conduct of Civil Servants of the Kingdom of Cambodia
IV. Conflict Resolution Procedures:
A. Conciliation/Negotiation:
If it is found out that the complaint has arisen from a personal dispute/conflic
t, the assigned official(s) from the Inspectorate play a role of a negotiator/co
nciliator and then report to the management for information.
B. Arbitration (with involvement of many people in meetings, discussions an
d decision making process): When it is found out by the official(s) from the Ins
pectorate of Administration and Finance that the contents of the complaint are f
actual and justified, the assigned official from the Inspectorate of Administrat
ion and Finance has to report on the findings of investigation and attach proof
or evidence with elaboration of impacts and submit to the Secretary of State in
charge for decision on possible continuation of a meeting or holding a meeting o
f the disciplinary committee to decide on the reported mistakes. To raise as an
example, the parents and education personnel in Chrung Romeas Primary School loc
ated in Chrung Romeas Commune, Koh Thom District of Kandal Province have filed a
complaint implicating the school principal of continuing to ask for financial c
ontribution from the students and of misuse of the PAP money and lack of transpa
rency (the complaint registered on 15 July 2001).

Solution:
The Inspectorate of Administration and Finance had proposed to the Ministry s ma
nagement that a high-level official from the Provincial Office of Education was
assigned to monitor the case (as the first phase) and to report back to the cent
ral level (Inspectorate of Administration and Finance). The suggested solution w
as then not able to put an end to the misconduct, as the school principal still
did not discontinue such an irregularity. With the continued complaints from the
parents and the education officials there, the Inspectorate of Administration a
nd Finance reported the case to the Ministry s management and suggested that a t
eam from the central level go down to investigate at the scene for a determined
period of time. The parents, education personnel and local authorities there wer
e met and talked to during the investigation process. Collected information was
brought to and verified with the principal who did commit a mistake. The Inspec
torate of Administration and Finance submitted the report attaching evidence pro
of and confession to committing a mistake by the principal to the Ministry s man
agement committee for decision. A meeting was held and attended by a representat
ive from the said province and officials from other line departments to discuss
on the penalties imposed against the principal. As a result, it was agreed that
the principal was to pay back the amount of the lost money and he was relocated
from that school to the District Office of Education.

V. Conclusion:
For a period of three years (2001 - 2003), the Inspectorate of Administration an
d Financehave received 138 complaints from the parents, education personnel or t
heir representatives either in a form of filing the complaints in person or thro
ugh the newspapers. Seventy-one cases were investigated at the scenes, reported
to the management for decision and with actions taken. The number of the compla
ints registered and resolution have been put in the report on the Education Cong
ress on a yearly basis. This has drawn attentive attentions from all levels of m
anagement at the organizational units to their performance and this could be an
input for the selection of Internal Audit Program and Scope of the Internal Audi
t Unit for its 2003 action plan.

Case Study – 2
Rido: Conflict Resolution among Meranao in Baloi, Lanao Del Norte
In an effort to create a clearer understanding of the conflict in Mindanao, The
Asia Foundation and the United States Agency for International Development suppo
rted Mindanao-based research institutions and non-government organizations in in
vestigating the dynamics of clan violence, otherwise known as rido. This study,
along with others, provides a comprehensive conflict map showing the scope and m
agnitude of clan conflicts in Mindanao. The studies highlight specific cases of
conflict, exploring their root causes and conditions for escalation and recurren
ce, their interaction with state-related conflicts, and the potential for confli
ct resolution.
STUDY OVERVIEW
Rido, or blood feud, is a cyclic system of vengeance which results in killing an
d/or retaliation among Meranao families and clans in Lanao. Rido, usually involv
ing families, is characterized by violent initial reactions to a perceived insul
t or hurt caused by an individual to another. It is followed by retaliatory acti
ons and counter retaliatory attacks
by members of the disputants’ families. Without any intervention, such acts may la
st for
as long as three generations (Saber 1960; Caris 1991). Rido has brought about se
rious problems, such as the loss of lives, destruction of property and disruptio
n of peace and order, which become hindrances to socioeconomic, political and sp
iritual development in Meranao society (Caris, 1991).
These problems are experienced in many aspects of Meranao life, and require reso
lution to establish solidarity, peace and order in the society. Hence, this stud
y was undertaken to document the occurrence of conflict and handling of rido amo
ng the Meranao of Baloi, Lanao del Norte. The focus was on the application of tr
aditional law (adat). This research aimed to describe and analyze the process o
f rido resolution among Meranao in Baloi, Lanao del Norte. Specifically, the obj
ectives were the following:
1. To know the sociopolitical structure of the community;
2. To find out the common causes of rido and to identify the nature of offenses
that
result in a rido;
3. To describe the consequences of rido as experienced by the disputants and the
community;
4. To describe the salient characteristics of those involved in resolving the ri
do;
5. To determine the methods employed in resolving the conflict; and
6. To examine the important factors that respondents consider in facilitating th
e
resolution of rido.
This study employed a qualitative research design and focused on six barangays i
n Baloi, Lanao del Norte. Respondents included conflicting parties, mediators, n
egotiators, community leaders and elders (such as the sultan, datus, Kali or tra
ditional judge, Bae a Labi, and other traditional titleholders), politicians, an
d influential women. Purposive and snowball methods of sampling were undertaken.
Researchers analyzed primary and secondary data, interviewed key informants, un
dertook focus group discussions, observed participants, and utilized case studie
s.A study on the processes of conflict resolution is important to understand how
and why rido is prevalent in Meranao society, and how it is resolved. This can
be used as a reference to understand the role of traditional systems in resolvin
g such conflict. With this information, readers may realize that though outsider
s have historically perceived Muslim Filipinos as lawless, the Meranao have a hi
gh respect for their traditional laws. An attempt to include here the roles of M
eranao women in conflict resolution is also deemed important. Hence, the readers
will be fully aware that the roles of the Bae aLabi (the female counterpart to
the datu) are not symbolic but they have also contributed to establishing order
in the society.
This study could also be useful to local government officials in handling and ma
naging
conflicts. It will provide information for policy-makers in bringing peace and o
rder in the
Meranao society. In that way, the cessation of conflict due to rido and its asso
ciated violence will be possible.
FINDINGS
The process of a mediated settlement flows as follows. Once a dispute arises, al
l parties quietly begin to assess possibilities for amicable settlement. However
, they maintain a belligerent pose until settlement terms are agreed upon. One o
r more mediators, possibly at the instigation of one of the parties, begin to ex
plore possibilities of arranging a settlement. If agreement on terms can be obta
ined, then the mediator will arrange a public celebration at which the actual se
ttlement takes place. In this ceremony, compensation (if any) for injury will be
publicly handed over. All parties to the dispute, including the community as a
whole, bear witness to the settlement and lend their weight to the peace it prod
uces (Dumarpa 1983). The Meranao can choose any of the following modes of settle
ment: the Philippine courts, the Kitab (Shariah Court), the taritib ago igma (co
nsensus) or kokoman a kambhatabataa (law of the kinsmen). Taritib ago igma calls
for the giving or paying of damages and other forms of punishment, such as a p
ublic reprimand of the offender, while kokoman a kambhatabataa refers to a peace
ful mode of settling disputes which requires no damages. The principle behind th
is latter mode of conflict resolution is the maintenance
and promotion of harmonious social relations between the parties in the conflict
. This is
common when the two parties in conflict are either consanguine or affinal relati
ves, in
which case, reciprocity of aid and services should otherwise exist (Abdullah, 19
82; 1997). Most of the Meranao do not submit their rido cases to the Philippine
courts, because it is a shame on their honor and dignity that they cannot punish
the killer in their own hands. They prefer to avoid being called by demeaning w
ords like “da a orak iyan”, which simply means “coward.” Appeal to the Philippine courts
is only done to imprison the killer. The rido, however, does not end there, bec
ause once the killer is released, he could still be killed by the other party. T
he possibility of kasaop (retaliation) is still at hand because of the pricked m
aratabat (honor/pride). In a settlement, a considerable amount of money, or its
equivalent value in the form of goods, passes from one disputant to another. The
pattern of who receives or gives the amount is not always predictable. The per
son who presents the most convincing argument of having incurred more material l
osses and a greatly injured maratabat gets the payment. The traditional and loca
l political leaders contribute money (ranging from P10,000 to P50,000) for the s
ettlement of the rido. The aggrieved party demands confiscation of the weapon (u
sually an armalite) used in the killing. Thus, firearms in Meranao society conti
nue to be widely circulated, allowing anybody from the clan to continue the rido
. Since a weapon is a sign of power among the Meranao, anybody whose maratabat i
s trampled can use a firearm to avenge himself and his kin. Cases handled by loc
al political leaders can also be settled through traditional means:taritib ago i
gma (consensus) and kokoman a kambhatabataa (law of kinsmen). The rituals of res
olution prominently feature the disputants swearing on the Qur’an, to remind them
that Islam admonishes its followers to show understanding, patience, and toleran
ce to all, including the enemy. In the case studies investigated, the role of an
influential leader can also be critical in putting an end to the rido. As state
d by the informants, women are recognized by Meranao male leaders and the commun
ity as mediators. At the first occurrence of rido, they serve as shields as they
are spared from retaliation. In the end, though, they serve as pacifiers. They
are the first to work for settlement, since they are the most affected by rido.
When rido takes place, men usually hide, and women must take over as financial p
roviders. To be effective, mediators to a conflict must possess gees (power) and
influence and have a considerable following in the community. As described by t
he informants, mediators must be maongangen (wise), maontol (honest), masabar (p
atient), kasarigan (trustworthy), mawarao (brave), malai paratiya ko Allah (fait
hful), tatamoken (moneyed) and daa a pagampilan iyan (neutral). Relation to the
disputants, either by affinity or by blood, constitutes another factor in the le
ader’s ability to resolve conflict. Most of the causes of rido stem from land conf
licts. These conflicts can be classified into three types: the miyagagaw sa kawa
li (conflict over a small parcel of land), miyagagaw sa gapa (conflict over a hu
ge area of land), and miyagagaw sa tamanaan (conflict over aboundary). Other cau
ses are kapamagagawa sa kadato (political rivalry), election fraud, enthronement
of traditional leaders, heated argument, monetary debt, kandaremet (gambling),
arrogance of those in power, carnapping, kidnapping, hold-up, stealing of domest
icated animals and other household properties, jealousy, envy, expressing disres
pect to a family or looking down upon one’s line of descent, adultery, elopement,
leges or lobed (rape), katsismis sa di benar (gossiping), and drug addiction.
The cases studied clearly indicate one fact: the trampling of one’s maratabat or t
hat of
his kin is a very serious offence in Meranao society and culture. To a Meranao,
nothing is trivial when the maratabat of a person or of his kin is assaulted or
insulted. Any hurt or harm done and inflicted on one’s maratabat or of his kin req
uires restoration. The only way to restore a damaged maratabat is to inflict har
m through vengeance on the
individual who has done the hurt. Therefore, even the slightest incident can res
ult in physical violence, often killing, among Meranao disputants. There appears
to be a saturation point in the rido process, during which time the leaders mak
e the crucial decision that enough is enough. Among the disputants themselves, t
his saturation point is also critical in their decision to seek a mediator. Rido
can be settled only when both parties to the conflict decide that they must put
an end to it. If both parties to the conflict feel the need for peace, rido con
sequently terminates. Among the consequences of rido, disputants typically exper
ience financial burdens, property loss, non-performance of religious obligations
due to constant hiding, disruption of children’s academic life, and emotional ins
tability resulting from constant fear and tension. These critical factors turn
the rido around into a search for peace and the resolution.
SWOT ANALYSIS

Strength
Group cohesion-
A group shows more cohesion when it faces threat from external sources in the fo
rm of intra group conflict. In cohesion all members can draw more satisfaction f
rom group activities.
Avoidance of tension-
Conflict may create high tension among the individuals and groups and a stage ma
y come where it is difficult to manage. Here negotiation helps in avoiding frust
ration and hostility themselves.
Identification of weakness-
When a conflict arises, it may help identify the weakness in the system. The man
agement can take steps to remove the weakness.
Problem solving-
It helps in solving the problem which arises in the organization. It is consider
ed best where both parties have a high degree of respect for each other. Here bo
th the parties are satisfied.
Weakness
Win-lose Approach-
In this approach one party to the conflict tries to Marshall all the resources
 to win and other party looses. This mostly happens in subordinate-superior, lin
e staff confrontation etc.
Compromise-
It is not useful for resolving conflict that stem from power asymmetry because t
he weaker party may have little to offer the stronger party.
Displacement of goal-
Due to more stress on negotiation and conflict, organization may forget about it
s objectives and goals. Due to this it will suffer as decrease in efficiency and
productivity.
Dominance-
Due to dominance strategy the stronger party wins. It enables the weaker party o
r the opponent to give up the fight. It is not the right or ethical way for reso
lving conflict.
Threat
Unproductively –
Much stress of resolution displaces them from their main aim in organization, f
urther it discontentment and acts as a source of dissatisfaction to the losing p
arty. And they wait for an opportunity to settle the score with the winning part
y; as a result productivity will suffer.
Resignation of the personnel-
In case of intra-individual and inter-individual conflicts particularly, some dy
namic personnel may leave the organization if they fail in the resolution of con
flict in their favor. The organization will be sufferer in the long-run by the l
oss of key personnel.
Creation of distrust-
Conflict may create climate of suspicion and distrust among the people in the or
ganization. It may create discord in place of cooperation. The concern people ma
y develop negative feelings about one another and try to avoid interaction with
each other.
Fear in Negotiation -
Fear in negotiation can come from feeling unprepared, unable, or facing a more p
owerful opponent. The way to deal with fear includes to becoming aware of it, id
entifying the ways you express fear and the situation which trigger fear, and us
ing behavioral technique to reduce fear and control; its expression.

Conclusion

The conflict resolution and negotiation skill is a contemporary topic and very i
mportant from HR point of view. In present scenario conflict in some form or deg
ree is part and parcel of human life, hence organization are not free from it. T
herefore effective manager spends a great deal of their time balancing a conflic
t between collaboration and completion among subordinate and help them understan
d that conflict inherent to sound life. Nevertheless they cause to damage organ
ization. Their for manager should understand nature and causes in how varies par
ties can be coordinated to make meaningful configuration we all negotiate all th
e time at work, at home and as a consumer. Some people can negotiate easily but
for others negotiation is a source of conflict for they try to avoid this if pos
sible. Negotiation is not only use for business purpose but also used in our sev
eral lives. Negotiation is a life’s skill. Skilled negotiator have a more comprehe
nsive understanding of what “Negotiation is them the ordinary execution.
The conclusion of the whole research is both the conflict and negotiation skills
are the life blood of an organization without them the organization cannot run
smoothly & effectively. The ability to effectively deal with conflict is undoub
tedly one of the most important skills you will need to be successful in your ca
reer and life. Main thing which observed is that communication the reissue wheth
er it is face to face, or the telephone or in writing. Negotiation is not always
between two people, it cannot always between two people, and it can involve man
y people from both the sides.
The scope covered by conflict resolution is very vast. It is at personal level,
organizational level & even at international level; the main purpose to resolve
is to reduce the personal clashes and difference in the set of values. It create
s a sense of trust between the parties. The tension and frustration is totally r
emoved and a sense of cooperation & coordination comes into.
Lastly conflicts cannot be totally removed but they can be minimized by followin
g certain methods applying negotiation skills to create a better and good workin
g environment.

Bibliography
1. Principle and practices of management -
L M Prasad
2. Human Relation and organizational Behaviour -
R S Dwivedi
3. Conflict management and negotiation skill -
IIHT Academy
4. http://www.oznet.ksu.edu (link by Google.com)
5. Wikipedia.com
6. Scribd.com
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