SOME BASIC CONCEPTS OF CHEMISTRY:

MODULE-1

 “Chemistry is the science of substance their An element consists of only one type of particles.
properties, their structure and their These particle may be atoms or molecules. Sodium ,
transtormation” . copper, silver, hydrogen , oxygen etc. are some
 Chemistry is very interesting subject which examples of elements.
touch almost very aspects of our life. Two or more atoms of different elements combine,
Eg :- Life saving drugs such as cisplatin, the molecule of a compound is obtained. The
taxol are effective in cancer therapy and examples of some compounds are water, ammonia,
AZT(Azidothymidine) used for helping carbon dioxide, sugar etc.
AIDS victims
Anything which has mass and occupies space is Properties of Matter and Their Measurement :
called matter. For example, book, pen , pencil ,
water, all living beings. Matter can exist in three Every substance has unique or characteristic
physical states viz. Solid, liquid and gas. properties.
(i) Solids have definite volume and definite These properties can be classified into two categories
shape. – physical properties and chemical properties.
(ii) Liquids have define volume but not the
definite shape. They take the shape of the Physical properties are those properties which can be
container in which they are placed. measured or observed without changing the identity
(iii) Gases have either definite volume nor or the composition of the substance. Some examples
definite shape. They completely occupy of physical properties are colour, odour, melting
the container in which they are placed. point, boiling point, density etc .
At the macroscopic or bulk level, matter can be The measurement or observation of chemical
classified as mixtures or pure substances. properties require a chemical change to occur. The
examples of chemical properties are characteristic
reactions of different substances; these include
acidity or basicity, combustibility etc.

Base Physical Quantities and their Units

Base Physical Symbol Name of Symbol

Quantity for SI Unit for SI
Quantity Unit
Length l metre m
Mass m kilogram kg
Time t second s
Electric current I ampere A
A mixture may be homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Thermodynamic T kelvin K
In a homogeneous mixture, the components
completely mix with each other and its composition is
temperature N mole mol
uniform throughout. Sugar solution, and air are thus,
the examples of homogenous mixtures. In contrast to
Amount of 𝐼𝑣 candela cd
substance
this, in heterogeneous mixtures, the composition is
Luminous
not uniform throughout and sometimes the different
intensity
components can be observed. For example , the
mixtures of salt and sugar, pure substances have fixed
composition, mixtures may contain the components
in any ratio and their composition is variable, copper,
silver, gold, water, glucose are some examples of pure
substances.

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 The true value of the length of bar is 35.000 cm.
Prefixes used in the SI System Thus, the measurement of student A is precise but not
accurate and the measurement of student C is precise
Multiple Prefix Symbol as well as accurate.
10−24 yocto y
10−21 zepto z Scientific Notation
10−18 atto a A number or the result of an experiment can be
10−15 femto f represented in scientific notation or exponential
10−12 pico p notation. In this type of notation, any number can be
10−9 nano n represented in the form of N ×10n, where n represents
10−6 micro μ exponent and N represents a number between 1 to 10.
10−3 milli m
centi c Examples:
10−2
deci d Number Scientific notation
10−1
10 deca da 0.00038 3.8 ×10 -4
hecto h 2.39561 ×10 2
102 239.561
kilo k
103 364000 3. 64000 × 10 5
mega M
106 The significant figures in a number are all certain
giga G
109 tera T digits plus one doubtful digit.
1012 peta P
1015 exa E (i) All non – zero digit are significant. For
1018 zeta Z example ,
1021 yotta Y 42.3 has three significant figures.
1024 243. 4 has four significant figures
24. 123 has five significant figures.
Mass and Weight
Mass of a substance is the amount of matter present (ii) A zero becomes significant figure if it appears
in it while weight is the force exerted by gravity on between tow non – zero digits. For example ,
an object. The mass of a substance is constant 5.03 has three significant figures.
whereas its weight may vary from one place to 5.604 has four significant figures.
another due to change in gravity. 4.004 has four significant figures.

Volume (iii) Leading zeros or the zeros placed to the left

Volume has the units of (length)3. In SI system, of the numbers are never significant. For example,
volume has units of m3. In laboratories, volume is 0.543 has three significant figures.
often denoted in cm3 or dm3 units. 0.045 has two significant figures.
1 mL = 1 cm3 or 1 cc 0.006 has one significant figure.
1 L = 1000 mL, 1000 cm3 = 1 dm3
(iv) Trailing zero or the zero placed to the right
Density of the decimal are significant. For example,
Density of a substance is its amount of mass per unit 433.0 has four significant figures.
volume. 433.00 has five significant figures.
𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 343.000 has six significant figures.
SI unit of density = 𝑆𝐼 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝐾𝑔
(v) If a number ends in zero but these zeros are
= 𝑚 3 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑔 𝑚 −3 not to the right of a decimal point, these zeros may
Precision and Accuracy or may not be significant.
 Precision refers to the closeness of various
measurement for same quantity. For example, 11400 g may have three, four or five
 Accuracy is the agreement of a particular significant figures. Such a number is first written in
value to the true value of result. exponential form.
Student A Student B 1.14 ×10 4 g , which has three significant figures.
Student C 1.140×10 4 g , which has four significant figures.
33.852 cm 34.365 cm 35.001 cm 1.1400 ×10 4 g, which has five significant figures.
33.854 cm 34. 852 cm 35.003 cm
Average
value 33.853 cm 34. 6085 cm 35.002 cm

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In exponential form, the numerical position (i.e.,
N) represents the number of significant figures. Multiplication and Division of Significant Figures
Number Exponential Significant 2.5 × 1.25 = 3. 125
form figures Since 2.5 has two significant figures, the result
0.0132 1.32 × 10 – 2 Three should not have more than two significant figures,
0.000045 4.5 × 10 – 5 Two thus it is 3.1.
13200 1.32 × 10 4
Three The following points for rounding off the numbers
Avogadro‟s 6.023 × 10 23
Four 1. If the rightmost digit to be removed is more
number than 5, the preceding number is increased by
Planck‟s constant 6.6 ×10 -34 Two one. For example, 1.386
If we have to remove 6 , we have to round it
to 1.39
Addition and Subtraction of significant Figures
2. If the rightmost digit to be removed is less
The result cannot have more digits to the right of the
than 5 , the preceding number is not changed
decimal point than either of the original numbers.
for example, 4.334 if 4 is to be removed ,
12.11
then the result is rounded is rounded upto
18.0
4.33.
1.012
3. If the rightmost digit to be removed is 5 ,
31. 122
then the preceding number is not changed if
it is an even number but it is increased by
Here, 18.0 has only one digit after the decimal point
one if it is an odd number.
and the result should be reported only up to one digit
the decimal point which is 31.1

Descriptive Questions

1. What is the SI unit of mass? How is it defined? (ii) 208

2. Match the following prefixes with their (iii) 5005

multiples:
(iv) 126.000
Prefixes Multiples
(v) 500.0
(i) micro 10G
(vi) 2.0034
M
(ii) deca 10
6. Round up the following upto three significant
-6
(iii) mega 10 figures :

(iv) giga 10-15 (i) 34.216

(v) femto 10 (ii)10.4107

3. What do you mean by significant figures ? (iii)0.04597

4. Express the following in the scientific (iv) 2808

notation:
7. Fill in the blanks in the following conversion:
(i) 0.0048
(i) 1 km =…………….mm=……………pm
(ii) 234.000
(ii) 1 mg = …………..kg= ……………….ng
(iii) 8008
(iii)1 mL= ………….L= ………………dm3
(iv) 500.0
8. If the speed of light is 3.0 x 108 m S-1 ,calculate
(v) 6.0012 the distance covered by light in 2.00 ns.

5. How many significant figures are present in the

following ?

(i) 0.0025

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 Objective Questions

1. One fermi is (1) Marble (2) Diamond

(1) 10 13 cm (2) 10 15 cm (3) Glass (4) Sand
(3) 10 10 cm (4) 10 12 cm 9. Which one of the following is not an element
2. A picometre is written as (1) Diamond (2) Graphite
(1) 10 9 m (2) 10 10 m (3) Silica (4) Ozone
(3) 10 11 m (4) 10 12 m 10. In the final answer of the expression
3. One atmosphere is equal to (29.2 20.2) (1.79 10 5 )
. The number of
(1) 101.325 K pa (2) 1013.25 K pa 1.37
5
(3) 10 Nm (4) None of these significant figures is
4. Dimensions of pressure are same as that of (1) 1 (2) 2
(1) Energy (2) Force (3) 3 (4) 4
(3) Energy per unit volume 11. The number of significant figures in 6.02 10 23
(4) Force per unit volume is
5. The prefix 1018 is (1) 23 (2) 3
(1) Giga (2) Nano (3) 4 (4) 26
12. The prefix zepto stands for
(3) Mega (4) Exa
6. Given the numbers : 161cm, 0.161cm, 0.0161 (1) 10 9 (2) 10 12
cm. The number of significant figures for the (3) 10 15 (4) 10 21
three numbers are 13. The significant figures in 3400 are
(1) 2 (2) 5
(1) 3, 4 and 5 respectively (3) 6 (4) 4
(2) 3, 3 and 3 respectively 14. The number of significant figures in 6.0023 are
(3) 3, 3 and 4 respectively (1) 5 (2) 4
(4) 3, 4 and 4 respectively (3) 3 (4) 1
7. Significant figures in 0.00051 are 15. The number of significant figures in 60.0001 is
(1) 5 (2) 3
(3) 2 (4) 4 (1) 5 (2) 6
8. Which of the following contains only one (3) 3 (4) 2
element
*****

MODULE-2
Laws of Chemical Combinations mass of the other element, are in the ratio of small
whole numbers.
i) Law of Conservation of Mass iv) Gay –Lussac’s law to gaseous volume
It states that matter can neither be created nor “ The ratio between the volume of gaseous reactant
destroyed. and product can be expressed in simple whole
This law was put forth by Antoine Lavoisier numbers”
Hydrogen + Oxygen → Water
ii) Law of Definite Proportions 100 Ml 50 mL 100 mL
Law was given by, a French chemist, Joseph Proust. The volumes of hydrogen and oxygen which
He stated that a given compound always contains combine together (i.e., 100 mL and 50 mL ) bear a
exactly the same proportion of elements by weight. simple ratio of 2:1.
v) Avogadro Law
iii) Law of Multiple Proportions Avogadro proposed that equal volumes of gases at
This law was proposed by Dalton if two elements can the same temperature and pressure should contain
combine to form more than one compound, the equal number of molecules.
masses of one element that combine with a fixed Ie, v ∝ N (molecules)
Or v ∝ n (moles)

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Dalton’s Atomic Theory 3. Compounds are formed when atoms of
1. Matter consists of indivisible atoms. different elements combine in a fixed ratio.
2. All the atoms of a given element have 4. Chemical reactions involve reorganisation of
identical properties including identical mass. atoms. These are neither created nor
Atoms of different elements differ in mass. destroyed in a chemical reaction

Descriptive Questions

1. The following data are obtained when dinitrogen 4. The laws of chemical combination are the basis
and dioxygen react together to form different of the atomic theory.
compounds.
a) Name the law of chemical combination
Mass of dinitrogen Mass of dioxygen illustrated by the pair of compounds CO and
CO2.
(i) 14g 16g b) State and explain the law of conservation of
mass.
(ii) 14g 32g 5. The laws of chemical combination governs the
formation of compounds form elements.
(iii) 28g 32g a) State the law of conservation of mass. Who
put forward this law?
(iv) 28g 80g b) The following data is obtained when
dinitrogen and dioxygen react together to
a) Which law of chemical combination is obeyed by form different compounds.
the above experimental data? Give its statement 6. The combination of elements to form compounds
is governed by the laws of chemical
2. Convert the following into basic units: Combination.
a) Hydrogen combines with oxygen to form two
(i) 28.7 pm compounds, namely water and hydrogen
peroxide. State and illustrate the related law
(ii) 15.15 pm of chemical combination.
7. A given compound always contain exactly the
(iii) 25365 mg same proportion of elements by weight
a) i) Name the above law ?
3. How many significant figures should be present ii) Write the name of the scientist who
in the answer of the following calculations ? proposed this law
8. a) 𝑁𝑂 and 𝑁𝑂2 are two oxides of Nitrogen.
0.02856 𝑥 298.15 𝑥 0.112
(i)
0.5785
i) Which law of chemical combination is
(ii) 5x 5.364 illustrated by these compounds?
ii) State the law
(iii)0.0125 + 0.7864 +0.0215
Objective Questions

1. Which of the following pairs of substances 3. The percentage of copper and oxygen in
illustrate the law of multiple proportions samples of CuO
[CPMT obtained
1972, 78] by different methods
(1) CO and CO2 (2) H 2 O and D2 O were found to be the same. This illustrates the
law of
(3) NaCl and NaBr (4) MgO and Mg(OH)2
(1) Constant proportions
2. Among the following pairs of compounds, the
(2) Conservation of mass
one that illustrates the law of multiple
(3) Multiple proportions
proportions is
(4) Reciprocal proportions
(1) NH 3 and NCl 3 (2) H 2 S and SO2
4. Chemical equation is balanced according to the
(3) CuO and Cu 2 O (4) CS 2 and FeSO4 law of
(1)Multiple proportion

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 (2)Reciprocal proportion (1)Sodium chloride and sodium bromide
(3)Conservation of mass (2)Ordinary water and heavy water
(4)Definite proportions (3)Caustic soda and caustic potash
5. The law of multiple proportions is illustrated by (4)Sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide
the two compounds
*****

MODULE-3
Atomic mass
Atomic mass of an element is defined as the number Average atomic mass
which indicates how many times the mass of one Average atomic mass is used if an element exist as
atom of the element is heavier in comparison to 1 12 more than one isotopes
the part of the mass of one atom of
Carbon – 12 𝐴𝑏𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
1
 The quantity 12 The mass of an atom of „c‟ is Avg atomic mass = % 100
× 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
known as atomic mass unit (amu) Or „u‟
Eg : Cl has two isotopes, ie Cl – 34.969 and 36.966
amu these are found in the ratio 75.53% and 24.47 %.
An atom of „c‟
34.969 ×75.53+36.966 ×24.47
1 amu. OR u Avg Am = 100
= 35. 46 amu
1 amu OR u = 1.66 × 10 -24 g OR 1.66 ×10 -27 Kg Gram atomic mass Or Gram atom
Gram atomic mass can be defined as absolute mass in
grams of 6.02×10 23 atoms of any element.
∴ Mass of an atom of „ c ‟ in g = 12× 1.66 ×10 -24 g Eg 1: GAM of ‘c’
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐 = 12 × 1.66 × 10−24 𝑔
NO Atoms Atomic Mass Mass of an ∴ mass of 6.02 ×10 23 atom of c = 12 ×1.66 ×10 -24 ×
atom in ‘g’ 6.02 × 10 23
1 H = 12 g
2 O Eg 2 : GAM of O
Mass of an atom of O = 16×1.66× 10 -24 g
3 N
Mass of 6.02×10 23 atoms of O = 16 ×1.66×10 -24 g
4 He × 6.02 × 1023
5 S = 16g
6 Na
7 Mg
8 Cl NO: Atoms Atomic Mass Mass of
9 Br mass of an 6.02×1023
atom atoms OR
10 F
in ‘g’ GAM
NO Atoms Am GAM(g) Mass No. Of 1 H
(u) in gram 2 O
grams atoms 3 N
1 H 4 4 S
2 O 48 5 P
3 N 14 6 C
4 C 6 7 Mg 24 u
5 F 19 8 Na 23 u
6 Cl 72 9 Ag 108 u
7 Na 92 10 Fe 56 u

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 11 Mn 55 u
12 Zn 65 u Mole Concept
13 He
A mole (mol) is defined as the number of atoms in
14 Ne 12.00 g of carbon -12. 1mole of hydrogen atoms
15 Ar 39 u means 6.02×1023 hydrogen atoms.
16 I 127 u 1 mole of hydrogen molecule means 6.02 ×1023
molecules
1 mole of potassium ion means 6.02×1023 potassium
ions.
1 mole of electron means 6.02 ×10 23 electrons.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 ) The mass of one mole atoms of any element is
NO: Of gram atoms =
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 ) exactly equal to the atomic mass in grams (gram
atomic mass or gram atom) of that element.
Molecular Mass The mass of 6.02×1023 molecules (1 mol) of a
Defined as how many times one molecule of a substance is equal to its molecular mass in grams or
1 gram – molecular mass or gram molecule.
substance is heavier in comparison to 12 the mass of One mole of any substance will have mass equal to
one atom of C – 12 formula mass of that substance expressed in grams.
One mole, i.e., 6.02 × 1023 molecules of any gaseous
substance occupies 22.4 litres as volume at NTP.
Unit = amu OR u

Calculation of number of atoms and

Gram molecular mass OR Gram molecule Molecules
Mass of 6.022 ×10 23 molecules in „g‟ no: of molecules = mole ×6 ×10 23
no of atoms in a molecule = mol × 𝓍
×6.02×10 23
X = no: of that
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔
NO: of gram molecule = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 particular atom
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔
Total no: of atoms in a molecule = mol × y
×6.02 ×1023
Y = total no: of
N Molec MM Mass Gram Ma NO: atoms in a molecule
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 )
O ules (am of a molecu ss Of no:Total no: of
of moles molecule
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 present in V L of the
𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑔
u) molec lar in gram gas at NTP
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝐿
𝑁𝑂∶𝑂𝐹 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠
ule (g) mass ‘g’ molec no: of moles = = 22.4
6.02×10 23
ule ×6.02 × 10 23
1 H2 8 𝐺𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑇𝑃 (𝑚𝐿 )
no: of moles =
22.4 𝐿
2 O2 48
3 NH3 34 NO Mole G Mas Moles Vol Tota Total
4 KMnO4 150 - M s um l elect-
cules M in e at atom rons
5 SO2 64
‘g’ ST s
6 SO3 80 P
7 H3PO4 98 1 H2O 36
8 H2SO4 49 2 NH3 17
9 N2 56 3 O3 32
10 H2O 36 4 O2 16
11 PH3 100
12 HF 19
13 HCIO4 60

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NO Ions GAM Mass Moles Electron (iii) 1 g Li (s)
(g)
(iv)1 g of Cl2 (g)
1 N 3- 1.4
2 O 2- 3.2 2. What will be the mass of one 12
C atom in g?
3 O+ 16
4 Na + 46 3. Calculate the number of atoms in each of the
following (i)52 moles of Ar (ii)52 u of He (iii) 52 g
of He
N Molec Mole ‘c’ ‘H’ ‘N’ ‘O’ ‘Cl’
O ules s Ato Ato Ato Ato Ato 4. In three moles of ethane (C 2H6),calculate the
ms ms ms ms ms following ,
1 C6H12 1
(i)Number of moles of carbon atoms.
O6
2 HClO4 0.1 (ii)Number of moles of hydrogen atoms.
3 H2O 0.01
4 H2SO4 10 -2 (iii)Number of molecules of ethane.

Total no: of electrons = mole × N A × total no: of 5. One mole is the amount of substance that
electrons in one molecule Or ion contains as many elementary particles as 12g of
12
C isotope of carbon.

a) What do you mean by molar mass of a

Descriptive Questions compound?
b) Calculate the number of moles in 1 litre of
1. Which one of the following will have the largest water (Density of water is 1g/mL).Also
number of atoms? calculate the number of water molecules in
1litre of water
(i) 1 g Au(s)

(ii)1 g Na (s)

Objective Questions

1. 1 amu is equal to 5. The number of atoms in 4.25 g of NH 3 is

1 1 approximately
(1) of C 12 (2) of O - 16
12 14
(1) 110 23 (2) 2 10 23
(3) 1g of H 2 (4) 1.66 10 23 kg (3) 4 10 23
(4) 6 10 23
2. 1 mol of CH 4 contains 6. One litre of a gas at STP weight 1.16 g it can
23
(1) 6.02 10 atoms of H possible be
(2) 4 g atom of Hydrogen (1) C 2 H 2 (2) CO
(3) 1.81 10 23 molecules of CH 4 (3) O 2 (4) CH 4
(4) 3.0 g of carbon 7. If N A is Avogadro‟s number then number of
3. Boron has two stable isotopes, 10 B (19%) and valence electrons in 4.2 g of nitride ions (N 3)
11
B (81%). The atomic mass that should appear
(1) 2.4 N A (2) 4.2 N A
for boron in the periodic table is
(3) 1.6 N A (4) 3.2 N A
(1) 10.8 (2) 10.2
(3) 11.2 (4) 10.0 8. The weight of 110 22 molecules of
4. Total number of atoms represented by the CuSO4 .5H 2 O is
compound CuSO4.5H2O is (1) 41.59 g (2) 415.9 g
(1) 27 (2) 21 (3) 4.159 g (4) None of these
(3) 5 (4) 8

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9. How many mole of helium gas occupy 22.4 L 10. The mass of a molecule of water is
at 0o C at 1 atm. pressure (1) 3 1026 kg (2) 3 1025 kg
(1) 0.11 (2) 0.90 (3) 1.5 10 26 kg (4) 2.5 10 26 kg
(3) 1.0 (4) 1.11

*****

MODULE-4
28
% of N = × 100 = 17
164
NOTE : Molarity is dependent on volume;
there-fore, it depends on temperature. % of oxygen = 100 – (24 + 17)
1M Molar solution, i.e., = (100 – 41) = 59
molarity is 1
Determination of Empirical and Molecular
0.5 M or M/2 semimolar Formulae
0.1 M or M/10 Decimolar
0.01 M or M/100 Centimolar (i) The percentage composition of the compound is
0.001 M or M/1000 Millimolar determined by quantitative analysis.
(ii) The percentage of each element is divided by its
atomic mass. It gives the atomic ratio of the
elements present in the compound.
(iii) The atomic ratio of each element is divided by
Empirical and Molecular Formulae the minimum value of atomic ratio as to get
the simplest ratio of the atoms of elements
(i) Empirical Formula : it represents the simplest simplest ratio of the atoms of elements present
relative whole number ratio of the atoms of in the compound.
each element present in a molecule of the (iv) If the simplest ratio is fractional, then the values
substance. Example, CH is the empirical of the simplest ratio of each element is
formula of benzene. multiplied by the smallest integer to get
(ii) Molecular formula : which expresses the simplest whole number for each other.
actual number of atoms of each element
present in one molecule. C6H6 is the molecular Element %
Ato Relative Simp Simples
formula of benzene Element %
Ato no.
mic Relati
Of Simp
lest Simples
t whole
Molecular formula = n × empirical formula mic
mass ve no.
atoms ratio t whole
lest no.
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 mass Of ratio no.
Ratio
n = 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
Carbon 93.7 atoms Ratio
Empirical Molecular N Potassium 1 26.6 39.1
formula formula Hydrogen
Hydrogen HO H2O2 2 Chromium 6.29
35.4 52.0
peroxide
Glucose CH2O C6H12O6 6 Oxygen 38.1 16.0
Benzene CH C6H6 6
Acetic acid CH2O C2H4O2 2 Element % Atomic Relative Simplest
Ammonia NH3 NH3 1 mass no.of ratio
atoms
Carbon 10.4 12
Percentage Composition of Compounds Hydrogen 0.84 1
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 Chlorine 89.12 35.5
Percentage of element = 𝑀
×100
𝑋
= 𝑀 × 100
Calculate the percentage composition of calcium
nitrate.
The formula of calcium nitrate is Ca(NO3)2
40
% of Ca = 164 × 100 = 24

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 Descriptive Questions

1. Calculate the atomic mass (average ) of chlorine

using the following data:
% Natural Abundance Molar mass Element % Relative Simplest Simplest
35 no. Of ratio whole
Cl 75.77 34.9689 atoms number
37
Cl 24.23 36.9659 ratio
Carbon 54.2
2. Mole is a very large numbers to indicate the
Hydrogen 9.2
number of atoms, molecules etc. Write
Oxygen 36.6
another name for one mole.
3. The mole concept helps in handing a large
number of atoms and molecules in stoichiometric
Calculations. 7.One gram mole of substance contains 6.023 ×
a) Define 1mole. 1023 molecules.
b) What is the number of hydrogen atoms in 1
mole of methane (CH4)? a) Find the number of molecules in 2.8 g of N2
4. If the mass percent of the various elements of a b)Which is heavier, one 𝑆𝑂2 molecule or one 𝐶𝑂2
compound is known, its empirical formula can be molecule?
calculated.
8.a) Determine the number of moles present in
a) What is mass percent? Give its mathematical
expression. 0.55 mg of electrons.
b) Compound contains 4.07% hydrogen,
24.27% carbon and 71.65% chlorine. Its i) 1 mole ii) 2 moles
molecular mass is 98.96. What are the iii) 1.5 moles iv) 0.5 mole
empirical and molecular formulae? b) Give the empirical formula
5. a) How many moles of dioxygen are presents in of the following.
64 g of dioxygen ? (Molecular mass of dioxygen 𝐶6 𝐻12 𝑂6 , 𝐶6 𝐻6 , 𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝑂𝑂𝐻, 𝐶6 𝐻6 𝐶𝑙6
is 32)
b)Define empirical formula. How is it related to c)Two elements, carbon and hydrogen
the molecular formula of a compound? combine to form 𝐶2 𝐻6 , 𝐶2 𝐻4 and 𝐶2 𝐻2 .
Identify the law illustrated here.
6. A compound is made up of two elements A and B, 9. Find the molecular formula of the compound with
has A = 70%, B = 30%. The relative number of molar mass, 78 g mol-1 and empirical formula, CH.
moles of A and B in the compound are 1.25 and 1.88
respectively. If the molecular mass of the compound 10. Which of the following contains the maximum
is 160, find the molecular formula of the compound. number of molecules?

a) 1 g N2 c) 1 g CO2
c) 1 g H2 d) 1 g NH3

Objective Questions

1. The percentage of oxygen in NaOH is (3) CH 2 O2 (4) CH 2 O

(1) 40 (2) 60 4. In which of the following pairs of compounds the
(3) 8 (4) 10 ratio of C, H and O is same
2. The percentage of nitrogen in urea is about (1) Acetic acid and methyl alcohol
(1) 46 (2) 85 (2) Glucose and acetic acid
(3) 18 (4) 28
(3) Fructose and sucrose
3. A compound (80 g) on analysis gave C = 24 g, H =
(4) All of these
4 g, O = 32 g. Its empirical formula is
(1) C2 H 2 O2 (2) C2 H 2 O

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5. Which one of the following pairs of gases 8. The number of molecules in 16 g of methane is
contains the same number of molecules (1) 3.0 10 23 (2) 6.02 10 23
(1) 16 g of O 2 and 14 g of N 2 (3) 16 10 23 (4) 16 10 23
6.02 3.0
(2) 8 g of O 2 and 22 g of CO 2
(3) 28 g of N 2 and 22 g of CO2
9. The number of water molecules in 1 litre of water
(4) 32 g of O 2 and 32 g of N 2 is
6. The number of oxygen atoms in 4.4 g of CO2 is
approx. (1) 18 (2) 18 1000
(1) 1.2 10 23 (2) 6 10 22 (3) N A (4) 55.55 N A
(3) 6 10 23 (4) 12 10 23 10. The number of electrons in a mole of hydrogen
7. The volume occupied by 4.4 g of CO 2 at STP is molecule is
(1) 22.4 L (2) 2.24 L (1) 6.02 10 23 (2) 12.046 10 23
23
(3) 0.224 L (4) 0.1 L (3) 3.0115 10 (4) Indefinite
*****

MODULE-5

Mole Concept in Solution: A solution is defined as

a homogeneous mixture of two or more chemically Per cent of solute by volume =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
non – reacting substances. 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 100
A solution consisting only two components is termed
a binary solution. Generally, the component present
in smaller amount is called the solute while the other iii) Per cent mass by volume: it is defined as the
component present in large amount is called the mass of solute present in 100 mL of solution.
solvent. Per cent of solute mass by volume

Method of Expressing the Concentration of a

Solution 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= × 100
(i) Mass percentage or per cent by Mass : It is 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
defined as the amount of solute in grams present in
100 grams of the solution.
(iv) Parts per million (ppm): When the solute is
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 present in trace quantities, it is convenient to express
Mass percentage of solute = × 100
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 the concentration in parts per million (ppm). It is
defined as the quantity of the solute in grams present
in 106 grams of the solution.
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 +𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
× 100 Ppm = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 106
𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

(v) Mole fraction: it is defined as the ratio of

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
= 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ×𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙 𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
× 100 number of moles of one component to the total
number of moles of the solution (i.e., all the
components). Taking three components A, B and C
10% solution of sugar means that 10 grams of Components A B C
sugar is present in 100 grams of the solution, i.e., Mass (in grams) w1 w2 w3
10 grams of sugar has been dissolved in 90 grams Molecular mass m1 m2 m3
of water. no. of moles w1 w2 w3
ii) Per cent by Volume : it is defined as the volume
of solute in mL present in 100mL solution. m1 m2 m3

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 𝑤 1 /𝑚 1
Mole fraction of A = 𝑤 1 𝑤 𝑤 = 𝑥𝐴 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
+ 2+ 3 Molarity (M) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚3
𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑤 2 /𝑚 2
Mole fraction of B = 𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3 = 𝑥𝑩
+ +
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚3
Number of moles of sol = Molarity × number of litres
𝑤 3 /𝑚 3 of sol. Let wB g of the solute of molecular mass mB
Mole fraction of C = 𝑤 1 𝑤 𝑤 = 𝑥𝐶
+ 2+ 3 be dissolved in V litre of solution.
𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚3
𝑤
The sum of mole fractions of a solution is equal to 1 , Molarity of the solution = 𝑚 𝐵×𝑉 × 1000
𝑥𝐴 + 𝑥𝐵 + 𝑥𝐶 = 1 𝐵
The unit of molarity is mol litre -1 or mol dm -3.
In a binary solution,
Molarity (second method): Let d = density of
Mole fraction of solute + Mole fraction of solvent = 1
solution in g/mL and let it contains x% solute by
mass.
(vi) Molality: It is defined as the number of moles
of the solute present in 1 Kg of the solvent. It is
𝒙 ×𝒅×𝟏𝟎
denoted by m. M= 𝒎𝑩
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜 薲𝑢𝑡𝑒
Molality (m) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑙𝑜 −𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡

Molarity of mixing: three samples of solution with

their molarity M1, M2 , M3 and volume V1, V2, V3
Let wB grams of the solute of molecular mass mB be
respectively. These solutions are mixed; molarity of
present in wA grams of the solvent, then
mixed solution may be given as:
M1V1 + M2V2 + M3V3 = MR(V1 + V2 + V3)
𝑤𝐵 Where MR = resultant molarity
Molality (m) = × 1000
𝑚 𝐵 ×𝑤 𝐴 V1 + V2 + V3 = resultant volume after mixing

NOTE : Molarity is dependent on volume; there-

Relation between Mole Fraction and Molality
fore, it depends on temperature.
𝑥 ×1000
𝐵 1M Molar solution, i.e.,
M = (1−𝑥
𝐵 )𝑚 𝐴
Molality is the most convenient method to express molarity is 1
the concentration because it involves the mass of 0.5 M or M/2 semimolar
liquids rather than their volumes. It is also 0.1 M or M/10 Decimolar
independent of the variation in temperature. 0.01 M or M/100 Centimolar
0.001 M or M/1000 Millimolar
Molarity (Molar concentration): It is defined as the
number of moles of the solute per litre or per dm3 of
the solution

Descriptive Questions

1. What is the concentration of sugar (C12H22O11) 4. Calculate molarity of NaOH in the solution
in mol L-1 if its 20g are dissolved in enough prepared by dissolving its 4gin enough water to
water to make a final volume up to 2L? form 250mL of the solution?
2. If the density of methanol is 0.793 kg L -1.what is
its volume needed for making 2.5 L of its 0.25 M 5. How are 0.50 mol Na2CO3 and 0.50 M Na2CO3
solution ?
different ?
3. What is molality?

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 Objectie Questions
(3) 3.0115 10 23 (4) Indefinite
1. A molar solution is one that contains one mole 6. The largest number of molecules is in
of a solute in (1) 34 g of water (2) 28 g of CO2
1)1000 g of the solvent (3) 46g of CH OH (4) 54 g of N O
3 2 5

(2) One litre of the solvent 7. How many atoms are contained in one mole of
sucrose (C12 H22O11 )
(3) One litre of the solution (1) 45 6.02 1023 atoms/mole
(4) 22.4 litres of the solution (2) 5 6.62 1023 atoms/mole
(3) 5 6.02 1023 atoms/mole
2. The percentage of nitrogen in urea is about (4) None of these
(1) 46 (2) 85 8. The number of sodium atoms in 2 moles of
(3) 18 (4) 28 sodium ferrocyanide is
3. 4.4 g of an unknown gas occupies 2.24 L of (1) 12 10 23 (2) 26 10 23
volume at standard temperature and pressure. (3) 34 10 23 (4) 48 10 23
The gas may be 9. The number of molecules in 8.96 L of a gas at
0o C and 1 atmosphere pressure is approximately
(1) Carbon dioxide (2) Carbon monoxide
(3) Oxygen (4) Sulphur dioxide (1) 6.02 1023 (2) 12.04 1023
4. Number of molecules in 100 ml of each of (3) 18.06 1023 (4) 24.08 1022
O2 , NH 3 and CO 2 at STP are 10. The number of atoms in 4.25 g of NH 3 is
(1) In the order CO2 O2 NH 3 approximately
(2) In the order NH 3 O2 CO 2 (1) 110 23 (2) 2 10 23
(3) The same (3) 4 10 23 (4) 6 10 23
(4) NH 3 CO 2 O2
5. The number of electrons in a mole of hydrogen
molecule is
(1) 6.02 10 23 (2) 12.046 10 23
MODULE -6

Chemical Equation It means that moles of the product are always

A chemical equation is a symbolic representation of a determined by the staring moles of limiting reactant.
chemical change. 3 g H2 reacts with 29 g O2 to yield H2O.
Calculations based on chemical equations are known (i) Which is the limiting reactant?
as stoichiometric calculations. (ii) Calculate the maximum amount of H2O that can
Calculations based on chemical equations are of four be formed.
types: (iii) Calculate the amount of one of the reactants
(i) Calculations involving mass – mass relationship which remains unreacted.
(ii) Calculations involving mass – volume (a) Calculate the mass KCIO3 necessary to produce
relationship 1.23 g O2.
(iii) Calculations involving volume – volume (b) What mass of KCI is produced along with this
relationship quantity of oxygen?
(iv) Calculations involving mole – mole and mole – (c) Calculate the amount of lime (CaO) that can be
mass relationship prepared by heating 200 Kg of limestone which
has 95% pure CaCO3.
How many grams of oxygen are required to burn (d) A mixture of 100 g H2 and 100 g O2 is ignited so
completely 570 g of octane? that water is formed according to the following
reaction:
Limiting Reactant or Limiting Reagent (e) Calculate that volume of carbon dioxide at NTP
The limiting reactant (or limiting reagent) is the evolved by strong heating of 20 g calcium
reactant that is entirely consumed when a reactions carbonate. 2H2+ O2 →2H2O
goes to completion.

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 Descriptive Questions

1. Calculate the amount of carbon dioxide that b) 28g of nitrogen is mixed with 12g of hydrogen
could be produced when to form ammonia as per the reaction,
(i) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in air. N2+3H2→2NH3. Which is the „limiting reagent‟
in this reaction?
(ii) 1 mole of carbon is burnt in 16 g of
[Atomic masses:N=14,H=1].
dioxygen. 6. Calculate the amount of carbon dioxide formed
(iii) 2 moles of carbon are burnt in 16 g of by the complete combustion of 80g of methane
dioxygen. as per the reaction
CH 4(g) +2O2 (g) →CO2 (g)+2H2O(g) (Atomic masses
2. Dinitrogen and dihydrogen react with each other ; C=12.01u, H =1.008u,O-16u)
to produce ammonia according to the following 7. Calculate the amount of CO2(g) produced by the
chemical equation : reaction of 32gof CH4 and32g of O2
N2 (g) +H2 (g)  2NH3 (g)
8. A reaction mixture for the production of NH3 gas
(i) Calculate the mass of ammonia produced if contains 250 g of N2 gas and 50 g of H2 gas
2.00x 103 g dinitrogen reacts with 1.00x103 g of
under suitable conditions. Identify the limiting
dihydrogen.
reactant, if any and calculate the mass of NH 3 gas
(ii) Will any of the two reactants remain unreacted?
produced.
(iii) If yes, which one and what would be its mass?
9. Calculate the mass of SO3 (g) produced, if 500 g
SO2 (g) reacts with 200 g O2 (g) according to the
3. Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of
equation : 2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g). Identify
iron, which has 69.9% iron and 30.1% dioxygen
the limiting reagent.
by mass.
4. Calculate the number of moles of O2 required to 10. Calculate the mass of oxalic acid dehydrate
produce 240g of MgO by burning Mg metal. (H2C2O4. 2H2O) required to prepare 0.1M, 250
ml of its aqueous solution.
[Atomic mass: Mg=24, O=16]

5. a) What is meant by „limiting reagent‟ in a

chemical reaction?
Objective Questions

1. How much water should be added to 200 c.c of approximately 67200. The number of iron atoms
semi normal solution of NaOH to make it exactly (At. wt. of Fe = 56) present in one molecule of
deci normal haemoglobin is
(1) 200 cc (2) 400 cc (1) 6 (2) 1
(3) 800 cc (4) 600 cc (3) 4 (4) 2
2. In the reaction 4 NH 3 (g) 5O2 (g)  4 NO(g) 6H 2 O(g)
4. What weight of SO2 can be made by burning
When 1 mole of ammonia and 1 mole of O 2 are sulphur in 5.0 moles of oxygen
made to react to completion (1) 640 grams (2) 160 grams
(1) 1.0 mole of H 2 O is produced (3) 80 grams (4) 320 grams
(2) 1.0 mole of NO will be produced 5. 2.76 g of silver carbonate on being strongly
(3) All the oxygen will be consumed heated yield a residue weighing
(1) 2.16 g (2) 2.48 g
(4) All the ammonia will be consumed
(3) 2.64 g (4) 2.32 g
3. Haemoglobin contains 0.33% of iron by weight.
The molecular weight of haemoglobin is

*****

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