Basics of Solar Cell

What is a Solar Cell?

A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell or PV cell) is defined as an
electrical device that converts light energy into electrical energy through the
photovoltaic effect. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode. Solar cells
are a form of photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical
characteristics – such as current, voltage, or resistance – vary when exposed
to light.
Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as
solar panels. The common single junction silicon solar cell can produce a
maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6 volts.

Working Principle of Solar Cell

When light reaches the p-n junction, the light photons can easily enter in the
junction, through very thin p-type layer. The light energy, in the form of
photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to create a number of
electron-hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium
condition of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can
quickly come to the n-type side of the junction.
Similarly, the holes in the depletion can quickly come to the p-type side of
the junction. Once, the newly created free electrons come to the n-type side,
cannot further cross the junction because of barrier potential of the junction.
Similarly, the newly created holes once come to the p-type side cannot
further cross the junction became of same barrier potential of the junction.
As the concentration of electrons becomes higher in one side, i.e. n-type side
 of the junction and concentration of holes becomes more in another side, i.e.
the p-type side of the junction, the p-n junction will behave like a small
battery cell. A voltage is set up which is known as photo voltage. If we
connect a small load across the junction, there will be a tiny current flowing
through it.

V-I Characteristics of a Photovoltaic Cell

Materials Used in Solar Cell

The materials which are used for this purpose must have band gap close to
1.5ev. Commonly used materials are-

1. Silicon.
2. GaAs.
3. CdTe.
4. CuInSe2

Criteria for Materials to be Used in Solar Cell

1. Must have band gap from 1ev to 1.8ev.

2. It must have high optical absorption.
3. It must have high electrical conductivity.
4. The raw material must be available in abundance and the cost of the
material must be low.
 Advantages of Solar Cell
1. No pollution associated with it.
2. It must last for a long time.
3. No maintenance cost.

Disadvantages of Solar Cell

1. It has high cost of installation.
2. It has low efficiency.
3. During cloudy day, the energy cannot be produced and also at night we will
not get solar energy.

Types of solar cells

The major types of solar panels

There are three major types of solar
panels: monocrystalline, polycrystalline, and thin-film. Each type has its
own unique advantages and disadvantages, and the solar panel type best
suited for your installation will depend on factors specific to your own
property and desired system characteristics.

Efficienc
Solar Cell Type Advantages Disadvantages
y-Rate

High efficiency
Monocrystalline rate; optimised
Solar Panels ~20% for commercial Expensive
(Mono-SI) use; high life-time
value

Sensitive to high
Polycrystalline temperatures; lower
Solar Panels (p- ~15% Lower price lifespan & slightly
Si) less space
efficiency

Thin-Film: ~7-10% Relatively low shorter warranties

 Efficienc
Solar Cell Type Advantages Disadvantages
y-Rate

Amorphous costs; easy to

Silicon Solar produce & & lifespan
Panels (A-SI) flexible

Solar tracker &

Very high
Concentrated PV cooling system
~41% performance &
Cell (CVP) needed (to reach
efficiency rate
high efficiency rate)

 Crystalline silicon solar cell (c-Si)

 Float-zone silicon
 Dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC)
 Gallium arsenide germanium solar cell (GaAs)
 Hybrid solar cell
 Luminescent solar concentrator cell (LSC)
 Micromorph (tandem-cell using a-Si/μc-Si)
 Monocrystalline solar cell (mono-Si)
 Multi-junction solar cell (MJ)
 Nanocrystal solar cell
 Organic solar cell (OPV)
 Perovskite solar cell
 Photoelectrochemical cell (PEC)
 Plasmonic solar cell
 Polycrystalline solar cell (multi-Si)
 Solid-state solar cell
 Thin-film solar cell (TFSC)
SILICON

Silicon is, by far, the most common material used in solar cells, representing
approximately 90% of the modules sold today. It is also the second most
abundant material on Earth (after oxygen) and the most common
semiconductor used in computer chips. Crystalline silicon cells are made of
silicon atoms connected to one another to form a crystal lattice. This lattice
provides an organized structure that makes conversion of light into
electricity more efficient.

Solar cells made out of silicon currently provide a combination of high

efficiency, low cost, and long lifetime. Modules are expected to last for 25
years or more, still producing more than 80% of their original power after
this time.

THIN-FILM PHOTOVOLTAICS

A thin-film solar cell is made by depositing one or more thin layers of PV

material on a supporting material such as glass, plastic, or metal. There are
two main types of thin-film PV semiconductors on the market today:
cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS). Both
materials can be deposited directly onto either the front or back of the
module surface.

CdTe is the second-most common PV material after silicon and enables low-
cost manufacturing processes. While this makes them a cost-effective
alternative, their efficiencies still aren't quite as high. CIGS cells have
 favorable electronic and optical properties, though the complexity involved
in combining four elements makes the transition from lab to manufacturing
or challenging. Both CdTe and CIGS require more protection than silicon to
enable long-lasting operation outdoors.

ORGANIC PHOTOVOLTAICS

Organic PV, or OPV, cells are composed of carbon-rich polymers and can be
tailored to enhance a specific function of the cell, such as sensitivity to a
certain type of light. This technology has the theoretical potential to provide
electricity at a lower cost than silicon or thin-film technologies. OPV cells are
only about half as efficient as crystalline silicon and have shorter operating
lifetimes, but could be less expensive to manufacture in high volumes. They
can also be applied to a variety of supporting materials, making OPV able to
serve a wide variety of uses.

Band Gap
1. The band gap is the minimum amount of energy required for an electron to
break free of its bound state.
2. When the band gap energy is met, the electron is excited into a free state,
and can therefore participate in conduction.
3. The band gap determines how much energy is needed from the sun for
conduction, as well as how much energy is generated.
4. A hole is created where the electron was formerly bound. This hole also
participates in conduction.

Band Gaps Of Different Materials

Material Symbol Band Gap (eV)
Silicon Si 1.11
Cadmium telluride CdTe 1.49
Cadmium selenide CdSe 1.73
Copper oxide CuO 1.20
Gallium arsenide GaAs 1.43
Indium phosphide InP 1.35
Selenium Se 1.74

Diffusion Length
1. Diffusion length is the average length a carrier moves between generation
and recombination.
2. Semiconductor materials that are heavily doped have greater recombination
rates and consequently, have shorter diffusion lengths.
3. Higher diffusion lengths are indicative of materials with longer lifetimes and
are, therefore, an important quality to consider with semiconductor
materials.

Recombination
Recombination is the opposite process to generation. An electron
recombines with a hole and gives up the energy to produce either heat or
light. A device where the recombination is optimized to give off light is also
called a light emitting diode (LED).
1. There are three types of recombination; Radiative, Shockley-Read-Hall, and
Auger.
2. Auger and Shockley-Read-Hall recombination dominate in silicon-based solar
cells.
3. Among other factors, recombination is associated with the lifetime of the
material, and thus of the solar cell.

Fill Factor
The fill factor is the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the
product of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. This is a key
parameter in evaluating performance.
Fill Factor is a measure of the “squareness” of the IV curve.

Short-Circuit Current
The short-circuit current and the open-circuit voltage are the maximum
current and voltage respectively from a solar cell. However, at both of these
operating points, the power from the solar cell is zero. The "fill factor", more
commonly known by its abbreviation "FF", is a parameter which, in
conjunction with Voc and Isc, determines the maximum power from a solar
cell. The FF is defined as the ratio of the maximum power from the solar cell
to the product of Voc and Isc so that:
FF=PMPVOC×ISCFF=PMPVOC×ISC
FF=VMPIMPVOCISC
 The short-circuit current is the current through the solar cell when the
voltage across the solar cell is zero (i.e., when the solar cell is short
circuited)

Open circuit voltage and closed circuit current are the two situations in
which a power source (battery, generator, solar cell, whatever) is delivering
no power to a load. These two situations can be used to calculate the
internal impedance of a power source.

Power conversion Efficiency

The conversion efficiency of a photovoltaic (PV) cell, or solar cell, is the
percentage of the solar energy shining on a PV device that is converted into
usable electricity.

What are Perovskites?

The terms "perovskite" and "perovskite structure" are often used
interchangeably. Technically, a perovskite is a type of mineral that was first
found in the Ural Mountains and named after Lev Perovski (who was the
founder of the Russian Geographical Society).

True perovskite (the mineral) is composed of calcium, titanium and oxygen

in the form CaTiO3. Meanwhile, a perovskite structure is anything that has
the generic form ABX3 and the same crystallographic structure as perovskite
(the mineral).

 A = An organic cation - methylammonium (CH 3NH3+) or formamidinium

(NH2CHNH2+)
 B = A big inorganic cation - usually lead(II) (Pb 2+)
 X3= A slightly smaller halogen anion – usually chloride (Cl -) or iodide (I-)
A perovskite solar cell is a type of solar cell which includes a perovskite
structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-inorganic lead or tin
halide-based material, as the light-harvesting active layer. Perovskite
materials such as methylammonium lead halides are cheap to produce and
relatively simple to manufacture.

Localized surface plasmon resonance

Localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) is an optical phenomena

generated by light when it interacts with conductive nanoparticles (NPs) that
are smaller than the incident wavelength. As in surface plasmon resonance,
the electric field of incident light can be deposited to collectively excite
electrons of a conduction band, with the result being coherent localized
plasmon oscillations with a resonant frequency that strongly depends on the
composition, size, geometry, dielectric environment and separation distance
of NPs.

Localized Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) is an attractive characteristic of

metal nanoparticles SPR is a collective oscillation of conduction band
electrons in metal nanoparticles excited by the electromagnetic of incident
light.

Surface plasmon resonance or SPR is an optical effect that can be

utilized to measure the binding of molecules in real-time without the use of
labels. SPR instruments are primarily used to measure the binding kinetics
and affinity of molecular interactions.

Solar Spectrum
The energy in solar irradiation comes in the form of electromagnetic waves
of a wide spectrum. Longer wavelengths have less energy (for instance
infrared) than shorter ones such as visible light or UV.

Stokes shift
It is the difference (in energy, wavenumber or frequency units) between
positions of the band maxima of the absorption and emission spectra
(fluorescence and Raman being two examples) of the same electronic
transition.

The Stokes shift is due to the fact that some of the energy of the excited
fluorophore is lost through molecular vibrations that occur during the brief
lifetime of the molecule's excited state. This energy is dissipated as heat to
surrounding solvent molecules as they collide with the excited fluorophore.
Photon energy
It is the energy carried by a single photon. The amount of energy is directly
proportional to the photon's electromagnetic frequency and thus,
equivalently, is inversely proportional to the wavelength. The higher the
photon's frequency, the higher its energy. Equivalently, the longer the
photon's wavelength, the lower its energy.
Photon energy can be expressed using any unit of energy. Among the units
commonly used to denote photon energy are the electronvolt (eV) and
the joule

The amount of energy in those photons is calculated by this equation, E =

hf, where E is the energy of the photon in Joules; h is Planck's constant,
which is always 6.63 * 10^-34 Joule seconds; and f is the frequency of the
light in hertz
As one joule equals 6.24 × 1018 eV

E=h.f

E =photon energy

Planck's
h =
constant
wave
f =
frequency
Excitation and ionization
Excitation explains the movement of an electron from a lower energy level to
a higher energy level whereas ionization potential explains the complete
removal of an electron from an energy level.

When excitation occurs the orbital electron is promoted to a higher energy

level within the atom, but when ionisation occurs the electron receives
enough energy to completely leave the atom.

Spin coating
Spin coating is a procedure used to deposit uniform thin films onto flat
substrates. Usually a small amount of coating material is applied on the
center of the substrate, which is either spinning at low speed or
not spinning at all.

Spin coating is the simplest method for fabricating a film on a substrate.

Thin-resist layers for photolithography are coated with this technique.

Doctor blade (or tape casting)

Doctor blade (or tape casting) is one of the widely used techniques for
producing thin films on large area surfaces.In the doctor blading process, a
well-mixed slurry consisting of a suspension of ceramic particles along with
other additives (such as binders, dispersants or plasticizers) is placed on a
substrate beyond the doctor blade.

Ultrasonication

Definition: The irradiation of a liquid sample with ultrasonic (>20 kHz)

waves resulting in agitation. Sound waves propagate into the liquid media
result in alternating high-pressure (compression) and low-pressure
(rarefaction) cycles. During rarefaction, high-intensity sonic waves create
small vacuum bubbles or voids in the liquid, which then collapse violently
(cavitation) during compression, creating very high local temperatures.

Electron and Hole transport layer

The electron transport layer plays a vital function in extracting
and transporting photogenerated electrons, modifying the interface,
aligning the interfacial energy level and minimizing the charge
recombination in perovskite solar cells.

The purpose of an electron transport layer (or of a hole transport layer )

between the active layer and the cathode (or the anode) is to reduce the
recombination of the free charge carriers (electrons and holes) with their
counterparts on defects which exist on the interfaces.

Electron transport layer (ETL) is a layer which has high electron mobility and
high electron affinity. Thus in this layer holes are blocked and cannot go
through while electrons can flow through. Hole transport layer (HTL) do the
opposite of (ETL) behavior it blocks electrons to fllow through .

Materials of these characteristics are used to optimize both the performance

and the stability of the devices.

Quantum dot solar cell (QDSC)

A quantum dot solar cell (QDSC) is a solar cell design that uses quantum
dots as the absorbing photovoltaic material. It attempts to replace bulk
materials such as silicon, copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) or cadmium
telluride (CdTe). Quantum dots have bandgaps that are tunable across a
wide range of energy levels by changing their size. In bulk materials, the
bandgap is fixed by the choice of material(s). This property makes quantum
dots attractive for multi-junction solar cells, where a variety of materials are
used to improve efficiency by harvesting multiple portions of the solar
spectrum.

What is heterojunction solar?

Hetereojunction solar cells combine two different technologies into one cell:
a crystalline silicon cell sandwiched between two layers of amorphous “thin
film” silicon. Used together, these technologies allow more energy to be
harvested compared to using either technology alone.

Graphene
Graphene has shown great potential in transparent electrodes as a
replacement for indium tin oxide (ITO) in polymer-based solar cells.

Graphene has emerged as one of the most promising nanomaterials

because of its unique combination of superb properties: it is not only one of
the thinnest but also strongest materials; it conducts heat better than all
other materials; it is a great conductor of electricity; it is optically
transparent.

Plasmonic Effect
The plasmonic effect is the interaction between free electrons in metal nano
particles and incident light.

Plasmonics effects are found in both cases, bulk as well as metal

nanoparticles. However, It is a matter of the desired effect which can be
different in two cases. For example if you're concerned for localised surface
plasmon resonance, hotspots generations, nanoparticle case is better.
For plasmonic effect generation there are two main conditions first is free
electron and second dielectric properties. both conditions present when we
use nano metal particles compared to bulk metal.

plasmonic effects are more prominent in Nanoparticles and thin films than in
bulk material because of localized effects are generated by same number of
photons for less number of particles(electrons) to oscilate for genration of
plasma oscillation.

Shell thickness
0.8 mm

What is a Schottky Diode?

A Schottky diode, also known as a hot carrier diode, is a semiconductor diode
which has a low forward voltage drop and a very fast switching action. There
is a small voltage drop across the diode terminals when current flows
through a diode.
In a Schottky diode, a semiconductor–metal junction is formed between a
semiconductor and a metal, thus creating a Schottky barrier. The N-type
semiconductor acts as the cathode and the metal side acts as the anode of
the diode. This Schottky barrier results in both a low forward voltage drop
and very fast switching.
Schottky diodes are high-current diodes used primarily in high-frequency and
fast-switching applications. They are also known as hot-carrier diodes. The
term hot-carrier is derived from the higher energy level of electrons in the n
region compared to those in the metal region. A Schottky diode symbol is
shown in Above Figure. A Schottky diode is formed by joining a doped
semiconductor region (usually n-type) with a metal such as gold, silver,
or platinum. Rather than a pn junction, there is a metal-to-semiconductor
junction, as shown in Below Figure. The forward voltage drop is typically
around 0.3 V because there is no depletion region as in a pn junction diode.

The Schottky diode operates only with majority carriers. There are no
minority carriers and thus no reverse leakage current as in other types of
diodes. The metal region is heavily occupied with conduction-band electrons,
and the n-type semiconductor region is lightly doped. When forward-biased,
the higher energy electrons in the n region are injected into the metal region
where they give up their excess energy very rapidly. Since there are no
minority carriers, as in a conventional rectifier diode, there is a very
rapid response to a change in bias. The Schottky is a fast-switching diode,
and most of its applications make use of this property. It can be used in high-
frequency applications and in many digital circuits to decrease switching
times.

The Shockley diode (named after physicist William Shockley) is a four-

layer semiconductor diode, which was one of the first semiconductor devices
invented. It was a "pnpn" diode. It is equivalent to a thyristor with a
disconnected gate.

SEM
Scanning electron microscope (SEM) pictures are useful for examining the
fine structure of solar cells. Even in large area commercial devices, for
example, an SEM photograph can show the depth of the rear surface
aluminium alloyed layer. Many of the cell features are of the order of microns
and so not possible to view with an optical microscope. An additional
advantage of an electron microscope is its higher depth of field. With an
electron microscope it is possible to have the whole device in focus at once
whereas in an optical microscope at high magnification only parts of the
device will be in focus at any time.

TEM
Conventional transmission electron microscopes (TEM) analyze an ultra-thin
specimen by irradiating it with an electron beam that exhibits a uniform
density. As the energy of the electron beam passes through the sample, it
interacts with it to form an image that represents its electron-intensity
distribution.

The TEM operates on the same basic principles as the

light microscope but uses electrons instead of light. Because the
wavelength of electrons is much smaller than that of light, the optimal
resolution attainable for TEM images is many orders of magnitude better
than that from a light microscope.

FTIR and XRD

ier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction (XRD)
analysis.

Quantum Efficiency (Q.E.)

The "quantum efficiency" (Q.E.) is the ratio of the number of carriers
collected by the solar cell to the number of photons of a given energy
incident on the solar cell. The quantum efficiency may be given either as a
function of wavelength or as energy.