PV Cells: Operating Principle and

Outputs of Solar Cells

Research Centre for Synchronism of Green Energy, Electro-Anatomy, and
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 Solar Cells
Solar cells (large area p-n Junction
Diode) operate by converting sunlight
directly into electricity using the
electronic properties of a class of
material known as Semiconductors.

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Mahmud, EEE, CUET 5
Solar Cell & Module Applications

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Solar Panel/Module Applications

Mahmud, EEE, CUET

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 General Classification of PV Cells

PV Cells Silicon (Si) Crystalline Mono-Crystalline

(c-Si) (m-Si)

Poly-Crystalline
(p-Si)

Amorphous
Thin Film
(a-Si)

Compound Mono-Crystalline GaAs

Poly-Crystalline CdTe, CIS

Others (Organic-Materials, Dye, Perovskite,

QW, QD, IB etc.)
Monocrystalline solar
panels have solar cells
made from a single crystal
of silicon, while
Polycrystalline solar panels
have solar cells made from
many silicon fragments
melted together.
Monocrystalline solar panels
Monocrystalline solar panels are generally thought of as a premium solar product. The main advantages
of monocrystalline panels are higher efficiencies and sleeker aesthetics, but higher price point.
To make solar cells for monocrystalline solar panels, silicon is formed into bars and cut into wafers.
These types of panels are called “monocrystalline” to indicate that the silicon used is single-crystal
silicon. Because the cell is composed of a single crystal, the electrons that generate a flow of
electricity have more room to move. As a result, monocrystalline panels are more efficient than their
polycrystalline counterparts.

Polycrystalline solar panels

Polycrystalline solar panels generally have lower efficiencies than monocrystalline options, but their
advantage is a lower price point. In addition, polycrystalline solar panels tend to have a blue hue
instead of the black hue of monocrystalline panels.
Polycrystalline solar panels are also made from silicon. However, instead of using a single crystal of
silicon, manufacturers melt many fragments of silicon together to form the wafers for the panel.
Polycrystalline solar panels are also referred to as “multi-crystalline,” or many-crystal silicon. Because
there are many crystals in each cell, there is less freedom for the electrons to move. As a result,
polycrystalline solar panels have lower efficiency ratings than monocrystalline panels.
Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline allotropic form of the semiconductor silicon.
It has a high absorption capacity and can therefore be used in solar cells with very small
layer thicknesses (usually about a factor of 100 smaller than in crystalline silicon), saving
on material costs and compensating for performance deficiencies caused by its comparably
low industry-maximum efficiency which is about 13%. Despite its lower performance as
compared to crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells, amorphous silicon solar cells can be
deposited at very low temperatures and on various structures, not only on glass but also
plastic. Due to their simplified and lower cost production, a-Si solar cells have mostly been
used for electronic devices with very little power requirements such as watches and pocket
calculators. However, in recent years improving production techniques and higher
achievements in performance efficiency have resulted in a wider range of applications of a-
Si modules, including building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) applications.
 Structure of Solar Cells
Basically 4 layers: On Substrate
 p-layer & n-layer
 Contact layers (front & back)
(finger electrodes & ARC)
Basic Structure of Solar Cells
 Operation of Solar Cell

Very Basic: Band Diagram, Electron & Hole

 Conduction band EC is separated from valance band EV by Eg
 Intrinsic and doping: Donor (P), acceptor (B)
 n-type, p-type, majority & minority carrier

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 Band Diagram of a Junction

When brought into contact electron and hole diffused: leaving behind
opposite charges & a potential barrier (Vbi) is formed which oppose
further diffusion. This Vbi pulls electron & holes opposite direction.
 Different p-n Junctions
A junction formed between n-type and p-type semiconductors;
1) Same material (homojunction)
2) Different materials (heterojunction)
3) Metal & semiconductor (Schottky/ohmic contact)
4) p-i-n junction: for wider transition zone

1) 3)

4) 2)
 Electric Current Under Bias

 Without external bias no current flow (Solar cell)

 At forward bias Vbi reduced & forward cuqrVrent flow,
Shockley (Diode) equation:
  Io[e kT  1]
 At reverse bias Vbi increased & no current flow.
 Basic Principle of p-n Junction
The Fermi levels on either side are forced in to coincidence,
causing the valence and conduction bands to bend as shown in
fig.
 Potential barrier (Vbi) is formed, which is the key of cell
operation, mobile charge are depleted & form SCR
 Basic Principle of Solar Cells
 These bent bands produce a built-in electric field (Vbi)
 When a photon strikes, it may be reflected/absorbed/transmitted
 If absorbed then EHP is generated
 Diffusion and Drift before they recombine
 This is the origin of the photo current principle of solar cells

Vbi

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Basic Principle of Solar Cells

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 Operating Principle of Solar Cells
Neutral n-region Eo Neutral p-region

Drift Diffusion
Long λ -
+
Medium λ - Le Back
+ Electrode
Short λ -
+
Front contact
Lh

Depletion region

ln W lp
_
+
Light Absorption and Phonon
 Light Absorption in Solar Cells
PV use the quantum nature of light – photons…On a clear day
~ 4.4x1017 photon/cm2/s. Light absorption depends on material
We know: E(eV)=1.24/λ(μm)……………………. (A)
 Si (1.12 eV) – 1.13 μm – 40 mA/cm2
 CdTe (1.45 eV)- 0.856 μm- 27 mA/cm2
 a-Si:C (2.1 eV) – 0.59 μm - 12 mA/cm2
Light Absorption in Solar Cells (Cont.)
Photons are: Transmitted, Reflected, Recombined, EHP
generated (if load is connected current flow)
Solar Cell Materials and Thickness
 The PV Cells Efficiency Limit
It was first calculated by William Shockley and Hans Queisser in 1961. A solar
cell's energy conversion efficiency is the percentage of power converted from
sunlight to electrical energy under "standard test conditions"
The modern SQ Limit calculation is a
maximum efficiency of 33% for any
type of single junction solar cell. The
original calculation by Shockley and
Queisser was 30% for a silicon solar
cell.
Where Does 67% of Energy Loss Go?
47% of solar energy gets converted heat.
18% of photons pass through solar cell.
02% energy is lost from local
recombination of newly created holes
and electrons.
Thus, 33% of the sun's energy is
theoretically converted to electricity.
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Basic Structure of Solar Cells

T
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Electrical Model of a Solar Cell
A PV device can be
modeled as an ideal
diode in parallel with a
light-induced current
generator, ISC

ID
 Rsh ≈ ∞ Shunt
resistance, mainly due
to crystal
imperfections &
leakage current.

Rs ≈ 0 Series
resistance, arises from
the bulk conductivities
of the layers and from
the contacts.
 Equivalent Circuit of a Solar Cell
Iph Rs I
A

Id
Iph Rp RL
V

B
Solar cell L oad

T h e e q u i v a le nt c ir c u i t o f a s o la r c e l l
© 1 9 9 9 S . O. K a s a p , O p t o e l e c t ro nics(Pren tice Hall)
 Solar Cell Output Parameters
 In short circuit condition (V=0) all the currents
pass through the short circuit: Maximum I occurs
 In open circuit condition when I =0 all the light
generated current pass through the diode: Max V
 How about the Maximum Power (Pmax)
 Solar Cell Characteristics
 Dark characteristics
 Illuminated characteristics

Dark Characteristics: q V
The total current I is:   Io[e kT  1]
Where diode saturation current, Io is:
 Cell Illuminated Characteristics
 Current voltage characteristic:

 Illuminated current:

Dark
I
Vmax
Vo V
c
IL Imax
Pmax

Illuminated Isc
CURRENT – VOLTAGE (I-V) Characteristic of a SOLAR Cell
 Solar Cell Output Characteristics
Three parameters are usually used to characterize solar cell
performances that is outputs:

1. Short circuit current, Isc

2. Open circuit voltage, Voc
3. The fill factor, FF

 Short circuit current, Isc

 Isc = - IL
I sc
J sc 
A
A is area of the solar cells
 Diode current Io to Jo and
 Short circuit current Isc to Jsc
 Solar Cell’s I-V Curve
 The IV curve is the superposition of the IV curve of the solar cell
diode in the dark with the light-generated current. The light has
the effect of shifting the IV curve down into the fourth quadrant
where power can be extracted from the diode. Illuminating a cell
adds light generated current (IL) to the normal "dark" currents in
the diode so that the diode law becomes:

 The equation for the IV

curve in first quadrant is:

 The -1 term equation can

usually be neglected….

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 Solar Cell’s I-V Curve

 Several important solar cell

parameters which used to
characterize solar cells are
found from the IV curve:

1) Short-circuit current (ISC)

2) Open-circuit voltage (VOC)
3) Fill factor (FF) and
4) Conversion efficiency (η)

 Rearranging the equation

above gives the voltage in
terms of current:
 When I > IL the number in side the ln(…) is negative and undefined.
Then the solar cell goes into reverse bias (negative voltage)…….
 Short Circuit Current (Isc)
 The short-circuit current is the current
through the solar cell when the voltage
across the solar cell is zero (i.e., when
the solar cell is short circuited).
Written as ISC, see as in Fig.
 IL is the light generated current inside
the solar cell. At short circuit conditions
the externally measured current is
Isc. Since Isc is usually equal to IL, the
two are used interchangeably and for
simplicity the solar cell equation is
written with Isc in place of IL.

 For an ideal solar cell at most moderate resistive loss mechanisms,

the Isc and IL are identical. Therefore, the short-circuit current is
the largest current which may be drawn from solar cell.
 The Isc depends on: 1. Area of the solar cell 2. Light intensity (No.
of photons) 3. Spectrum of the incident light (AM1.5G) 4. Optical
properties (absorption and reflection) 5. Collection probability…..
 Open Circuit Voltage (Voc)
 The open-circuit voltage (VOC) is the maximum voltage available from
a solar cell, and this occurs at zero current. [The open-circuit voltage
corresponds to the amount of forward bias on the solar cell due to
the bias of the solar cell junction with the light-generated current.]
The open-circuit voltage is shown on the IV curve see Fig. An
equation for Voc is found by setting the net current equal to zero in
the solar cell equation to give:

# A casual inspection of the

above equation might indicate
that VOC goes up linearly with
temperature. However, this is
not the case as I0 increases
rapidly with temperature. The
effect of temperature on VOC
is complicated and varies with
cell technology. VOC decreases
Mahmud, EEE, CUET with increased temperature…..
 Solar Cell’s Fill Factor (FF)
 The Isc and Voc are the
maximum current and
voltage respectively from a
solar cell. However, at both
of these operating points,
the power output from the
solar cell is zero.
 The "fill factor, FF", is a
FF <1 &
parameter which, in
≈ 0.8 only
conjunction with Voc and
Isc, determines the
maximum power output
from a solar cell.
 The FF is defined as the
ratio of the maximum
power from the solar cell
to the product of Voc and
Isc So that:
 Solar Cells Conversion Efficiency (Cont)
The conversion efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to
compare the performance of one solar cell to another. Efficiency is
defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar cell to input
energy from the Sun.
 Efficiency, η = Pmax / Pin   F F  V o c  Isc  1 0 0%
P in

As in ideal condition (AM1.5G,

  V o c J s c FF
2 5 ° C ) the total radiated power
incident on the cell Pin is 100
mW/cm2,or 1 kW/m2 the
efficiency reduces:
The standards for cell testing are:
1) Air mass 1.5 (AM1.5G) terrestrial & Air Mass 0 (AM0) for space cells.
2) Intensity of 100 mW/cm2 (1 kW/m2, also known as one-sun illumination).
3) Cell temperature of 25 °C (not 300 K).
4)Four point probe to remove thMeahmeufdf, EeEEc,CtUEoTf probe/cell contact resistance.
History of Development of Solar PV
 Research Topics
1) Current status and future forecasts of floating PV (FPV)
2) Recent status and future views of Solar Home System in BD
3) Current status and future predictions of BIPV
4) Recent status and future scenarios of IVPV
5) Current status and future prospects of Agro-PV
6) Up-to-date status and future outlook of NPV and FIT
7) Current status and future prospects of global PV market
8) Current status and future forecasts of solar parks over 1 GW
9) Capability of solar power plant to replace coal/gas plants in BD
10) Solar PV modules degradation problems and way out
11) Current status & future projections c-Si solar cells and modules
12) Status & future predictions of thin-film solar cells and modules
13) Current status and future prospects of Perovskite solar cells
14) Status and future analysis of CdTe solar cells and modules
15) Status and future forecasts of CIGS solar cells and modules
16) Current status and future predictions of CZTS solar cells
17) Status & future scenarios of tandem solar cell and modules
18) Existing status and future views emerging solar cells & modules
 Short List Research Topics
1) Current status and future prospects of Perovskite solar cells
2) Status & future scenarios of tandem solar cell and modules
3) Existing status and future views emerging solar cells & modules
Perovskite solar cells: the future of
solar power
Perovskite solar cell (PSC)
It is a type of solar cell which includes a perovskite-
structured compound, most commonly a hybrid organic-
inorganic lead or tin halide-based material, as the light-
harvesting active layer. Perovskite materials, such
as methylammonium lead halides and all-inorganic
caesium lead halide, are cheap to produce and simple to
manufacture.
Solar cell efficiencies of laboratory-scale devices using Fig: Crystal structure of
CH3NH3PbX3 perovskites (X=I, Br
these materials have increased from 3.8% in 2009 to and/or Cl). The methylammonium
25.5% in 2020 in single-junction architectures, and, in cation (CH3NH3+) is surrounded by
PbX6 octahedra.
silicon-based tandem cells, to 29.15%, exceeding the
maximum efficiency achieved in single-junction silicon
solar cells. Perovskite solar cells are therefore the
fastest-advancing solar technology as of 2016. With the
potential of achieving even higher efficiencies and very
low production costs, perovskite solar cells have
become commercially attractive. Core problems and
research subjects include their short- and long-term
stability. Fig: Perovskite Mineral Crystal.
Perovskite solar cells: why they’re the future of solar power

Fig: Perovskite solar cells convert a high fraction of

incident light directly into usable current. Credit: Fig: This thin-film perovskite cell glows as sunlight passes
Fabian Ruf/Scilight. through it. Image source: TNO
 Fig: How sunlight causes electrons to become charge carriers in a solar cell.

Fig: Perovskites can be tuned to various bandgaps within a wide range, while other materials only have one.
 Fig: Schematic of a sensitized perovskite solar cell in which the active layer consist of a layer
of mesoporous TiO2 which is coated with the perovskite absorber. The active layer is contacted with an n-type
material for electron extraction and a p-type material for hole extraction. b) Schematic of a thin-film perovskite solar
cell. In this architecture in which just a flat layer of perovskite is sandwiched between two selective contacts. c)
Charge generation and extraction in the sensitized architecture. After light absorption in the perovskite absorber the
photogenerated electron is injected into the mesoporous TiO2 through which it is extracted. The concomitantly
generated hole is transferred to the p-type material. d) Charge generation and extraction in the thin-film architecture.
After light absorption both charge generation as well as charge extraction occurs in the perovskite layer.
 Different types of perovskite solar cells

Fig: Thin-film vs tandem solar cell structure. Image source: U.S. DOE.
 Pros and cons of perovskites
Advantages
 Relatively easy to manufacture and deposit onto a surface using low-
cost processes
 Potential for high power conversion efficiency
 Tunable bandgap, meaning it can be manufactured to be almost ideal
for solar energy generation
 Production requires 20 times less material than silicon cells, and
doesn’t use rare earth metals
 Manufacturing process is much less energy intensive than that of
traditional solar cells
Disadvantages
 Perovskites break down over time when exposed to moisture, light,
heat and oxygen, meaning there needs to be additional technologies
developed to stabilize the cells for widespread use
 The very best perovskites at generating energy contain lead, which is
a neurotoxin; however, the industry is working on ways to reduce
potential perovskite toxicity
 Perovskite cells are not yet ready for commercial sales
Let us nurture the nature, so that we can have a
better future