Photovoltaic Technology

Types of PV technology
 PV Cells
 PV Systems
 Silicon PV Manufacturing

Silicon Feedstock Ingot Growth Slicing Wafers

Photovoltaic System Module Encapsulation Cell Fabrication

Types of PV technology
 Many types of PV cells are available today. The main types are crystalline
silicon, which accounts for roughly 80% of the PV market; thin-films,
which have expanded to around 20% market share; and triple-junction cells,
which are used in the emerging field of concentrating PV.
 Over 95% of all the solar cells produced worldwide are composed of the
semiconductor material Silicon (Si).
 The second most abundant element in earth`s crust, silicon has the
advantage, of being available in sufficient quantities.
 The choice between crystalline or thin-film PV modules for a given project
depends heavily on climate and space.
There are many approaches to making PV cells

20x-100x 500x Cu(In,Ga)Se2 ~ 1-2 um c-Si ~ 180 um

Texturing surface
To minimize reflection from the flat surface solar cell wafers are textured,
this means a creating a roughened surface, so that incident light will have a
larger probability of being absorbed into the solar cell. This is performed by
etching in a week alkaline solution such as Hf.
Materials for Solar cell
Solar cells are composed of various semiconducting materials

1. Crystalline silicon
2. Cadmium telluride
3. Copper indium diselenide
4. Gallium arsenide
Types of Solar cell
Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells
Monocrystalline Silicon Modules
Formed by melting high purity silicon like as
Integrated Circuit
 Most efficient commercially
available module (11% - 14%)
 Most expensive to produce
 Circular (square-round) cell
creates wasted space on module
 monocrystalline solar
panels appear black in color.
 Types of Solar cell
Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

Monocrystalline silicon cells

The main advantage of monocrystalline cells is their high efficiency, which is
typically around 14–15
A disadvantage of these cells is the complicated manufacturing process that leads
to relatively high costs, although greater production capacity of its raw material has
decreased its price markedly in recent years, making it (and multicrystalline
silicon) more price-competitive with thin-film modules.
the power output of crystalline silicon decreases more rapidly with increasing cell
temperature its temperature coefficient is around minus 0.4–0.5%/C.
Being relatively expensive, monocrystalline modules are most often used where
the most possible power is required from a confined space, such as residential and
commercial rooftops.
These cells are made from pure monocrystalline silicon. In these cells, the silicon
has a single continuous crystal lattice structure with almost no defects or impurities.
Polycrystalline Silicon Modules
• Aluminum Electrode
 Surface of PV cell (Silver colored wire)
Example of Poly Crystalline PV • To avoid shading,
electrode is very fine.

Anti reflection film

(Blue colored film)

Front Surface • Back surface is P-type.

(N-Type side) • All back surface is
aluminum electrode with
full reflection.
 Types of Solar cell
Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

Polycrystalline silicon cells

Multicrystalline cells, also known as polycrystalline cells, are produced using
numerous grains of monocrystalline silicon.
In the manufacturing process, molten polycrystalline silicon is cast into ingots,
which are subsequently cut into very thin wafers and assembled into complete cells.
Multicrystalline cells are cheaper to produce than monocrystalline ones because of
the simpler manufacturing process required.
They are, however, slightly less efficient, with typical module efficiencies around
13–15
Multicrystalline modules are widely used in a wide variety of applications
including roof- and ground-mounted arrays.
Amorphous Thin Film
 Most inexpensive technology
to produce
 Metal grid replaced with
transparent oxides
 Efficiency = 6 – 8 %
 Can be deposited on flexible
substrates
 Less susceptible to shading
problems
 Better performance in low
light conditions that with
crystalline modules
Types of Solar cell
Based on the types of crystal used, soar cells can be classified as,
1. Monocrystalline silicon cells
2. Polycrystalline silicon cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

Amorphous silicon.

Unlike mono- and multicrystalline cells, the silicon atoms in amorphous

silicon (a-Si) cells are arranged in a thin homogenous layer. which leads to
thinner cells, giving rise to the name thin film photovoltaics.

 The layer thickness amounts to less than 1µm – the thickness of a

human hair for comparison is 50-100 µm.
 The efficiency of amorphous cells is much lower than that of the other
two cell types.
 As a result, they are used mainly in low power equipment, such as
watches and pocket calculators, or as facade elements.
Using nanocones to enable complete
light absorption in thin Si
Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS).
 The most recent thin-film technology to be commercialized is the CIGS
family.
 CIGS is also the main candidate for the commercial development of
modules that do not use glass, making them flexible and very lightweight.
Their electrical properties lie between crystalline silicon and CdTe, with
conversion efficiency around 10–13% and moderate temperature coefficient
of minus 0.3–0.4%/C.
 The moderate efficiency, low cost and light weight of CIGS make them
ideally suited to rooftop installations, both residential and commercial. They
are also a promising technology for building-integrated photovoltaic (BIPV)
products
 It is manufactured by depositing a thin layer of copper, indium, gallium and
selenium on glass or plastic backing along with electrodes on the front and
back to collect current.
Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells
glass
• Direct bandgap, Eg=1.45eV
• High module production speed
• Very inexpensive
• 20.4 % efficiency

CdS/CdTe
 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe).
Like amorphous silicon, CdTe is relatively tolerant to heat (its temperature
coefficient is around minus 0.25–0.35%/C), yet it has a higher efficiency of 10–
11%.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltacs describes a photovoltac tchnology
that is based on the use of Cadmium telluride in a thin semiconductor layer
designed to absorb and convert sun light into electricity.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) is stable crystalline compound formed from
cadmium and tellurium. It is usually sandwiched with Cadmium Sulfide to form
p-n junction solar PV Cell.
This combination of low cost, moderate efficiency, and large manufacturing
volume has seen CdTe help create a new market for PV in recent years, that of
utility-scale solar power plants.
While CdTe modules are well suited to large ground-mounted arrays for
commercial electricity production, they are also deployed on commercial
rooftops.
The toxicity of cadmium is an environmental concern.
Desensitizer Solar Cell
A new kind of solar cell
Simple to make
Relatively Low cost
Function due to interaction between
cell anode and the cathode, nano-
particles
of titanium oxide coated with
sensitive dye and surrounded by
electrolyte.
Transparent conducting and non
conducting electrodes
Nano-structured wide band gap semi
conducting layer
The dye molecules
The electrolyte

Structure of the dye sensitized solar cell

KONARKA
Solar Thermophotovoltaics
 Solar Thermophotovoltaics (STPVs) are solar driven heat engines which extract
electrical power from thermal radiation. The overall goal is to absorb and
convert the broadband solar radiation spectrum into a narrowband thermal
emission spectrum tuned to the spectral response of a photovoltaic cell (PV)
Multijunction Cells
• These complex structures
are grown very slowly
under high vacuum.
Ga0.50In0.50P: Top Cell
• 37 % cells can be
purchased for $50,000/m2

• Concentrating the light is

essential.
Ga0.99In0.01As: Middle Cell

Ge substrate: Bottom Cell R.R. King; Spectrolab Inc., AVS 54th

International Symposium, Seattle 2007
Multijunction Cells
 Gallium Arsenide
Gallium arsenide-based multijunction solar cells are the most efficient solar cells to date,
reaching the record efficiency of 42.3% with a triple-junction metamorphic cell .
They were originally developed for special applications such as satellites and space
investigation.
 Efficiency Limits

Increasing VOC and decreasing JSC

 Efficiency values
Material η (laboratory) η (production)
Monocrystalline 24.7 14.0 – 18.0

Polycrystalline 19.8 13.0 – 15.5

Amorphous 13.0 8.0

Material Crystalline order Thickness Wafer

Monocrystalline One ideal lattice 50μm - 300μm One single crystall
Polycristalline Many small crystalls 50μm - 300μm grain (0,1mm –
Xcm)
Amorphous No crystalline order; < 1μm No wafer
Groups of some regularly bound
atoms
Losses
1. Reflection:
 the metall circuit path on the front of a solar cell reflects
the light
 the solar cell itsself reflects the light
2. Shadow
The metall circuit path obscures the front of the solar cell
3. Recombination
 On the surface  dangling bonds
 Inside the volume
4. Interaction with photons
Losses
5. Resistance factors
 short circuit between the front and the back of the solar cell
 transport of the charge carriers through the cables and
contacts
6. Absorption and Transmission
 Other layers of the solar cell (e.g. ARC) can also absorb
 Light can totaly be transmitted trough the solar cell
7. Other factors
 Dirt on the solar cell
 No ideal conditions (STC)
Effects of Temperature

 As the PV cell temperature

increases above 25º C, the
module Vmp decreases by
approximately 0.5% per
degree C
Temperature vs. Efficiency
•When module temperature rises up, efficiency decreases.
•The module must be cooled by natural ventilation, etc.
Shading on Modules
 Depends on orientation of internal module circuitry relative to
the orientation of the shading.
 SHADING can half or even completely eliminate the output of
a solar array!
Effects of Insolation

 As insolation
decreases amperage
decreases while
voltage remains
roughly constant
Applications
Solar pumps are used for water supply.
Domestic power supply for appliances include
refrigeration, washing machine, television and lighting
Ocean navigation aids: Number of lighthouses and most
buoys are powered by solar cells
Telecommunication systems: radio transceivers on mountain
tops, or telephone boxes in the country can often be solar powered
Electric power generation in space: To providing electrical
power to satellites in an orbit around the Earth
 PV technology basics
The two principle classifications
stand-alone systems.
grid-connected or utility- interactive systems
The simplest type of stand-alone PV system is a direct-coupled system, where the DC output
of a PV module or array is directly connected to a DC load

Since there is no electrical energy storage (batteries) in direct-coupled systems, the load only
operates during sunlight hours, making these designs suitable for common applications such as
ventilation fans, water pumps, and small circulation pumps for solar thermal water heating
systems.

Matching the impedance of the electrical load to the maximum power output of the PV array is a
critical part of designing well-performing direct-coupled system.

For certain loads such as positive-displacement water pumps, a type of electronic DC-DC
converter, called a maximum power point tracker (MPPT) is used between the array and load to
help better utilize the available array maximum power output.

Direct-coupled PV system.
 PV technology basics
Grid-Connected (Utility-
Interactive) PV Systems.

Photovoltaic systems can be

designed to provide DC
and/or AC power service,
can operate interconnected
with or independent of the
utility grid, and can be
connected with other energy
sources and energy storage
systems.

Diagram of grid-connected photovoltaic system

PV technology basics

Photovoltaic hybrid system.

General Considerations
 Weather characteristics
 Wind intensity
• Loads and time of use
 Estimated snowfall • Distance from power
 Site characteristics conditioning equipment
 Corrosive salt water • Accessibility for
 Animal interference
maintenance
 Human factors • Zoning codes
 Vandalism
 Theft protection
 Aesthetics
SOLAR SYSTEM
DESIGN OFF GRID SOLAR SYSTEM
 Charge
solar PV system controller
Components

Inverter

Solar
Mounting
panels

Batteries
How to Design Solar PV System
Solar PV system includes different components that should be
selected according to
the requirement, site location and applications. The major
components for solar PV
system are
PV module : Converts sunlight into charge
Solar charge controller: regulates the voltage and current from the
PV panels
going to battery and prevents battery overcharging.
Inverter : Converts output of PV panels into AC.
Battery : Stores Energy
Load: Electrical Appliances
Auxiliary energy sources: Generator
Types of Loads

1. Basic Loads
2. Large Applications
3. Special loads
LED Lamps
Small Loads
BasicLoads

Elecrtic heater Air conditioner

Large Appliances
Special oads
 Steps For PV Design

Step 1 Calculate Load

Step2 Select PV Panel
Step3 Select Inverter
Step4 Battery Size
Step5 Select Charge controller
Step 6 Calculate Number of
modules and array
Step7 Design the mounting for
the panels
Steps For PV Design
1. Determine power consumption demands
The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total
power and energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by
the solar PV system as follows:
1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the
total Watt-hours per day which must be delivered to the
appliances.
1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3
(the energy lost in the system) to get the total Watt-hours per day
which must be provided by the panels.
 Steps For PV Design
2. Size the PV modules
To find out the sizing of PV module, the total peak watt produced needs.
The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV module and climate
of site location.
To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:
2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules
Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules
by panel generation factor to get the total Watt-peak rating needed for the
PV panels needed to operate the appliances.
2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system
Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-peak of
the PV modules available to you. Increase any fractional part of result to
the next highest full number and that will be the number of PV modules
required.
 Steps For PV Design
 Panel generation factor is used while calculating the size of
solar photovoltaic cells. It is a varying factor depending upon
the climate of the site location. For example, in Thailand it is
3.43, in EU countries it is 2.93, etc.
 The formula for PGF is PGF=(Average solar Irradiance of
location*Sunshine Hour)/Standard test condition Irradiance
 Steps For PV Design
3. Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The input
rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of appliances.
The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the total
amount of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should be 25-
30% bigger than total Watts of appliances.
In case of appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should be
minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to the
inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the inverter
should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient operation.
 Steps For PV Design
4. Battery sizing
To find out the size of battery,
calculate as follows:
4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.
4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy (the
number of days that you need the system to operate when there is no
power produced by PV panels) to get the required Ampere-hour capacity
of deep-cycle battery.
Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x Days of
autonomy (0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)
 Steps For PV Design
5. Solar charge controller sizing
The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage
capacities. Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV array
and batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is right for
your application.
Make sure that solar charge controller has enough capacity to handle the
current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the
total PV input current which is delivered to the controller and also depends on
PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3
 Steps For PV Design
6. PV panel Mounting

Fixed Solar panel Mounting

Adjustable Solar panel Mounting
Tracking Solar panel Mounting

The modules should be tilted at an angle to generate maximum energy

Optimum orientation True south
East orientation receive sun light only before noon
West orientation receives sunlight only after noon
Site Selection – Tilt Angle
Max performance is
achieved when panels
are perpendicular to the
sun’s rays

Year round tilt = latitude

Winter + 15
lat. Summer – 15 lat.
Basic Mounting Options
 Fixed
 Roof, ground, pole
 Integrated
 Tracking
 Pole (active & passive)
Pole Mount Considerations
 Ask manufacturer for wind loading specification for your array
 Pole size
 Amount of concrete
 Etc.
 Array can be in close proximity to the house, but doesn’t require roof
penetrations
 Roof Mount Considerations
 simple and cheap to install
 offer no flexibility in the
orientation of your solar panel
 can only support small
photovoltaic units.
 Penetrate the roof as little as
possible
 Weather proof all holes to prevent
leaks
 May require the aid of a
professional roofer
 Re-roof before putting modules up
 Leave 4-6” airspace between roof
and modules
 On sloped roofs, fasten mounts to
rafters not decking
Tracking Considerations
 Can increase system performance by:
 15% in winter months
 30% in summer months

 Adds additional costs to the array

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