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Unified Design
of Steel Structures
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WILLIAM ..J. PESCE PETER B OOTH WILEY
PRESIDENT ANO CHIEF EXECUTIVE OFTICER CHAIRMAN OF' Tt 11:: 0CARD
Unified Design
of Steel Structures

Louis F. Geschwiodner
Vice Presidem of Engineering and R£·~~£m:h
American lnstitwe of Steel Constrm lltm
(Ilid

Professor Emeritus u.f Architecw ral En o,: meering

The Pennsylvania State Univer.~ity

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Preface

INTENDED AUDIENCE
T hi-. book presents the design or .,teel building structures based on lhe.:: J5 unified r,pec-
i fication. ANSI/AISC 360-05 Spec:ijicmion for Structural Steel Bu il~ t , It is intended
primarily as a text for a first course in steel Jcsign for civil and an.:i' tectural engineers.
Such a course usually occurs in the third or fourth year or an engir ~.:~rm; i'rogram. The
book can also be used in a seconu. building-oriented cour'ie in !>!eel Lie'•= ".de rending on the
covemge in the fi rsr course. In addition to its use as an undergraduate h!\l. it pro' tde~ a good
review l'or practicing engineers looking to learn the provision:-. ol tht. unified ..r-ecification
nnd to convert their practice from either or the old spcci!kation., tn the nt!\\ 'rt:~ukation.
User!> are expected to have a fim1 knowledge or statics and i-lrength nf maten ...., ..:nd have
easy acccs:-. to the AlSC Steel Con,truction Manual, 13lh Ediuon.

UNIFIED ASD AND LRFD

A preferred approach to the de,1gn of steel ~tructurcs hai- been clusiYe O\ er th.: ..;,,
20 year. In 1986. the American Jn,ntute of Steel Cono;truction (AlSC1 i~<;uc=d tl, '"!N
U)(Jd and Resistance Factor De.\i~n tLRFD) Spec[ficarwn for Struc:rural SteH Bw t. l-!.'
Thi ... -;pecification came after alm<hl 511 ~CaN of publication of an Allowable Strev~ o;!,tgn
(ASD) speci fication. Unfommarel~. LRFD was accepted by the academtc commun·t~ but
not by the professional engineering community. Although AISC revhed the tonmll ot the
ASD specification in 1989. it had not updated it!. provisions for over 25 ~<!:u... Thi" use
of two specifications was :.ccn a., an unde-,irnblc ... ituation by the profe,,wn-. and m 200 I
AISC began the development ot a combined ASD ::md LRFD specification In ~005 . ,-\ [SC
published i£S first unified specification. combining the provisiom lll i'<"h the LRFD and
ASD specifications into a ... ingle standard for the design or steel buJh.hr1_; ... trucrurcs. Tl1i!.
new specification. ANSUAlSC 360-05 Spec:ific:wion for Strllclural Stt. ,.J B111ldi118S. reflect.<;
a major change in philosophy by AISC. one thm makes the u-;e ol \ ~D am.i LRFD equally
acceprable approaches for the design of steel built.l ings.
The reat.ler familiar with past editions of the ASD and LRFD ... peci lications will un-
doubted ly question how these two diverse t.lesign philosophic' can he eA'ectively combined
into one .,pecification. This is a reasonable question 10 aslo... The primary answer is that this
!>pecificauon is not a combination of the old ASD and LRFD pro' hions. lt is a new approach
with u new ASD that uses the same :strength equation-. a' the llt!\\ LRFD. A combination
of the old ASD provisions with the old LRFD pro\lstnn' could lead. in -;ome cases. ro a
de~ign wherein an element is treated as behaving ela... w.. all~ lor ASD design and plasticall~
for LRFD design. The ooifieu ~•pecification take:. o.t J1fterent approach. h is based on the
understanding that the strength of an element or ... mu:ture. called the nominal strength in the
'\pccilication. can be detemtined independent of the uesign philoi.ophy. Once that nominaJ
strength i determined. the available strength for ASD or LRFD ill determined as a function
of that nominal strength. Thus. the a' ailt-tble "trength olthe element is alv.ays based on the
same behavior and no inconsistency in behu,ior re~ull~ from the LLse of ASD or LRFD. This
important aspect of the unified specification is further cxplai ned in Chaprer I.
' 'i Preface

CHAI'\GES [\ BUILDDIG LOADS

ln addition to the provisions for c;teel de!.ign issued b) \1SC. -.tructuraJ engineering has
-.ecn many changes in the area of load!> for which building' mu~t be designed. The Amer-
rcan Society of Ci\ il Engineers (ASCE) is conlinuall) re\1-.mg ASCE-7 Minimum Design
Load~ for Buildings and Other Strttcfrlres. its ~tandard for building load-,. The International
Code Council <ICC) has i<isued tL'> lmcmationaJ Building Code tiBCl. and the National
Fire Protection A:-.sociation (NFPAl hth is\ued it" model building code C~FPA 5000). The
major changes brought about by the!-.e new ~tandard~ are the in..:lusinn of requirements
for consideration of ~eismic loading. which now upplie~ to almo~t 1he entire country. ln
re~ponse to the expansion of the requirements for <>cic;mic: tlesign. AlSC i..-.ued ANSl!AJSC
341-05 Sei.~mic Prol'isiom for Structural Steel Builcli11gs. a standard to guide the design of
~tee I building structure5to resist sei~mic load!.. For the calculation of load~ within Ibis text.
ASCE 7-05 provisions are used. For any actual design. the designer mu<.t uc;e tbe loadings
c-.tabli~hed by 1he governing builuing code. The AJSC seismic provision:- are discussed in
Chapter 13.

CNITS
ANSIIAISC 360-05 is. as much as pos\ible, a unitless specification. ln those rare instances
where equations could nOt be wriucn in a unitlco:;s rorm. two equations are given. one in
U.S. customary unit~ and one in SI units. The Manual presents all of its material in U.S.
customary units. The tonstruction tndustry in thi-. country ha~ not adopted Sl unit~ in any
visible way. and it is not clear that they w1ll in the foreseeable future. Thus. this book uses
only U.S. customary unit-..

TOPICAL ORGANIZATION
Chapters I through 3 present the general mmerial applicable to all steel StrUctures. This
i' followed in Chapters 4 through 9 with H presentation of member design. Chapters 10
through 12 discuss connection~ and Chapter 13 provides an introduction ro seismic design.
In Chapter I. the Lex! addres~es the principles or limit states design upon which all
steel de~ign is based. It shows how the~e principle~ are incorporated into both LRFD and
ASD approaches. Chapter 2 i ntroduce~ the development of load factor~. resistance factors.
and safety factors. It discusses load combinations and compares the calculation of required
~trength for both LRFD and ASD. Chapter 3 discu<>ses steel a.~ a structural material. It
describes the availability of steel in a variety or ~hapes and the grades of sreel available for
con!'truction.
Once the foundation for steel design i!. established. the various member types arc con-
~idercd. Tension members are addre~-;ed in Chap1er 4. compres~ion members in Chapter 5.
and bending membep; in Chapter 6. Chapter 7 cover-. plate girders. which are simply bend-
mg members made from individual plates. Chapter 8 treat~ member5 subjected to combined
a\ tal load and bendjng a~ well as design of brncing. Chapter 9 deals "itb composite mem-
bef'.. that is. members composed of both steel and concrete working together to provide tbe
a\ :ulahle qrength. Each of thec;c chapter" begins with a discussion of that particular member
t~ pe and hO\\ it is used in building,. Thb is followed by a discussion of the specification
pro\ •~ion~ and the behavior from which those prtwt:;ions have been derived. The LRFD
and ASD de!'.ign philosophic~ of the 2005 ~pccilication are U!>ed throughout. Design exam-
ples that use the specification provision" directly are provided along with examples using
 Preface vii

the variety of design aids available in the AlSC Steel Construction Manual. AU examples
that have an LRFD and ASD component are provided for both approaches. Throughout this
book, ASD examples, or portiom. of examples that address the ASD approach, ru·e presented
with shaded background for ease of identification.
The member-oriented chapters are followed by chapters addressing connection design.
Chapter 10 introduces the variety of potential connection types and di;,cusses the strength
of bolts, welds, and connecting elements. Chapter II addresses simple connections. This
includes simple beam shear connections and light bracing conr1ection . Chapter 12 deals
with moment-resisting connections. As with the member-oriented chapte~. the basic prin-
ciples of limit states design are developed first. This is followed by the 3pplication of the
provisions to si mple shear connections and beam-to-column moment connections through
extensive examples in both LRFD and ASD.
The text concludes in Chapter 13 with an introduction to steel system" for ,ei mic force
resistance. lt discusses the va1iery of structural framing systems available and approved for
inclusion in the seismic force re. isting system.

EXAMPLES AND HOMEWORK PROBLEMS IN LRFD AND ASD

The LRFD and ASD design philo ophies of the 2005 specification are used throughout.
Design exan1ples that use the specificarjon provisions directly are provided along with ex-
amples using the variety of design aid available in the AlSC Steel Construction .'vfmuwl.
All examples that have an LRFD and ASD component are provided for both approaches.
Throughout this book, ASD examples. or portions of examples that acldre the ASD ap-
proach, are presented with shaded background for ease of identification.

GOAL: Select a dottble-angle tension member for usc as a web member in a truss and detenrune the
maximum area reduction that would be permilled for holes and shear lag.

GIVEN: The member must carry an ASD required strength. P" = 270 kips. Use equal leg angles of
A36 steel.

Step 1: Determine the minimum required gross area based on the limit state oi ~ ~eJdmg

A8 min= 270/(36/ 1.67) = 12.5 in. 2

S tep 2: Based on thls minimum gross area, from Manual Table 1·15, select

Each chapter includes homework problems ar the end of the chapter. These problems
are organized to follow the order of presentation of the material in the chapters. Several
problems are provided for each general subject. Problems are provided for both LRFD and
ASD solutions. There are also problems designed to show comparisons between ASD and
LRFD solutions. These problems show U1at in some instances one method might give a
more economical design, whereas in other jnstances the reverse is true.
'iii Preface

WEBSITE
The following resources are available from the bonl- website at www.wiley.com/
collegc/gcschwindner. Visit the SLUdcnt section uf Lht: website.
• Answers Selected homework problem answers are mailable on the student section
of the website.
• E rrata We have reviewed the text to make sure that it i~ as error-free as pos~ible.
However. if any errors are discovered. they will be listed on the book website as a
reference.
• If you encounter any errors as you are using the bool-. please ~end them directly to
the author ([email protected]) so we may include them on the web~ite. and correct these
errors in future editions.

RESOURCES FOR INSTRUCTORS

All resources for imHructors are available on the Instructor section of the website at
www. wiley.com/college/gescbwindner.
The following resources arc available only to instructor~ who adopt the text:
• Solutions M anual: Solutions for all homework problems in the text.
• Image Gallery of Text Figures
• Text Figures in PowerPoint l'ormat
Visit the Instructor section of the website at www.wiley.com/college/geschwindner to reg-
ister and request access to these resource .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would Uke to thank all of my former students for their interactions over the years and the
influence they had on the development of my approach to teaching. fn particular I would like
to thank Chris Crilly and Andy Kauffman for their assistance in reviewing the manuscript,
checking calculations. and assistance with the figures. I would like to than!-. Charles Carter
of AlSC, a former student and valued colleague, for his authorship of Chapter 13. A \pedal
note of thanks is due Larry Kruth of Douglas Steel Fabricating Corporation for his review
and assistance with figures in Chapters I 0 through 12. I also want to thank those who
reviewed the draft manu cripts for their valuable suggestions and those faculty members
who have cho~cn to cla~s test the draft of this text prior to the actual publication of the
work.

REVIEWERS
Sonya Cooper. New Mexico State University
Jo~e Gomez., Virginia Transportation Research Council
Jcffef) A. Laman. Penn State University
Dr. Craig C. Menzemer, The University of Akron
Lemn ~linnetyan, Clarkson University
Candace S. Sulzbach. Colorado School of Mines
 Preface ix

CLASS TESTERS
Dr. Chris Tuan, University of Nebraska at Omaha: Catherine Frcnd. Un iversiry of Min-
nesota: Davtd G PoJJock. Washington State University: Kelly Salyard... Bucknell University:
P. K. Saha. AJabama A&M Universiry: Marc Leviton. Louisiana State L niversiry: Chai H.
Yoo. Auburn University: Dr. Ani I Patnaik. South Dakota School of ~ltn~' and Technolog):
Bozidar Stjadinovic. Universit) of California; Dimitris C. Rizos. L ni,ersity of South
Carolina: Chia-Ming Uang. University or Califomia, San Diego.

Finally, l wam to thank my wife, Judy. for her understanding and U>~t not-so-subtle
nudge when it v. as really needetl. Her continued support has permiueu ne ' complete this
project.

Low\ F. Gt f.ln mdner

State Colle ~:e. P. l!llS)'II'al1ia
Contents

l. Introduction 3.3 Steel for Construction 39

3.4 Structural Steel Shapes 4:2
1.1 Scope 3.4. 1 ASTM A6 Standard Sh a~,
1.2 Principles of Structural De~ign 3.4.2 Hollow Shapes ~5
1.3 Parts of the Steel Structure 2 3.4.3 Plates and Bru:; 46
1.4 Types of Steel Structures R 3.4.4 Bui It-up Shapes .r
1.4.1 Beating Wall ConsUl.ICtion 9 3.5 Chemical Components of Structu,..... .;,.e.: -+8
I .-+.2 Beam-and-Column Construction 9 3.6 Grades of Structural Steel 51
1.4.3 Long-Span Construction 10 3.6.1 Steel for Shapes 51
1.4.4 High-Rise Construction I0 3.6.2 Steel for Plates anti Bar.. 5~
1.4.5 Single-Story Construction 11 3.6.3 Steel for Fastener' 53
1.5 Design Philosophies II 3.6.4 Steel for Welding 5o
1.6 Fundamentals of Allowable Strength De.~ign 3.6.5 Steel for Shear Stmb 56
lASD) 13 .-:..7 Availability of Structural Steel 56
1.7 Fundamentals of Load and Resistance Factor Design Problems 57
(LRFDJ 14
1.8 Inelastic Design 15 ~. Tension Members 58
1.9 Stntctural Safety 15
1.10 Limit States 17 -+ I 1ntroduction 58
1.11 Building Codes and Design Specitications 18 4. 2 Tension Members in Su·uctures 59
1.12 Problems 19 .l..~ Cro~s-Sect ional Shapes for Tension ~Jeml:>er, 61
J...l Behavior and Strength of Tension Meml:>er' 6.:-
-1-t.l Yielding 64
2. Loads, Load Factors, and Load
-1.-1.2 Rupture 64
Combinations 20
J..5 Cumputatiun of Areas 65
:!. 1 lnu-odu~.:tion 20 -+.5.1 Gros' Area 66
2.2 Bu:ilding Load Sources 21 4.5.2 Net Area 66
2.2. 1 Dead Load 21 4.5.3 lntluence of Hole Plal·em::n· 10
2.2.2 Live Load 21 4.5.4 Effective Net Area - •
2.2.3 Snow Loads 21 4.6 De~ign of Tension Member'

2.2.4 Wind Load 23 4.7 Bloc!.. Shear 81

2.2.5 Seismic Load 23 -1.8 Pin-Connected Member' "Y
-1.9 Eye· Bars and Rods q_:
2.2.6 Special Loads :23
Building Load Determination 25 4.10 Built-Up Tension Member, 9.3
2.3.1 Dead Load 25 4.11 Tnts~ Members 9:
2.3.2 Live Load 25 -1.12 Bracing Member" 93
2.3.3 Snow Load 27 4. 13 Problems 9-1
2.3.4 Wind Load 28
2.3.5 Seismic Load~ 19 5. Compression ~!embers 96
2..+ Load Combinations for ASD and LRFD 30
5.1 Compre,stnn \kmbcrs in Structures 96
2.5 Load Calculations 31
5.2 Cross-Sent\lt1<tl Shapes for Compression
2.6 Calibration 34
Member, 98
'2.i Problems 35
5.3 Compre" ron vlcmber Strength 99
.S.J.I Euler Column 99
3. Steel Building Matcri.aJs 36
5.3.2 Other Boundary Conditions 102
<I Introduction 36 5.3.J Combination of Bracing and End
32 Applicability of the AISC Specification 37 Conditions 103

xi
'\ii Con~

'\ :- R•.JI C(llumn 106 7.3 Homogeneous Plate Girder~ in Shear 195
5: ' \lSC Pro'l~ion' l 08 7.3.1 Nomcn~ion Field Action 196
' - '\rldlua- ~ L1mll State, for Compre...,ion 115 1.:u Ten~ion Field At'tlon 197
5 '> L.:n~th t:ttetts J I' 7.-1 Stiffener)> for Plate Girder~ 200
55 I Effective! Lc:ngth !'or Tncla,uc Column<; 121 7.4. 1 lmcrmcdi:Hc Sti Ifeners 200
'i.t> Element~ m C.}mprc~-.wr1 I :q 7A.2 Bearing Suffencr~ ~02
'\ - ' Des1gn Table' I:!S 7.4.3 Bearing Stiffener Design 205
5 i'l ,al Buckling anJ Fk,umi-Torsional 7.5 Problem~ 20!:!
au.· ng 133
5.'1 ~m:-k-Anglc Comprc,,inn \lcmb.:r' 134
8. Beam-Columns and Frame
5 I J Bu.ll-Up Member~ I .'6
5l Pn_,blem::. 137
Beha,·ior 209
8.1 Lmmduction 209
fl. Sending Members 139 l:\.2 Second-Order EJ'fec!S 210
8.3 Interaction Princtplcs 212
1:1 1 Bending Member:. in Stnlcture~ 139 8.4 Lmeraction Equ<ttions 213
6.2 Strength of Beams 140 8.5 Braced Frame!. 216
6.3 De~ign of Comp:tct Latemlly SupJX>rted 8.6 Moment Fr.une!> 223
Wide Runge Benms 145 8.7 Specilication Provbions for Stability Analysb and
6.-1 Design of Compoct L:.Herully Unsupp01tcd Design 231
Wide flange Beams 149 8.8 Initial Beam-Column Selection 232
6A.l Lateral Tor-.ionul Buckling 14() 8.9 Beam-Column Des1gn U!oing Manual Part 6 234
6.4.2 Moment Gratllcnt 153 !l.l () Combined Simple and Rigid Frames 2.17
6.5 Dc.<..ign of Noncompact Beams 159 8.11 Paruall) Res1.rained (PR) Frome~ 2~6
6.5.1 Local Buckling 159 8.12 Bmcing Design 255
6.5.2 Flange Lo~.:al Buckling 160 8.12. 1 Colum n Bracing 256
6.5.3 Web Local Budding 16:! 8.12.2 Beam Bwcing 256
6.o Design of Beams for Weak Axh. Bending 16-t 8.12.3 Frclllle Bracing 257
fl .7 Design of Scums for Shear 164 8.13 Problcml. 259
6JI C()ntinuous Beam<. 165
fl.9 Pl~tic Anal} srs and Dt•,•gn of Continuou!>
Be:~m~ 167
9. Composite Construction 264
t>. lll Prov ...ions lor Doublc-1'\ngle and Tee Mc1nbcrs 17 1 9.1 lntrodu~.:tion 264
6 I0.1 Yiclllmg 171 9.2 Advantages and Disad\antuges of Cornpositl! Beam
6 .10.:! Lateral-Torsional Buckling 171 Construction ?.67
6 I0 .~ Rang!!-LOcal Bm:kling 171 9.3 Shored versu~ Unshored Construction 268
6I Sm~lc-Angle Bending Member!> 173 9.4 Effecti\e Flange 268
6 I I Yielding 174 9.5 Strength of Composite Benms and Slab 269
6 . 11.~ Leg Local Bud ling 17-1 9.5.1 Fully Cumpo~>itc Beams 2.70
6 .11. ~ Lat~rni-Torsionnl Buckling 175 9.5.2 Partrally Comp<>~lle Beams 275
{l I~ \ I..- nh.: ' h B10xial Bending 175 9.5.J Composite Beam Design Tables 278
6.1 ' Sl!r" 11.'cJb1 1it~ Crncria for Beams 175 9.5A Negative Moment Strength 282
61 \ I Ddh:dillll 176 9.6 Shear Stud Strength 283
6.13 ~ \ Ji-f'".Jllc>fl 176 9.6.1 Number and Pluccrnent t)f Shear Studs J
6. U J Drilt 177 9.7 Composite Beams with Formed M!!t!ll Deck 285
6.14 Con.:enuab:J FtJrt~' on Beam5 179 9.7.1 Deck Rtb~ Perpt:ndiculur to Steel
6.15 Problem~ 1- tl Beam 286
9.7.2 Deck Rihs Paralleltc> Steel Beam 287
7. Plate Girders 181 9.8 Fully Encased Steel Beam), 293
9.9 Selecring a Secuon 293
7.I Background 181 9.1 (} Serviccubility Considerations 297
7.2 Homogeneous Plate Girder' m Bending 183 9 I0 I Denecuon Durrng Construcrion 297
7.~.I Noncom pact Web Pbtc Girders 18-l 9.I 0.2 Vibration Under Sen ice Loads 298
7.2.2. Slend!!r Web Plate Girder:. 188 9. 10.3 Live Load Dertcctions 298
 Contents xiii

9.11 Compo~ite Column' ~()I I 1.1I Bearn-Be.aring Plate\ and Column sa...e Plate~ 390
9.12 Composite Beam-Column-. 30-l I 1.12 Problems 3tJ I
9. 13 Problems 305
12. Moment Connections 393
1 ~.1 T) pc!> of Moment Connecuon~ 393
10. Connection Elements 307
12.2 Limit Slates 395
I0.1 lnu·oduc:tion ~07 12.3 Moment Conncc1ion Dc~ign '46
10.2 Ba~ic Connection~ 307 12.3.1 Direct Welded Flange Cor'h!.:-tion 397
I0.3 Beam-to-Column Connect1on' 309 12.3.2 Welded Flange Plate C<'nr;.>.:t.nn 401
10.4 Full) Restmmcd Connection\ 310 12.3.3 Bolted Flange Phue Cor.,~on 407
I0.5 Simple and Panially Re\traint!d Connection~ 311 12.-1 Column Stiffening 414
10.6 Mechanical Fa,tener\ ~ 12 12.4. 1 Flange Local Bending .!15
10.6.1 Common Boll\ '12 12.4.2 Web Local Yieldtng
I0.6.2 High-Strength Bolt' 313 12.4.3 Web Cnppling 4 6
10.6.3 Bolt Hole\ 314 12.4.4 Web Compression Bu~J..ltn; .!(()
10.7 Bolt Limit State~ 315 12.4.5 Web Panel Zone She.tr .1 16
10.7.1 Bolt Shear 315 Problem~ 422
10.7.2 Bolt Bearing ~17
10.7.3 Bolt Tcn-.ion Jl!l 13. Steel Systems for Seismic
10.7.4 Slip 325 Resistance 424
10.7.5 Combined Tens1on and Shear in Bearing-T)pc
Connecllon!> ~25 1 .~. I
lntroduct.ion 4:!4
10.8 Welds 316 1~.:! E\pcc1ed Beha~J(lr 425
I 0.8.1 Weldmg Proce\se' 326 l].l ~1oment-Fmmc S) \tems 427
10.8.2 Type' of Weith 3'17 13.3.1 Special Moment Frames (S~IF 1 .12'
I0.8.3 Weld Site\ 321! I~ 3.2 lntennediute Moment Frame<: I\IF ~"ld

10.9 Weld Limit States 328 Ordinary \ loment Frame' t0'1f .::;o
10.9.1 Fillet Weld Strength 329 I <.J Braced-Frame Sy,tcms 430
I 0.9.2 Groove Weld Strength 334 l 1.-1 I Spcciul Conccntric:llly Braced Frarru:'
10.10 Connecting Element\ 334 (SCBF) -131
I 0.1 0.1 Connecting Element\ in Tension 334 13.4.2 Ordmury Conccntricall~ Br.;,ed Frame-
10.10.2 Connecting Element\ in Compres,ion cOCBFl 433
I0.1 0.3 Connecllng Element\ in Shear 335 13.4.3 Eccentrically Braced Frame' 1EBF 1 434
10. 10.4 Block Shear Strength 335 13.5 Other Framing S> \tern, J <5
I11.1I Proble~ ~3R I 3.5.1 Spec1al Tru'~ Moment F:-.1:nc, ~ T\tFJ .ns
13.5.2 Buckling-Re~tram.: j Br.ked Frame~
!BRBF) 436
I3.5.3 Special Plate She \\ Jll' t SPSWl 437
11. Simple Connections J..u
I3.5.4 Compo,itc S) ''l " 437
I 1. 1 T)pe~ of Simple Connection~ 3-11 13.6 01her General Rel)Utremc:nh -l38
II.:! Simple Shear Con nection~ 342 13.6.1 Bolted und \\eldc,l Connections 438
11.3 Double-Angle ConnectiOih" Bolted-Bolted 3-1-4 13.6.2 Protected/ no::' 438
II.- Double·Angle Connecuons \\clded-Bolted 354 13.6.3 Local B"d..Jm,_ 439
11.;; Double-Angle Comh:CIIon' Bolted-Welded 35!! 13.6.4 Column Rc<.jutre ment~ -B9
II.f. Double-Angle Connccuons: Welded-Welded 360 13.6.5 Column B.t'e' 439
II.- Smgle-Angel Connections 360 13.7 Conclusion' 4W
II ' ')mglc-Pime Shear Connt!cllon~ 368 13.R Problem.' .l W
II ·I SeJ.ted Connection\ n1
II. ll L1ght Bracing Connecuon' 378 Index +t l
Chapter 1

....
llear•;t Tower. Ne\\ York City.
Photo cuurtes) WSP Cantor ~eu1ul..

Introduction

L.l SCOPE
A wide variety of designs l:an be charactcriLcd a:. .urucwra/ .\lee/ tf, 'f,•n. Thi~ book deals
with the dc<agn of<.teel qructure'> for buildings a-. gm·emed by AI\'SI \I'>C •fJt/.tJ5 Specifica-
tionforSJrucJural Steel Buildm[<s. puhh~hed by the American ln ....utu "'n! ~tee! Construction
(AJSC) in 2005. and referred to as the Spccilication in this bo0J... Tht .trea... of application
g-iven throughout thi~ book specifit:nlly focu~ on the design of \led buddtng ~truct ures. The
rreatmcnt or ~ubjcct~ associated with bridges and industrial 'truuure..,. tf addressed at all.
is kept relati\cly hrief.
TI1e book addresses the concept' and design criteria for the: t\\o de.,ign approache!.
detailed by the Specification: Load and Resistance Facwr De,ign ( LRFD) and Allowable
Strength De'>tgn CASD). Both method' are discus~ed later •u tht-. chapter.
In addition to the Specification. the primary reference for tht' book ts the 13th edition
of the \ISC Sleel Crmslrut:Jion Mamwl. Thi), referen.:e handbook contain~ tables of the
bask values needed for strucrural <;ted design. Jc,tgn tables to simplif) actual design. and
the complete Specification. Throughoutthi-, book. tht' is referred to as the Manual.

1.2 PRINCIPLES OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN

From the time an owner determines a need tn build a building. through the development
of conceptual and detailed plans. to Clllllpkuon and occupancy. a building project is a

1
 lntl"llOlh.:UOil

muhi-fuc~ted ta...J. that involves many professional-,. The owner and the linancial analysis
team e,·aluate the basic economic criteria for the building. The ru·chitects and engineers
lorm the de ign team and prepare lhe initial propo~als for the building, demonstrating how
the user•;' nee~;h will be mel. Thil. teamwork continues lhrough th~ linal planning and design
'rage<.. where the detailed plans. specifications, and contract documents are readied for the
~.:on'itrUuinn phase. During this prat:e~-s. input may also be provided by the individuals who
'' llltran-,form the plans into a real I ife ~Lructure. Thus. Lhose responsi blc for the construction
pha"e uf the project often help improve the design by taking into account the actual on-site
requirements for efficient construction.
Once a project is completed and turned m·er to the owner, the work oflhc design team~
i'i normally over. The operation and maimenance of lhe building. ah.hough major activities
in the life of the ~tructure. are not usually within the scope or the designer's responsibilities.
except when significant changes in bujJding u!>e are anticipated. In such cases. a design
team -.hould veri f) that the proposed changes can be accommodated.
The basic goals of the design team can be summarized by the words safety,fimction.
and economy. The building must be \afe for its occupants and all others who may come in
contact with it. It mu~t nctther fail locally nor overall. nor exhibit behavioral characteristics
that te::.t the confit.lence of rational human beings. To help achieve that level of <;afcty,
building code<. anu design specifications are published that outline the minimum criteria
that any structure must meet
The building mu<.t also 'iervc its owner in the best possible way to ensure that the func-
tional criteria are met. Although strucrural-.afety and integrity are of paramount importance,
a buildmg that does not serve it:. tntcnded purpose will not have met the goals of the owner.
La\1. but not Jea-,t. the design, construction. and long-term use of the building should
be economical. The degree of financial success of any structure will depend on a wide range
of I actors. Some are establh.hed prior to the work of the design team. whereas others are
uetcrmined after the building is in operation. Neverlhcles:-.. the final design should. within
all reu'>nmtble constraint~. produce Lhe lowest combined shon- and long-term expendi-
ture'>.
The AISC Specification follow:, the ~ame principles. The mission of the AISC Commit-
tee on Specifications is to: ··Develop Lhc practice-oriented specification for structural steel
building!-. that provide for life l>afety. economical building !>ysrems. predictable behavior
and re,ponse. anu efficient use." Thus. thi:- book emphasize~ lhe practical orientation of
thi!> :.pec1hcation.

1.3 P.\RT OF THE STEEL STRUCTURE

All :.Lructures incorporate some or all of the following basic types of structural components:
1. Tension members
2. Compression member<;
3. Bending member'
-t Combined force members
5. Connections

The liN four items repre ent suucwmlmcmbers. The fifth. con nection ~. provide:. the
contact regions between the c,rructurul member:., and thus assures that all components work
togcthcr a., a 'tructurc.
 1.3 Part:; or the Steel Structure 3

Detailed evaluations of the strength, behavior. ant.l uesign criteria for these members
are presented in the following chapters:

Ten:-.ion member~: Chapter 4

Compression members: Chapter 5
Bending members: Chapters 6 and 7
Combined force member-;: Chapter 8
Connections: Chapters I 0, 11 , and 12

The ~trength and. behavior or structural frames composed of a col""'l·llnarion of lhese

elements arc covcrcu in Chapter-. 8 and 13. and the s pecial con!>ider.:.· •.m ... that apply Lo
compo~ire (steel and concrete working tOgether) construction are pre'L'1teJ m Chapler 9.
An introduction to the design or steel structures for earthquake loaJ•"=- ~ rresented in
Chapter 13. The properLies or -.tructural steel and Lhe various shape' common]~ used are
di~cw;sed in Chapter 3. and a brief discussion of the types of load' anJ load Ct·mbinations
is presented in Chapter 2.
Tension membeJ:\· are typic:.tll) found as web and chord member~ in tru ...-,e.. und open-
web steel joists, as diagonal members in strucLUral bracing c;y....tem~. and a.... h.m.,;er.... for
balconies. mezt.anine noon, am.l pedestrian walkways. They are also used u" '>ag rod.. for
purlins and girts in many building t} pes. as well as to support platforms for rnechantcal
equipmem and pipelines. Figure ... 1.1 and 1.2 illustrate typical applications of tension mem-
bers in actual structures.
In the idealized case. ten~ ion members transmitt:oncentric tensile forces on I~. In cenain
structures. reversals of the 0\t:rall lnaJ may change the tension member force from ten~ ion
to compression. Some member' \\111 be designed for this action: other\ \\ •II ha\e been
designed with the assumption th<.t£ th.:~ c<trry tension only.
The idealized tension member .... anul~ zed with the assumption that i£.., end .::onnections
are pins. which prevent any moment or shear force [rom being transmitteJ w the member.
However. in an actual structure. the type of~.:onnecLioo normally dictme. . that ...ome bending
may be inrroduced to the ten-.ton member. This is also the case when the ten,ion member
is directly exposed to :.ome form of Lran~verse load. Moments will al.;;o be imroduced if lhe
element is not perfect!) \t.raight, or il' the axial load i~ not applieJ along the centroidal axis
or the member.
The primar) load effect in the tension member is a concentrtc a.\ial for~e. with bending
and <;hear con~iJerl!d a~ secondary effects.

T
hlcalizc<l Tension Member

Figure 1.1 Ul>e ofTen$iOn Member~ in a Tru;.~.

Photo cuuncsy Ruby & A~sodatc~.
-l :-hapt~r l lmr(ldu~.:tion

ldealitcd ten~ion memb<!r~

Figure 1.2 L 'c of Tension 'VIcmber' a.; Hunger~.

Cm1Jp1'Pnion nwmben are al'u knm\ n a' column,, 'lruts, or post<,. They are used as
web Jnd chord members II\ trus!>cs and joists and a., \'ertical members in all rypes ofbuilding
~tru.:ture<,. Figure I.J l>hOw\ o typical usc of structural compre:-.sion member~.
The tdealited comprc~'ion member carrie'> unl) a concemric. compressive force. hs
strength ts heavily tnfiuencctl by the distance between the supports, as well as by the supp01i
cont.lition' The bnsic column i~ therefore definetl ao; an axially loaded member with pinned
end:-. 1-lhtorically, de~ign rules forcompre:-.sion mcmberc; have been based on the behavior
and lltrcnglh of th1' tdcalitcd compression member.
The ba'il' column i~ pracucall>' nonextstent in real o;tructurcs. Reali!i.tic end supports
rarely resemhk perfect p111": the uxiul Jond is normally not concentric. due to the way the
surrounding \tructure tran!>mits it~ load to the member: <tnd beam!> :md similar components
are ltkely to be cnnnected to the column in such a way !hat moment). are introduced. AJJ
of these condition' produce bending effects in the member. making it a combined force
member or beam-column. rather than the idealitcd column.
The primary loud effect in the pinned-end column is therefore a concentric axial com-
prc....tve J'orc:c accompanictl by tht: \econdary effects of bending and shear.
Rt·llcling members art' known a!> beams. girder!>, joists, spandrel!>. purlins, lintels, and
girl'>. \ lthllugh all of Lheo,l.! are b~nding members. each nume implie~ u certain structural
application \\llhin a huildtng:
1. Beam,. girder.,. and joists furm part of common floor systems. The beams are most
oHen constdcred a-. the members that arc directly supported by girder\, which in
tum ,trc L"ually -;upported by columns. Jotsts arc beams with fairly close spacing.
 1.3 Po.rt:. of the Steel S11·ucturc 5

ltlealitet.l
compression
m~mber

Figure 1.3 Usc of Colunm~ in a BlniJtn;; Fmmc.

A girder may gener;,ll~ re ~.on,iderell ,, higher-order bending nu:mber •han a ~:1m

or joist However. \'ari.lltl)ll)o to lhi.., bu~tc ~theme are common
2. The bending member' that lorm the pt:nmeter of a Boor or rl' • pl.m in a l'luildmg
are known a....... pandrd. . or spandrel beanh. Their design Illa) be dtiTerent tn>m other
beam!. anu giruer' because the load comes ptimurily lr.Jm onl~ lme -.ide of the
member.
3. Bending member~ in roof syMcms that ~pan bcrween other ~endtng members are
usuull~ relcrreJ to a-. purlin...

4. Lintel' an: bending members that ... pan acros~ the k pol c'renlllg.., in \\ails. usually
carr~ ing thc weigbt of the wal l above the opening a' ''ell a... an~ mher load brought
into thm area. They l) ptcally are seen 'pann1ng ~.:ro" the:: opemngs for doors and
\\ tnclows.
5. Girts are used in exterior wall -.ysrems. The~ mw,J'er tile: latcrulloaJ from the wall
surface to the exterior columns. The~ m.t••u,o a~"t"t 10 <;uppnnmg the weight of
the wall.

Figure 1.4 show-. the u...c of' a vunt:t) ,,1 h~ntling member<; in an actual :.lruclUre.
The basic bending member carrie' tran,\Lf'e loads that lie in a plane that contain~ the
longjtudinal ccmroidal axis or the ml!mber. The pnmary load effects are bending momem
and shear force. Axial forces t~nd torston ma) occur <1~ -;ccomlary effects.
fntroducuon

ldcaliled 'P"ndml Jd~alu.ed h<:a.m

Figure 1.-l Build1ng Stnn.. tun.: Show111g Bending Member,.
Pho •L• ~ •uneo.) Greg Gric.:n

The mo-.t common combined fora meml>er i~ kno" n a\ a h<!arn-column. implying

that th1:. '>tructurnl clement j.., ~imultant:ml\ly \ubjccted to bending and axial compression.
Although bending and ax tal ten..,ann rcpre:...en!'> a f)Otenual loading case for the combined
force member. thh ca\c is not a.s critical or c()mmnn a' the beam-column.
Figure 1.5a b u 'chcmatic illu... tration of u mult1-~tory stcd frame where the beam~ and
columns are joined\\ itl1 rigid conm:ction,. Because ofthc geometric configuration .. the type'
of connections. anJ the loathng pauern. the verllcal member:-. an! subjCl'ted to ax tal load~
and bending moment<.,. Tht..., is a typical case of pn.\ctical beam-column": othe-r exampk!oo
ure the members of the gable frame shown in Figure 1.5b and the vertical components of a
,jng:le \tory portal frn.ml' ... hm\ n in Figure 1.5(:.
The b~am-column ma) he regarded a:. L11e general structural element, where a\ial
for\.'~.... 'hear force!\. and bending moment'> <tl.:t ''rnultani.'OU!->Iy. Tint<.. the basic column may
bo: thought of as a special ca~e. repre~enting a beam-column with no moment... or tranwerse
loa<h. S1milarl}. the ba:-.ic b..:ndtng member ma) he Lhought of as a beam-column with no
axiaJ loaJ Therd"ore. the considerauon~ that mu-;t be a<:counted for in the dc~ign of both
column., and beam~ mu~t al~o appl) to beam-column!>.
 1.3 Parts of the Steel Structure 7

'' ' ' + +

(~
Beam-colun" ~lJ. )

Y"//" ////// ////

(a)

-
Beam-column
v

~M, p
ldeal•zed beam-column

Beom-cnlumn

I c)

Figure 1.5 Schemutic Representation of Steel Frames in Which the \erttC"JI \lembers are Subjected
to A xi at Loads and Bending Momems.

Because of the generalized nature of the combined force element. all load effects arc
con~idered primary. However, when the ratio of axiallond to a."<inl load capacity in a beam-
column becomes high. column behavior will overshado'' other influence . Simi larly. when
the ratio of applied moment to moment capacity i. htgh. beam behavior will outweigh other
effects. The beam-column is an clement in which a\ a net) of different force types interact.
Thu!.. practical design approaches are normall) ba~ed on interaction equation:..
Connections are the collection of elemem-. rha1 join the members of n steel true-
Lure rogether. Whether lhey connect the a\tally loaded members in a truss or the beams
and columns of a multi-story frame. connections must ensure thatlhe strucwral members
function rogetJ1cr as u unit.
The fasteners used in structural ~tee! connection<; today are almost entirely limited to
bolts and weld!>. The load effects that the various elements of the connection must resist
8 Chupter l lmroducuun

Cu) rcc connccunn (bJ Shear end plmc

tel Shear tall h.h :.tnmt!nl crnl plate

figure 1.6 Building Connection~.
Pno·, • c me" American Jn,ulutc of St.:cl CunMruction.

are a function of the spccitk connection type being con~idered. The) mdudc all of the
posc.tble force' and moments. Figure I 6 iJiu,tratec; a variety of connection-.. The tdcalilcd
representations for connection-. are presented in Chapters I0. 11. and 12.

1.4 TYPES OF STEEL STRUCTURES

It is uil'fit:ult
tO classif) '..tCd 'tructure<. into neaL categ.ones. due !(I the wide \UfiCI) of
... y,tems available to the th!stgner. The clement'> of the structure. a' defined in Section I 3.
are com hi ned to fonn the total c;truclllre of a buih.ling. which must '><d'dy and economically
carr~ Jlltmposed loadc;. Tlw. combination of member-; is U)tuall) rckrrec.J to a~ the framing
c;~qem.

Sted framed building'> come in u \\ale \anety of !-ha()l!'> and ~it:es and 111 combination..
\\ iih other .,tructural material!.. A few example-; are given in the foliO\\ mg paragraph~. to
set the ... tagc lor the application of o.;u·uctural design presented in 'IUbsequent chapter.,,
 1.-+ Types 11f Steel Structure~ 9

l..t.l Bearing Wall Construction

Thi~ i!. rrimaril) usco for one- or two-story buildings. such as storage\\ arehouses. 'bopping
centers. office building~. and ~~:hoots. Thi., system normally use~ bri.. !.. or concrete block
masonry walls. on which are pbu~ll the end\ of the lkxuml membet' ~upporti ng the floor
or root The flexural member' are usuall) hot-rolled .,tmctural ste( ~h:lpes. alone or in
combination with upt:n web ~ted jllisrs or ~.:old-fonned l)tecl shape!'..

1.4.2 Beam-and-Column Construction

Thi' ''the most commonly used ... y,tem for ~teel sl.ructurcs.today. It j, 'u ;:;hk IM large-area
bwh.hng., ~ucb a~ schools aml 'h11pping centers. which often have n•• ·~ thJ 1\\0 stories.
but ma~ have a large number ol ... pan,. lt h also ~>uitable for build r g.. \\ ith m.:rt~ •;tories.
Columns are placed according tu a n.:gular. repetitious grid that supr.,. •rt.. the beam... gtrders.
and J&-.ts. which arc used for the ftoor anu roof sy<>teml>. The re,gul.trit) of th;:o lloor plan
lend~ llself LO economy in fahra.Juon and erection. because mo't ut the me 1be ",,jU be
of the ~arne l.itc. Further econ<IJ l~ may be gained by using conunuuu' bea b or drop-in
~pans with camilevcr bcrum. a' illu~mued schematically in Figure 1.7.
l·or multi-~Lol'y building.... the u...e of t:Omposite steel :1nd euncrete fte.\ural member'
affords additional 'iavin~. f-urther at.h ancc!- can be c\pccted a' designer' bcc~>me rr. ·re
familiar with the use of com(W'Ile ~.·olumns and other elemems of mixed l.:llfhtru...;.hm
~y-;Lcms.

Beam-and-column strucwrc' rei~ on either their conneclion~ or a separate bra.:ing

s~ stem to resi'>t lateral loads. \I ram~ in'' hich all connections are moment re'i'tmt pro' JJe,
resistttncc again'! the acrion ul bter.tl load,. such al. wind and earthquake... .1nd O\ era II
SU1Jcturul ... ~ability, through th~: henJmg ... tiffncc;s of the overall frame.
A frame without member-end rc ... tn.unt needs a separate latcrnl load re'r'ti ~g '~ ...tem.
often afforded by ha\ ing tht demenb along one or more of the col urn l:.nc, ,.r ~'braced
frame!>. One of the most common types of bruung i~ the ,·enicaltm". "hich j ... Jc,tgned to
take the loads tmposcJ b) \\lnJ and seismic nction. Other bracing , .. heme' .rnohe shear
wall-. and reinforced concrete ~.:ore-.. The Ia Her type may also be ref"'r ed to th ..t braced core
'Y'>Lem. and can be high!~ diKtent because of the rigidity of the 1:1< - ..hapeu ~.:ros~ section
of thl! core. The core ...erw~ a JuaJ purpose in this ca.-;c: In addi11o1 pr '' tding the bracing
system for the builtllng. Jl "erves as the vertical conduit in the ~oc·mrkteJ ::.trw:ture for all
of the necessar~ ...en i~:cs including elevalot·'>. <>taircases, elel·tn..t!~. ;~nd other utilities.
Cumbmatilm' lll these t) pe.., of construction an:: aJ,o ..·nr mflt For example. frames
rna~ ha'" been d!.!s1gned a'> moment resismnt in one direlli''O • the building and as truss
braced in the OthCI. Of course, ~uch a choice recognize, the three-Jimensional nature Of the
smtcture
F1gure 1.8 '>how., an idealued repre!'>enLation ot 'c!' era! t}' pe., of beam-and-column
framell 'tructun::,.

~o--------------r--o-

. , ~ ~
Beam "•lh -
t.•:mulc,.:n:d cntb
- - - · - Drur·m_ _ _ _
•r:t
Beam '' ilh
canule\cred cnc.J<.
.. I
Figurt! 1.7 Use of Cnntilever Beams '"Lh Dr11p-ln Spans.
J0 Choptc I I ntrOl.lu~unn

/ Core

~ ._. ,o,//////1"'//h'l'.rl"'// r// "'// , / //

tal (b) (C)

~ 'ilu;arwall ~
-
I
I
[[IIJ Unbroced
bent~

I
I
Core
Braced bents
!d) (e)

figure 1.8 An ldeali;ed !llustrauon of Several Typcs of Beam-nnd-Column Framed Structures:

It I moment resr~tunt frame: I b) tru~s-bmced frame: (c) core-bract::d frame: (d ) lloor plnn of shear
\\ ull and con: bmcl!d butiJrng: (e l 11oor plan of building with a combination of braced and unbraced
benh.

1.~.3 Long-Span Construction

Th1-. t) TJC of construction encompa,se' steel-framed structure~ with long spans between the
\ertkallnad-carrying c lement~. such a~ coverud arenas. The long distances may be spanned
h) <'ne-\\ <t) tru'\-;ec;, two-way s.pa~c trusse!>. or plate and box girders. Arches or cables could
al"n be u-.cJ. although they are not considered here.
Lnng-span con<.truction i., abo u:.-ed in buildings. that require large. column-free interi-
ors. ln ... ul.'h c.:a,e-. lhl' hurlding muy ben core- or otherwise braced structure. where the long
~pan i:-. tht; di-.lan~e from the exterior wall to the core.
Man) Jc:,lgnen. \\.ould also characterize -.ingle-story rigid frames as part of the long-
spun construc.. uun 'Y'-lCnl'\. Depending on the geometry of the frame. such structures can
-.pan -.ubqanual Llist:m~es, often with excellent economy.

1.4.4 High-Ri'ie Construction

High-ri'ie construction rl!f~r" to multic;tory buildings. The large heights and unique problems
~nl.'ountt:rcd in rhe dc'-Jf!ll ol sul'h '>tructurcs \\arrant treating them independently from
t~ pk al b~am-and-column CL'Il~truclton. £n addition. O\'er the past30 years several de~igners
h:t\ e devdoped a number of ne'' concept" in mult.i-)>rory frame design. such as the super
~:ompo,rtc r.:olumn ant! the qeel plate .;hear wall.
Part•~ ular care mu<tt be exerci-.cd in the choice and design of the lateral load 1-e.~isting
')'tern in high-ri~e construction. It i-. not ju<;L a matter of extrapolating from the principles
used m th~ analy;;i~ of lower nse structures. because many effects play a signifi cant role in
 1.5 ()l!~ign Philo~oph1es 1J

the dc·ign of high-riM! building~. but have \tgmficanth le~s impuct Ill frame~ of ~maller
height. These effects :u-e crucial to the proper design of the high-ri~c ,tru~:tun;.
Some of these effects may be referred to as ~econd-order effect,, because they cannot
be quantified through a nom1al. linearly clal>Lic analy~j, of the frame -\!though they mU)
be pre,em in lower-height 'itructure\. the) ma) be more :.tgniticamtr ~h-rise structure~.
An example of l'econd-order cltl!l.l'- is the additional moment indue~ • t· a column due to
the eccentricity or the column load'> that develops when " structure h d 'placed l aterall~.
When added co the moments anJ ..hear' produced by gnt\ ity anu "Ill\> I ..,J.,, the resulting
effect' may be !lignificanll} l.1rger than those: computed \\ ithout ct r ....en.,g the second-
order cnccts. A designer who Joe' not incorporate both wi II be malo..lllf . ~noo!-. and perhapl>
unconscrvative error.
Framing systems for high-ri'L' bujJding~ reflect the increased imp.; oun~e c • lateral load
resistance. Thus. atlcmpts at rnal.tng Ule perimeter of a huiJding all a' ~ unn r tube ha\C
prO\ en l)Uite succe!.l>ful. Thi' luP~ may be in the form ot a truss ....uch u.. lh~!- J ~ r Hancock
Building in Chicago, lllinob. ~hl''' n in Figur~ 1.9a or a frame as 111 the t'om1er \\oriJ Trade
Center 111 New York City. sho'' n 111 Figure 1.9b: a solid wall tube" 11h cutoub 1or' nt.lows.
<:uch a.' the Aon Center in ChK.ifO. c;hown in Figure 1.9c: or ..e, ~rnl intcr.:onr n h:J or
bundled tubes. such as the Sear' TO\\er in Chicago. ~hown in Figure 1.9J.

J.4.5 Single-Story Construction

Many designers include the '>Ingk ,to!') frame a~ part of the long-,JXII1 con,trucllllll ~·ate­
gory. These structure~ lend them'" 'e' panicul;:trly well to fully welded C(ln,trut:tll•n. The
pre-engineered building indu'.tr) h.;, L.ipllali;ed on the U'>l! of this') ~tem throu=h 'ln~:-tun.:J
de~ign~ of frames for s10rnge \\areh••u,e~. •nc.lu~Lrial buildings. temporary and permanent
office buildings. and similar t~ pe' ut ... tntcture!..

1.5 DESIGN PillLOSOPHIES

A successrul su·ucturul de~ign re-.ults in a Mructure tJ1at i~ '>al'i: for ih 111.:~·upanh. ~ancan·y the
design loads without O\ eNre,...ing any components. docs not deform l •r \ 1br::tle ~\ccssively.
and is economical to bu1ld am.l openue fur ib intended life span Althm.• _;h t!t.onumy may
appear to be the pnmm; concern of an owner, safety mu~t beth.. pnmal) concern of the
engineer. Cow. of labor and materials will vary from one gcog.raf)ht.: location to another.
mal-.ing it alrno-.t unpossible to Je~i,gn a ~lructure that is equall~ c:... trlllnlll'ul in all locations.
Becau'e the foremoM task of the designer I ' to produce .: ,afe nJ 'en tceahle structure.
design criteria ~u~h all those published by the American lr .. ut •.: ,,r Steel Construction are
based on technical model-; and con!>ideralions that predrl·t ,trudural b~havior and material
respon'>c. The use of these prO\ i~ion'> by the lle!.igner ''til uld.lle the economy of a particular
l.OIU!ion in a particular location and busines') climate
To perform a structural tle!>ign. it ts ncccs~UJ) t 1 I.JUantify the cause!'> and effects ol
the loads that will be exerted on each element throught,UI the I ife or the Slrucwre. Thil> ~~
generally termed the load e_Qi•ct or the requm'cl \trnrl!th It b also necessary to account for
the beha\ ior of the material and the shape" that Ctlmpu'~ these elemenl\. This ts referred to
as the 11omi11al strengrlt or capacirr r?f tht' d< m,·m.
In its simp le~t form. structural design i~ the determination of member sil'c~ and their
corresponding connections. !>O that the '>lrl!ngth ot the ~tructure is greater than the loud effect.
The degree to which this is accomph'>ht:tlt-, oflcn termeu the margi11 of safet\'. Numerou-.
approaches for accomplishing thts goa.l lw\l! been u'>ed mer the years.
J2 Chapt~r I lntrodu~:uon

,- :i~ ',
• X- ,
! -_~,.-;, .
-->-
-::::~~--
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·-_'C'i:(r*zr~:
~.~----.;<~:~

.11'-:,--~_.......::~~\ 'D-..,.,.. >·. .

.. ·:.~:~~~:-;~;3f7:~<> ..
. - -~-?--~ ~~ \'.~-~_;~;~
...: r-~ .~'!'-' - - __,.,_
~-~ ,• ~- ......_ ..~-:-· :?

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'-~-..-"1'o:fto'•. '}10'1i'r
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~\ '15!!1~\!!l-~-- ··:.··

(U)

<dl
F'igure 1.9 High-Rise Building-.: lallhc John llancod. c~mcr: tbl the World 'l'mde Center: (Photo COurtC\) L~.--<;lie E. Rolxnson.
RLLP.} (c) the Aon Ccmcr: ! d l Lhe Sc.t!' To1ver.
 1.6 Fundamentals ol Allowable Strength Design (ASD) 13

Although past experience might c;eem to indicate that the structural designer knows the
exact magniwde of the loads that ''ill be applied to the tructure, and the exact strength
of all of the structural elements. this is usually not the case. Design load-; are provided by
many code!. and standards and. although the values that are given are 'pecific, significant
uncertainty i-; associated wllh those magnirudes. Load-;. Load faclors. anJ load combination
arc d i~cussed in Chapter 2.
As i<; the case ror Loading. -,ignificant uncertainty b associated with the determination of
behavior and strength of structural members. TI1e true i11dication of Ioad-... arrying capacity is
given by the magnitude of the load that causes the failure of a component or the structure as a
whole. Failure may occur eitl1er a a physical collapse of part of the butlu.ng. or considered
to have occurred if deflection.,, for in ranee, are larger than certain pr~lletermi ned values.
Whether the failure i~ tJ1e result of <I lack of strength (collapse) or sti ffne,... denection). these
phenomena reflect the limits of acceptable behavior of the structure. Ba~"J "'" the~e criteria,
the ~tructure is said to have reached a specific limit state. A strength r•.dlure ' tenned an
ultimate limit state whereas a foilure to meet operational requiremenh. 'uch ""deflection,
b tem1ed a serviceability limit ... tate.
Regardless of the approach to the design problem. the goal of the dcloigncr ~~ 1n ensure
that the load on the :.trucrure and its resulting load effect. such as bending momem. ~hear
force. and axial force, in all ca<.e.... are <;ufficiently below each of the applicable limn ::-tates.
This assures tbatlhe structure meet~ the required level of safety or reliabili[).
Three approaches for the de,ign or steel structures are permitted b) the AISC
Specification:
1. Allowable Strength Design lA D)
2. Load and Resistance Fac10r De...Jgn (LRFD)
3. lnela:.tic Design

Each design approach repre-.ent' Jn alternate way of formulating the ,arne problem.
and each ha:. the same goal. All three are based on the nominal strength of th.: element
or structure. The nominal .,trength. most generally defined a,'\ R,. is determined in exactly
the same way. from the exact arne equation!.. whether used in ASD or LRFD. Some
formulations of Inelastic Design. such as Plastic Design, al:so use the'e same nominal
strength equations\\ herea::. other approache.<; to inelastic design modeltn derail every aspect
of the structural beha\ ior and do not rely on tbc equations provided throu,;h the Specification.
The u:-;e of a single nominal strength for both ASD and LRFD permit~ the unificarjon or
these two design approaches. It will become clear throughout th1' book how this approach
ha!l simplified steel de ign for those who have struggled in the pii.'t wnh comparing the two
available philosophies. The following sections describe these three design approaches.

1.6 FUNDAMENTALS OF ALLOWABLE STRENGTH DESIGN (A D l

Allowable Strength Design wa formerly referred t(l U'- allowable su·es design. It is the
oldc-.t approach to l>trucrural design in use toda;. and has been the foundation of AJSC
Specifications since the original provision<: of 1923. Allowable stress design was based
on the assumption that under actual load, 'tre,se::. 111 all members and elements would
remain ela~tic. To meet this requirement. a ~afet) factor was established for each potential
<;tress-producing <;tate. Although hi storicall~ ASD was thought of as a stres -ba. ed design
approach. the allowable strength wa:-. alway" obtained by the proper combination of the
allowable stress and the corTesponding ~ection property, such as area or elastic section
modulus.
14 Chaplcr Jmroduc1wn

The currem Allowable Strength De!oign approach 1~ based on the concept that the
required Mrenglh ol a componen1 i!. nm to exceed 11 certain permiucd or :lllowuhk 'trength
under normal in-~>ervicc condition.... The n:quired strength i~> determined on the bu~is of
'pecifk ASD load combinations and an elastic analy~r' of the 'trllclure. The .1lluwablc
'trength mcorporare..., a factor of sat"ety. Q. ami uses the nonunal \trength of the dement
undercon~ideratinn.1 hi' strength couJd be pre:-.ented in the form of a ~Ires~ if the appnlpnate
,ection property were u1o.ed. In doing lhi~. the rc~ulting stresses \\ill most likely ug,un be
'' ithm the cla..<aic range. although thi~ is not a preset requirement of rh~.: Specification.
The magnitude ol the factor of -;afety and the resultmg allowable 'trength tlepcnd on
the parucular governing limit ~wtc again!>l whic.:h the desrgn must prouucc u cenaw margrn
of safety. Safety factor<> are obtained from the Specilicatmn. This requirement fm ASD i~
pro' idcd in Section 83.4 of the Specification as

( 1.1)

which can be Mated a-.:

Nomrnal Strength
Required ~trength (ASD) <
~ - Safety Factor
= Allowable Stren!!th
~

The governing 'trength depends on the type of •.rructural elemcm and the limit ,tate\
being considered. An} single element can ha\c multiple limit states that must be as-.e~setl.
The !-afcty factor ~pccified for each limit -.tate i:. a function of matcnul beha\ ior and the
limit state being considered. Thu~. it is possible for each limit state to have i t~ own unique
safety ructor.
Dc\rgn b) ASD requires that the allowable <,tres~ load combmm10ns of the building
cotle be uo;ed. Loads and load combinations are dbcussed 111 det:lil in Chapter 2.

1.7 FUNDAMENTALS OF LOAD AND RESISTANCE FACTOR

DESIGN (LRFD)
Lond and Resistance Factor Design explicit!) incorporate~ the effects of the randmn vad-
abilll~ o! bnth strength and load. Because the method mclude' the effect' of these random
variauun' ;md formulates the safety critena on that ba•w,. it rs expected that a ffi(lrc uniform
Je\·el of reliahilit>, thu" safety. for the structure and all of its components. ~ill hL amuned.
LRf•D '' ba:-.ed on the concept 1l1at tJ1e required 'trengrh or a component under LRFD
load combination<, '' not to exceed the de:,ign strength. The requiretl '>Lrength i" obtained
b) incrca-.ing the luatl magnitutle b~ loatl factors that ucl!oum for load variabilit) and
load combinauon-.. The design ~trength 1:-. obtumed by redttcing the nominal 'trent!Lh b)
a resistance factor rhar account!\ for the many vanablc:-. lhm impact the tleterm111ation ot
member o;Lrength. Loatl factors for LRFD arc l)btained fmm the builtling code~ lor -.trength
de~ign and ~ill be dt'-cU\<:.ed rn Chapter 2 As for ASD -.;afety factor~. the resi'>tan~·e factor-.
are obtained from the Speciticmion.
The basic LRFD pnn-hion is provided in Section B3.3 of the Specification u...:

R, ~ Q,R., (1.2)

'' hich can be .,!ated a:-.

Requrn.:d Strength (l RFDl ~ Re,h.lance Factor x Nomrnal Strength = De,ign C)trcngth

LRFD ha" been a pan of the AISC Specilkations sint:e ll wa)> fip,J i...,ued in Iyg6.
 1.9 S1ruc1ur.tl Safety 15

1.8 INELASTIC DESIGN

The Specifkmion permits a will~ \'aricty of fom1Uiation., for the ineiJstlc analysis of sreel
'itructure-. through the use of 1\ppt:n<hx I. Any meta... ttc analysis methnJ will require that
the Mrucmrc and 11~ clemems ar~ modeled in !>Uftictcnt dctatl to ac.. •unt for all types of
behaYior. An analys'" of t:hio,; t~ pe mu~t be able to tntck the sLrUctu~·' '-lchavior from the
unloaded conc.lllwn through e\ el) lnad increment ll1 compl~re structurJ. l.tilurc. The onl)
mcla\>tic Jcs1gn approach that \\Ill be discussed in this book is plruaic Je,tgn tPD).
Pla,uc design is an appm<JLh thar has been available as an optional "lethod for steel
del>ign -.ince 1961. when it \\<.h Introduced ill> Part 2 of the then curren: S~..:ific:ation. The
ltmiung condition for the \trudurc and its member" i.,the attainment r fthe ,aJ lhat would
cause the structure to coUap...l!. Thb load would U!.uall~ be called the tlttm •e -.trengtb or
the pla<>ttc collapse load. For an mJh idual stmctur..tl member tht' 1" ~an' '"' 1 th plastic
moment capacit) h~ been r~;11.:hed. In most cases, due lO the du~.- u~ of the material
and the member. the ultimate qrl!ngth of the entire structure will norrn.tll~ no have been
reached at this ~tage. The lc. .-.-htghly stressed members can tal-.e .:JJitil>n<l l ·..td U11til a
~ufticient number of member, h,1\c cxhau~ted their individual capac11ie' ,(1 th>Jl n • further
rcdtstribution or load sharing i-.. po...~ible. At the point v. here the '!ructure c::t.n t<tke no
add.nional load. the o,;tructure I ' ..... iJ to have collapsed. Thi~ ll>ad magnitude '' calkd the
collapse load and i-; ac;~ociated "ith a particular collapse mi!Lhani-.m.
The collap~c load for pJ:J..,tiL Je-.1gn is the service load times a certain load fauur. The
limit state for a <,Lructure that '' tk,Jgned according to the principles of pla:-.tk deqgn ''
therdore the attninmem of u medl.lnhm. For thi~ to occur. all of the "tructural member.;
must be able to develop the full-~ ttld -tre~s in all fiber., at the mmr highl) loaded k•-.auon'
TI1erc IS a hnc hne of di,tinctll1l ~tween the loat.l factor of PD ant.l th~ -.afet~ fac-
tor of -\SD. The former i!i the ratio b.:tween the plastic collap\e load anJ the -.er. i,:e or
~pecitied load fur the structure a' a\\ hole. '' here<~s the taller IS an empincJII) J~\e'oped.
experience-bused term that rerrc ...c nt- th~.- relationship between the ela"m stren!!th 11 the el-
ements t)t' the structure and tlw '.uwu.., li 11111111g conditions f'or those comp,,rcm.... Although
numerical!} dnst.!. the load IJCL\lf llf pl:.t.,tit: design and the factor ot ':lh.:t) 0 1 nlltlwable
'tre~s design are llllt the 'arne parmneter.

l.IJ STRUCTURAL SAFETY

The preceding ut!-~U~sJons of dc,ign philosophies indicate that ahhuugh the basic goal of
an) de.,ign prul·e,, is to a.'lsure thatlhe end product will be a ,.1fe ami reliable -;tructure, the
wa)' in'' hkh thh i-. achie\ed rna) vm) subsutntially.
In the pa,t. rhc primary goal for sufety wa:. to en-.urc an :...Jequate margin against the
con~equencc' ,,J (1\'t:rl~lud. Load factor design and ih uff,hoot' ''ell:: de\ eloped to take these
l.:Oil<>ideration~ into account. In real life. however. man) other factors also play a role. These
111clude. but are not limited to the following:
1. Variation~ ol material strength
2. Variattnn' uJ' cro~~-sectiunal \1/C and -.hape
3. Accurct.:~ of method ol anal) 'b
-t LnBuence uf workmnn~h1p til slwp anJ riciJ
5. Prel>cnce anti ,·ariation of residual 'tr~?"c'

6. Lacl-. or member su·ajghtnc~'

7. Variation' of locations of I<MU .1pplic:nion pnint~
16 Chapter I Introduction

These factors consider only some of the sources of variation of the strength for a
<;truc ture and its components. An even greater source of variation is the loading, which
is further complicated by the fact that different types of load have different variational
characteristic~>.
Thus, a method of design that does not attempt to incorporate the effects of stre ngth
and load variability wi II be burdened with sources of uncertainty that are unaccoumed for.
TI1e realistic solution. therefore. is to deal with safety as a probabilistic <:<>ncept. This is the
foundarion of load and resistance fac tor design. where the probabilistic characteristic!. of
load and strength arc evaluated. and the resulting <;afety ma rgins detem1ined statistically.
Each load type is given its own spec ific facto r in each combination and each material limit
~tate is also given its own factor. This method recognizes that there is alway), a finite.lhough
very small, chance rhat structural failure will actually occur. However, this m~thod doe!.
nm aue mpt to attach ~peci fic value. to this probability. No specific level of probability of
failure is given or implied by the Specification.
Ln ASD, the variability of load and streng th are no t treaLed explicitly as separa te issues.
They are lumped together through the use of a single factor of safety. The factor of safety
varies with each strength limit state but does no t vary with load source. ASD can be tho ught
of as LRFD with a single load factor. LRFD designs are generally expected to have a
more unifom1 level of reliability than ASD designs. That is. the probabiJjry of failure of
each c lement in an LRFD design will be the same, regardless or the type of load or load
combination. However. a detailed analysis of reliability under the LRFD provisions shows
that reliability variel> under various load combinations. ln ASD there is no attempt to atUtin
uniform reliability: rather the goal is to simply have a safe structure. though some elements
w ill be safer than o thers.
Forthe development of LRFD.load erfcct (me mber force). Q. and resistance (streng th),
R. are assumed to have a variability that can be described by the normal distributions shown
with the bell-shaped curves in Figure 1.10. Srructures can be considered safe as long a-; the
resistance is always g reater than the load effect. R > Q. II it were appropriate to concentrate
solely on the mean values. Q, and R,, it would be re laLivcly easy to assure a safe struc wre.
However. the fuJI re pre entation or the data shows an area where the two curves overlap.
Thb area represents cases where the load effect exceeds Lhe resistance and would therefore
define occurre nces or failure. Safety of the structure is a function of the size of this region
of merlup. The s maller the region of overlap. the ·maller the probability of failure.
Another approach to presenting the data is to look at the difference between resistance
and load effect. Fig ure 1. 11 shows the same data as that in Figure 1.1 0 but presented as
( R- Q). For alJ ca.')cs where ( R - Q) < 0. the structure is said tO have failed and for all
cases where this ditrerence is pos itive, the structure is considered :.afe. Jn thi presentation

RCM)Itlncc. R
Loud cffec1. Q

Figure 1.10 Probability Distribution. Rand Q.

 1 10 Limit Swtcs 17

Figure J. l l Protcilllit)
DiMribution. (R - (IJ

of the u~llu. Lhe !-haded area to the left of the origin represenrs the p~ob..tbak~ of failure.
To 1111111 that prohahtlit) or failure. the mean value. ( R - Q)111 • mu ...t be m:u -tned at an
uppmpriate di'>tancc from the nri~in. TI1i~ dt!>!ance is shown in Ftg ~c: b ~a R-Ql·
where (3 i~ the reliability indl.!:-.. ,md I.T t R-Q I is the st:111dard deviati1m 1>1 1 R- Q 1.
\ thtrd representation of the datu is "hown in Figure I. I:::! In thi' ca...e. the data i~
presented"" In( RIQ ). The logaric hmac form of the data is a ""ell-.:lmdiuoned reprc•c:mation
anu •~ more useful in the dcrl\,t Jl)ll of the factor!> required in LRFD. If \\t.' l,.no\\ the
exact tlistributillll of the resistuncc: illld lnucl effect d<lta. the probability or ruilurc: c:m nc
directly related to the reliabtltt~ mde:>. (3. Unfortunately. we know the actual dhtriburJ '""
for relatively few rc~tstance and lo..td effect component<,. Thus. we mu"t rei~ on c tlid
~haractcri!>tics of the Jata. "u~h a' me ..m-. and standard deviation!>.

Figure 1.1 2 Pnb:.tt>tla~

ln!RIQI
Dil>tnhuu, R.QI

The statisucal :mal)-.c' rcyuired to establish an appropnm.: lc.:\cl ol reliability have

been camcd out h~ th..: appropriate specilicmion committee'. anJ th~ resulting k)ud factors.
re~istancc tacl\lr'. und ... afety factor~ have been establi,hcd. L ~aJ 'Jdors are presented in
the huiiJing coJ~.:-. \\ hereas rest stance factor~ and safet~ lad1•r• i )f l!ach limit state are given
in the Spccd1c:ttmn. A more dctatled di~cussion of the 'lati-.ti..:al basis of steel design is
avail~tblc 111 Loatlw1d ResisttiiiCC' factor Design ofSit t Srmt'lllres.1

1.1!.1 Ll:\UT STATES

ReganJh~-;s ol' the Jesign appronch. ASD or LRFD. ••r tho.: period in history when a design
b ~arricd om. 1923 nr 2007. all Jesign h b<heJ on the .ibJiity of a ~lructure Oi' its elemento;
to re'i't loacL Tim. ability i!. dtrccll) related '(• h'\' an element cames Lhat load and how it
might be l.!xpected to fail. which is referred w u' the dement's limit state. Each !-.lructural

1
Gc,t:hl<indncr. L.l .• Drsqu.:. R. o. :md BJ<>rh<•H!e. R. i.J:Itld ami Rni.\/UIIC'e NIC'/(IT nt lil:ll ufStl'd Slmrturu~.
Engt~Wt>t>J Clln·s. I"J: PrcntJcc ~htll. 1\llJ!
18 Chapter I Introduction

clement can have multiple limit states anu the designer is required to detennine which of
thc~e limit stares will acwally limit the ~tructurc's strength.
fh.:re are two types of limit states to be com.idered: strength limit smtes and service-
abillt) limit c;tates. Strength limit states are those limiting condiuon!. that. if exceeded, will
lead to collapse of the -.tmcture or a portton of the 'ifrucwre, or such large defonnations
that the structure can no longer be expected to resist the applied load. Strength limit states
<tre identified by the Specifu:auon. and guiduncc i!. provided for determination of the nom-
tnal o;trcngth. R,, the safety fuetor. Q, and the resistance factor.¥ Examples of the more
common \trength limit:-.tates found in the Specification are yielding. ruprure. and buckling.
Serviceability limitl>Wtcs are less well defined than srrength limit Mates. Ifa serviceabil-
ity limit -;tate i-; exceeded. it U<;uall> mean~ that the structure hac; reached some perfonnance
level thm o;omeone \\mtld hnd objectionable. The Specification defines serviceability in
Section L I a<; "a state 1n which the function of a building. its appearance. maintainability,
durability, and comfnn of its occupants are prcsl:lrved under normal usage:· Chapter L of
the Specification, which treat!-. design for serviceability. lists camber. deflections. drift, vi-
bration, wind-induced amnion. expansion and contracLion. and connection slip as items to
be con:.idered all hough no -.pecific limits are set on any of thec;e limit states.
Strength and 'en aceability limit states will be addressed throughout this book as ap-
propriate for the elements or Jo.y~team being considered.

l.ll BUILDING CODES AND DESiGN SPECIFICATIONS

Tbc design of buikling ).lrUI.:tures is regulated by a number of official. legal documents that
arc l..nown b) their common name as/mildin~ codes. These cover all aspects of the de. ign.
wnstnaction. and operation of buildings. and are not limited to just the structural design
U'ipCCt'>.
'f\"'o model cotles are currently in usc in the Un ited States: the ICC lnternmional
Building Code and the NFPA 5000 Building Construction and Safety Code. These have
been published by private organiwtions and are adopted. in whole or in part. by state anJ
local governments a-.. the legal requirement)> for buildings that are to be built within their
arl!<a of JUrisdiction. In addition to the model codes. cities or other governmental entities
ha\C \\rtnen their own local building codes.
To the ~u"Uctural engineer, the most important sections of a building code deal with the
loads that must be u~t:d in the design. unci the requirements pertaining ro the use of specific
-.tructural materials. The IMd magnitudes are n<>rm<1lly taken from MininwmDesign Loads
jor Built/in~., and Other Stmclllr.:s. a national standard published by the American Society
of Civil Engineef\ as ASCE-7. Alteration of the loads presented in ASCE-7 may be made
by the model cOtie authority or the locaJ building authority upon adopriou. although this
practice add<; complexity for de~ignen; who may be called upon to design structures in
numerous location~ umkr llaffcrent political entities.
The AlSC Specification is incorporated imo the two model building codes by reference.
fhc Spcdtication. therefore. becomes part of the code, and thus part of the legal require-
ment-. of any locality where the model code i' adopted. Locally written building codes also
cominue to exi~t and the AISC Speciticauons arc nonnally adopted witbin those codes by
reterence al,o. Through the~c udoptions the AlSC Specification becomes tbe legally bind-
ing 'wnd~u·d by which all ... tructural Mecl buildings must be designed. However. regardless
of the 'pccilication rules. it is always the engineers· responsibility to be satisfied that their
1o>tructurc can carr) the Intended loadc; safely. without endangering the occupants.
 I I~ Problems 19

1.12 PROBLEMS
1. List and define the three basic goab of a dc~ign team for the 4. Wlwtt) pe of ~tructurul S} stem u:-.e' th~ ...umbined propenie~
design of any bui !ding. ••I twn nr nmrc Llillcrcnt typel> o! matcri:tl• to rc~ist the applied
2. All strucwre~ are composed of 'nmc nr all vf ti vc basic luau!>'1
~tructuraJ types. List these five basic structllral..:omponems am! :-. Li'l unu UC~<:ribe tWO type£ or lulcr.tl b .dng systems C011l·
provide an example of each. ll1111ll) li\Cd 111111gh·nsc butltling~.
3. Provide an example of each of tlw fullowtng I}J'l<!' of con- 6. In dc~1gnn1g a steel ~truclllre. \1 h:\1 mu,, be the primal')
'truction. To the extent possible. idcnllf} 'pcctfic buildings u1 .:1•n.:ern ol the uc~1gn engineer',
your own locale. i. Pro\'IJ~ a ''mple definition of :-.tn1cturu ~~~
a. Bearing wall S. Dc~cribc the dilferem:e betwe.::n the ult •c limll 'tate of a
b. Beam-and-column -tn1..:turc .:tnd u ..en 1ceahllity limit 'till<."
c. Long-span 9. G1\c a dcscnptton ol both the l RFD ml \ 0 Je~ign ap-
d. High-rise rrnachc~.
e. Single-story I0. Pr\l\ 1tlc un exumple of three ... trcn£lh hnm -w•e-
J I. Pnwic.h.: an cx:unplt' of three -cl'\ ,,c,it'ldu~ hmn '-l1lle ....
Chapter 2

Pul·rto Rico Convention Center.

Phntn coun~'-) \\'ahc:r P ;\.h)<)re.

Loads, Load Factors, and

Load Combinations

2.1 I~TRODUCTION

Marerial design specification~. like the AISC Specification. do nm nonnally pre'\cribe the
ma6rnitude\ of loads that nre to be used a'i the basi~ for design. These load<; vary based on
the usage ur type of occupancy of the building. and their magnitudes nre dictated by the
applicable local. regional. or :.tate law... a~ prescribed through the relevant building code.
Building C\lt.le loads t~re given as nominal values. These values are to be usetl in de-;ign.
even though iL I' \\Cil known that the actual load magnitude'' ill difTer from these specified
values. This is a common usage oft he term nominal, the same as will be used for t.he nominal
depth of a '>teel member lObe di,cussed later. The~e nominal values are determined M the
basis Of material pmperlic~ for dead load. luad l>UrYe)lo for live load~, WCa!her data for snOW
and wind load, and geological data for earthquake or seismic loads. These load'\ are further
u.:-;crihed in Section 2.2. To be reasonably certain that these loads arc not exceeded in a
gt' l!n .;tructure. code loau 'aloe" have tended to be higher or conservative. compared to the
lo•tth on a random structure at an arbitr<U) point in time. This 'omewhat higher load level
aho accounts for t11e fact that all \lructural load~ will exhibit some random variations as a
funcunn of time and load type.
T1) pn>perly address thi!> rantlom variation tlfload. an unalysb reflecting time and '>pace
interdcpenuencc ~hould be used. TI1is i~ calh!d a:,wcflu.ltic cmcilvsis. Many studies have dealt

20
 2.2 Building Load Sources 21

with thi~ highly complex phenomenon. especially a~ il pertains to li\ e load in buildings.
However. the lli-.C or time-dependent loutls is cumbersome and doe!. m't iH.kl significantly to
the safety or CC{lllOm) of lhe final tlt!sign. For most tlc!-.ign situations th~ building code will
<;pecify the magnitude of the lnad-. a<; if they were cotNanl or unchang•nf!. Their time and
space variatmns are accountetl lor through the Ul>e of the maximum ll .:.J occurring 0\er n
certain rerercnce or return penot.l \-.an example. the American live Iu..l. .. riteria are ba<;ed
on a reference period of 50 ye;~r-.. \\herem; the Canadian criteria use a 3 •-year interval.
The geographical location of a -;tructure play!> an important role for .....,eralload types.
such a:-. those from snow, wind, or earthquake.

~.2 BUILDING LOAD SOURCES

Man)- types of load.., may c:u:t on <1 ~uilding '>tructure at one lime l)r another nnd detailed
data for each ts given later. Lc,au.. 1'f primary conccm to the buildi n:! de,tgner trclude:
l. Deatl load
2. Ll\ e loud
3. $0()\\ lliUl.l
~- Wind load
5. Sci~mt~: load
6. Special load~

Each of these pnmary loaJ t~ pc . . .~re characterilcd as to their magnitude and ,·ariabtlit~
b) the buildtng wde. and arc (k,.:riht-t.l tn the en... utng paragraphs.

.:.1. I Dead Load

Theorew.::all}. the tlead load nf a -.Lru~:ture remain<: conc;tant throughout it . . lue..pan. The
dead load include\ the -.elf·\\ etght uf the structure. as well as the "ci~ht ·~I an~ perma-
nent con~trucuon matenaJ, ..uch a-. ... tay-tn-pl:.tcc lormwork. partition..... 11oM and ceiling
materials. machine!'}. anJ other cqu1pmem. The c.lca<.lll)ad may potenll:!lh \ary from the
magnitutlc u-.ed in the: de-.ig.n. C\'Cn 10 cases where actual element ''etght-- are accurately
calculated.
The weight nt all dead ltHid elements can be cxactly detemltned nnly by actually
weighing and/or mea...uring the \'ariou., piece:. that compo~e the -:-.ITlll:ture. This is almost
ah\ a~' an impractical .,,,lution and the designer therefore u-.uall~ relie-. on published data
of building m;.atcnal propenie:-. to obtain the nominal deau load' to be u.;cd in design. These
tlata can ht: lountltn such publicauon-. lL\ ASCE 7. the tllllJel butlJmg codes. and product
Literature Some vurimion willthu ... ltkcl) occur in the rc.tl 'tru~o:turc. Similurly. differences are
bound 10 Ot:t:Ur between tJ1e weight of otherwise idcntii.JI 'Lructures. reprC!-.Cllling another
source of dcud load variability. However, compared tn other structural loads. dead load
'ariationl> ure relatively small and the actual mean ' .due' are quite close to the pub! ished data

.:.~.2 Live Load

L1ve lorul i-; 1hc load on the ... rructurc that occur-. from all of the non-pcrnmnent insralla-
tiom.. JL mclut.lcs the weight o l the occupam,. the furniture and moveable equipment, plus
anything eJ.,e that the designer could pch,tbl)- anticipate might occur in the structure. The
nuctuation' ttl live load are putcntiall) yuite -.ub!)t:tntial. They vary from being essentially
22 Chapt.:r ::! Loads. Load Fac10rs. and Load Combinations

l r-----; -----'"1

-----------~[_- ~~::~~~:.(fLL)
I

Changes in occupancy
-
1
Sustained (SLLJ
Figure 2.1 Varialion of Live
Time (years) Load with Time.

zero immediately before the occupants take possession to a maximum value at some
arbitrary point in time dUJing the life of the structure. The magnitude of the live load to
be used in a design is obtained from the approptiate building code. The actual live load on
rbe structure at any given time may differ significantly from that specified by the building
code. This ls one reason why numerous attempts have been made to model live load and
its variation and why measurements in actual buildings continue to be made. Although the
nominal live loads found in modem building codes have not changed much over the years,
the actual use of buildings has. and load surveys continue to show that the specified load
levels are still an adequate representation of the loads the structure should be designed to
resist.
The actual live load on a structure at any given po int in time Lo:; called the arbitrary
point-in-time live load. Figure 2.1 shows the variation of the live load on a structure as
might be obtained from a Jive load survey. The load specified by the building code is always
hig her than the actual load found in t.be building survey.ln addition. a portion of the live load
remains constam. This load comes from the relatively permanent fixtures and fom ishings
and can be refetTed to as the susrained live load (SSL). The occupants who emer and leave
the space fonn another part of the live load. rais ing and lowering the overall live load
magnitude with rime. This varying live load is called a rrcmsiem five load (TLL).

2.2.3 Snow Loads

Although snow might be considered a form of live load. unique condition s govem its
magnitude and distribution. It is the primary roof load in many geographical areas and
heavily depends on local climate, building exposure, and building geometry.
Snow load data are normally based o n surveys that result in isoline maps showing areas
of equa l deprh of ground snowfall. Using this method. a nnual extreme snowfalls have been
determined over a period of m any years. These data have been analyzed through statistical
models and the expected lifetime maximum snow loads estimated. The refere nce period is
again the 50-year anticipated life of the stmcture.
A major difficulty is e ncountered in translating the ground snow load into a roof snow
load. This is accompushed through a semiempirical relationship whereby the ground snow
load is multiplied by factors to account for such things as roof geometry and the thermal
characteristics of the roof. Work continues robe do ne to improve the method of snow load
computation and to collect snowfall data.
 2.2 Bllilding Load Sources 2.~

2.2.4 Wind Load

B) ill> Vl!l') nature. wind 1s a h1ghl:. dynumi<: natural phenomenon. Forthi' reason it is al!.o a
comrlex problem from a Strll<.:tural perspective. Wintl forces flut:Lume "'gnificantly, and are
also inllucnced by the geomctr~ ut 1llc <;true Lure, including the heighL '' idth. depth, plan
anJ clc\auon ~hape. and the surrounding landscape. 1l1e basic building ~ode approach to
wind loaJ <mal}'sis i~ to rrcut \\lllJ a!-> a 'talk load problem. U!iing the Btmoulli equation
to trml'late wind ~peed into wtnd pressure. In an approach similar to thJt used for snow
load .1 "~m•-empirical equation'' u"cd to ghe the w1nd load at certain !ehl'- a.' a funclion
of u numbt!r of factors reprcl>enung "uch effects a." wind gusL'i. topogr..rh~ and rruclUral
geurnclr).
I he data used for determinmg \\ 1nd loads are basctl on meu<,ured \\ md 'reeds. Mete·
orolug1caJ data rur 3-sccond "tnJ 'peed gu~t'- have been accumulatcu O\ ..:r l .c contiguom
Unth:J State~ and correcred to u ...;andanl height of 33 ft. These dma u.-~ ·~ ._ ,,_d to modd
the long-Lcrm characteristic~ l11r a mean recun·ence interval of 50 ~t'..tf'> -\ E - and the
modclcmlc~ pnl\ iuc maps to bt: u-,cJ as the foundation of wind fon.:~ caku tt ., Bel·a use
local 'Ill! charactcrisLic11 often l11d.Hc wind behavior. there are lo~atlllll' for \\I ~11 ..pecia'
aucnuon must be gt\Cll to"' mll h'aJ calculation. In addition. sc,mc bUikhng' requm~ 'pectal
allcnt1nn tn tlet~rmining WJI1lll11ad magnitude. In thc~c cases it mtght be \alu~thle tO(:O'!Juc'
\dnd tunnel te!'.t'> before the '-lnJl'tural dc:!>ign for wind j~; carried out.

2.2.5 Seismic Load

The treatment ot '>Cismic load clfect' J~t'\tremely complicated because of the high I) 'ari 1ble
nature ol this natural phcnomcn1m and the many factor~ that influence the imp..... f ;.tn
earthquake on an)' particular ,tnh.:ture. In addition. because the torcc the build rg tet:!' j,
the I"C!'>Ult of the ground moving. inertia l:lle~:ts mu:-.t be considered.
l-or mo~t buildings it1' "ulltl'icm w tn:.u -.eismic cffccL'> through the u'c- of o..~n equ1\ al~nt
static load. prO\ 1ded that the magniwdc ,Jf !hi' equivalent stuttc )Qad prt>perl~ rctk.:-t' the
dyn,lmtc.: c.:harnctcrt<,tics of thc 'c"miL c:!Vent. Many characteristics of the problem mullt be
quantified in orc.kr to cstablt'h the correct magnitude of this !>latic load. The'e tndude such
factors as the ground nwuon ami respon<.,c spectra for the seismic C\ e'lt and thc '>!nlctural
and :-.He charncten... w.:' lor 1h" 'pedlic proJeCt. At the present ume. there .reman}' more
appmache::- to earthquake loml determination than then: are cum:m mode budding codc5,
because man~ Jllrt.,dit:tion' o;.till usc oUL-of-datc model code~. ln aJJ"rion. the extension of
sei,m1c <.le"'gn rei.juircments t<> all area-. of the country througr th .. urrem model building
c.:o<.lc, j, makmg ,e-Jsmic: design a reqUirement for many mon.' u~..•ure' than had been the
case )u't ;t fe,, )cru·~ ago.

2.2.6 Special Loads

Sc\ era I other loatb will become important for parttculur ~trucwres in particular situariom.
The't' mdude impaet. bla't. and thermal effect".

Impact
or
Mo't huildin~ load:-. are stauc or essentiall~ 'l). meamng that their rate application is so
slo'' tiM! Lhe ktncttc cnerg} a'sociateu '' ith the1r mot ton b insignificant. For example. u
pcr.,on entering a room is actually e\crtmg .1 d) mun1c load on the structure b) virtue of
24 Chapt<!r 2 Loads. Load Factors. and Load Combinations

their motion. However. becaw;e of the small mass and slow movement of the individual.
I heir kinetic energy is c~~entially tero.
When loads are large and/or their rate or application is very high. lhe influence of the
energy brought to bear on the structure as the movement of the load is suddenly restrained
must be taken into account. This phenomenon. known as impact. occurs as the kinetic
energy of the moving mass is translated into a load on the s truclllre. Depending on the rate
of application, the effect of the impact is that the su·ucture experiences a load that may be
u~ lnrgc a.~ twice the o.;tatic value of t.he same mass.
Impact. is of pm1icular impotiance for !>tructurcs where machinery and similar actions
occur. Cranes. elevators, and equipment. such as print.ing presses could all produce impact
loads t.hat would need tO be considered in a design. fn addit.ion, vibrations may be induced
into a strucwre either by these high magnit.ude impact loads or the normally occulTing
occupancy loads. A Ithough normal live load occupancy. such as walking. is not likely t.o
produce increased de~o,ign load magnit.udes. the potenliaJ for vibration from these activities
~o,hould be addres!'ed in any design.

Blast
Bln~t effect~ on built.lings have become a more important. design consideration during lhe first
years of the twenty-first cenlury. Prior to thalli me. when blast effects were considered they
were normally the accidental kind. These types of blast do no t. occur as often as impact for
normal structures. but ~o.hould be considered under certain circumst.aJJces. Many structures
designed for industrial installations. where products of a volatile namre are manufactured.
are designed with resistance to blast as a design consideration. When the strucn1re is called
upon to re~>ist the effect:; or blasl. a gTeat deaJ of effo1t must be placed o n detem1ining the
magnit.udc of the blast 1.0 be re!.isted.
The threat of LeJTorism has been increasingly recog nized since the attacks on the World
Trade Center and Pcmagon on September 11, 200 I. Tn order to take lhat threat into account.
\)\\ ners must uetcrmine the level of threat to be designed for and design eng ineers must
e:;tabl•sh the extent to which a particularthreat will influence a particular structure. Generally
~peaking. analysi5 and design data for blast effects is somewhat limited. Work is currently
being done to est.o.blish design guidelines that help determine blast effects and member
strength in response to bias!.

Thuma! Effects
St.eel expands or contracts under changing temperatures. and in so doing may exert con-
siderable forces on the structure if the members are restrained from moving. For most
building stn1ctures. the Lhermal effects are less significant than other loads for structural
:-.trengt.h. Because the movement of the structure res ults from tl1e total tempemlure change
and is directly proponionalto the length of t.he me mber experiencing the change. the use of
expansion joints become~ imponan1. When expansion or cont.raction is not permitted, the
re~ulting forces must be accommodated in the members.
The A ISC Specifica1ion includes guidance on the design of steel structures exposed to
hre. Appenuix -1- p rovides crirena for the design and evaluation of structural steel cornpo-
nenh. ~y ... lcm~. and frame~ for fire condit.ions. In the cunent building design envimnment.
design for fire is usually accomplished by a prescriptive approach defined in the Speci-
fkatiun a~ Jesign by q ua lificatio n testing. IT the actual thermal effects of a fire are to be
adJre..,scu. the Specif-ication permits design by e ngineering analysis.
 :u Building LoaJ Determination 25

2.3 BUILDING LOAD DETERMINATION

Once the uppropriute building lnml 'ource~ are idcnliiH!U their magnt ude-. must be deter-
mined. f\lethod\ to determine th~'~ magnitude' are set b) the applical, c;; building code for
each load ~ourcc. The following 'ection" pro\'ide general gutdance to de .c: ~nune the bui !ding
load rnagmtudc., but for <,pecth<: details. the applicable building code , be consulted

2.3.1 Dead Load

Building dead load determinall!\ll ewl be either quite straightforward nr '~r: complex. If
the ~ize-. of all elements of the \tructuml system ;.src 1-mm n before an anal~' , b conducted,
actual material \\eighb. ma) be letemuncd ami applit:d in the structu£:11 m~ ' h. Selected
unit weight'> of t)pkal butkhn_ matenab arc gi,en m Table 2.1 ~t.mua T.able 17. 13
provide:"' the wdghts of building m.tt~rials and product catalo~ pro' tde '' :•= . 'tlf thing~
such a~ building mechanical cqutpmcnl.
ff the final size'> are not k.nlm n. as would normal!) be the ca -.~ tn the :.-arl~ •tages of
design. a'>sumption~ need to b~.: m.tde w estimate the self- weight ' r the- ' tructure Tht, then
necessitate' an Iterative proct:" ,,, rt:hnemem a<, the destgn anJ ih -.-~me ... pondtr = •etght
are brought together.

2.3.2 Live Load

As discussed ct1rlier. li\e load nwgn tude!) are estubli:-.hcd hy the applicable building code.
Table 2.J provtde., value!<. forth~· m mmum unilorml)' Ji,tributcd live lom.J., fnr bui!Jin~ ...
for selected occurancies.
In tle,ign. a simplified appro.K'h fl)f determining the f()ad on a p<~nicular element j,
through the usc of the tributar~ tlrl?<'!. \ 1 . The tributar} area method '' .1 w:~~ tn q-.uahze
the Load on •• ,u·uc.:tural element \dthL'lit perfom1ing the acnwl eguilthnum c.tkulau •n .... It
dOC!). hOWCVC!', provide the ~am~ I"<.', Uit h CL'•IU'-e it is fundttmcntally ba-.cJ un an equihbnum
analysi:.. Simplilied tributaf) ,,r,_.a, for ' l ll11e , trucwral members arc fl\l.'n 10 Fi; ure 2.2.
Although the concept of the tnhutaf) ilfCa can be uo;.ed to determme lll. had on a
member, an equal!) impon,mt .:mn:ept j, the illj luc•llce area. A ,. The mflu-.nce area •~
significant bccau-.e it refteeh the tro:a m·er which an) applied load \\OU!d haH .tn influence
on the member of imere~t. The member under consideration \\Ldd leo · •w portion of
the load applied out.,ide of 1h.: mnu.:nce area. Table :u provide-, th-. r~lattlllhhip between
tributary area und inlluence urcu forscvcr;.sl speci lie structural ekme '"here A 1 = KLLA 1.
Several of the\ alue... Ill thi' table are ...impliried rromthc actua. rdauon,hlp und it is always
permi,'>ibk to l.'akuJme the actual mlluence nn~a.

Ta ble 2. l Loll \\c•yht-ofT)plt:al Bllllthng \laLcriaJ,

Mmeriul (I bill I
Aluminum lb5
Brick I::!II
Concrete
Reinforced. "11.h ::.tone aggreguh.: 1.:"0
Blocl... 60 percent \Oid
Steel. roll¢u ~'Ill
Wood
Fir
Plywood
26 Chapter:: Load,, t...'ad Fal:tO~. ami Load C11mhinutions

Tablcl.l i\lmtmum Lniformly Distnbuted Un: Load~

ior Buikltng Qe,tgn

Ou:upanc~ m u-~ clbtrn

Re,tdcmial J,,clling~.•tpllrtments. hotel rnnm,, 'chool 40

c la,,rmml'
Ouke' 50
l.udnonum' (tn.ed ...:.Jhi (-,(}

RetJ tl -tore' 73-100

B e.....:her, 100
Ltbra~ ,t.~~:·b ISO
Hea': manulac:tuting anJ warehouses 250

" D.iLlarc taken fmm A:.n: i .

_.\,the tnfluence area tncrea..;es lm a particular member, the likelihood of lhe full code
spec:thctl nnmtnal hw load actually (lll.'llrring on the structure decreases. Because the code
doe:- not ~Jll)\\ aheaJ of time the li!..ctihood of that full area being loaded. the magnitude
of the 'fX:dllcJ loaJ ., 'Cl without con~tJeraLion of loaded area. Thu~. the tabulated values
are refenc:d to a' the unreduced nominal live load. To account for the !\ize of the influence
area and thereh~ pnn tdc a more renlt,tic preuictor uf the actual live load on the 'ltruclure.
a li\C loa<.l reuu.:tion fat.:tor is introduceu. For influt.:nct.: areas greater than 400 ft 2 the live
load 1111~ be reJw:ed according to the live load reduction equation:

L -- L,. ( 0._5
., + 15 )
JA/ (2.1)

- ,-
I I.---i-~~
2(1., + /,.I
,.....,\ 1 lor exterior
.- [\<alllc.:tllumn

It ~r:._1_~:-~~n ,Q

- - - - -I • I
_)
- 1 l,
1 • I- -

- - -1,- -'--- -1.- --;...- - /.-- -'-- -t, ~l

FigUI'e 2.2 !:!tmpli fit!d Tribut:1ry Area' lo1Some StruclLirul M~.:mbero;.

 2.3 Building Load Detennination 27

Table 2.3 Live Load Element Factor. A11

Element 11.11 (note I)

Interior columns ..
l:.~terior column<."' tthout cantilc,er -.1.1b' ..
Edge column'>" ith canttle\er ~lab, 3
Corner column!. '' ith cantilever ~lab' 2
Edge beams without cantilevcnl:tb' 2
Interior hemns 2
All other membcn. not identified aho\C, mcluding:
Edge beams wtth cantilever slab'
Cantilever beam~
One-wa)' slab~
Two-way slabs
Members without provi ion' for, ••nttnuou~ shear
trnn..,fer nom1al 10 their span

:"'ote I In heu or lhc \alue" ;~bo\"e, Ar.1 I• permlllcd to be calculated.

Data are tal-en lrom ASCE 7.

where
L = reduced live load
Ln = code specified de:.ign I\ I! load
A 1 = influence area = K1 \ r

Limitations on the use of thi' Jr,e load reduction arc spelled out in ASCE -.

2.3.3 Snow Load

Roof s now load calculatillll\ ..tart With detcmlination or the ground ..nO\\ load for the
building site. Table :!A pnn tdc' I) pica I ground c;now load value-. t lr '~ledeJ location~.
The complete picwre of ground ),now load i!. provided in the appr pn.1t<! building code.
In many location..,. howe\er. Lhc !>1\0wfall depth is a very Jocalrtc.>J phenomena and the
variabilil) i-. -.,uch 1ha1 it is not appropriate 10 map tho~e \alue-. In t'l<: ...e ... ituations, local
building offkial\ 'hould be con..ulted to de1erm1ne what th~ I "'...: reqUirements are.

Table 2.4 Typtcal Ground SOO\\ Load-.. ,,a

Location
Ponland. Mame 60
Mmncapoh-.. Mmne\ola 50
Hartford. Connecticut 30
Chacago. lllinoi" 25
S1. Loui!.. Missouri 20
Raleigh. North Carolina 15
Atlanla. Georgia 5
" Data are rukcn l'ru111 ASCE 7
28 Chaptc::r.:: Loads. Load Factor,. and Load Combmations

Tbc dctermjnation or roof snow load is complex und there are many acceptabk ap-
proaches. Roof snow load on an unob'\tructed flat roof. u~ given in ASCE 7. is

PJ = 0.7C., C,Ip~ (2.2)

where P,q is the ground 'now load determined from the appropriate map, C,. is the exposure
factor. C, il> rhe thermal factor. and I b the imponance ractor. Numerou~ other factors enter
into the determination of roof SilO\\ load. including roof slope. roof conliguration. snowdrifl.
and additional load due to rain on the -;now. The applicable building code or ASCE 7 should
be refetTed to for d1e complete provil>ions regarding snow load detem1ination.

2.3.-J Wind Load

A.; with -;now toad and other geographically linked environmental loads, the starting point for
wind load calculation i' the map of)-.,ccond guc;rs provided in the building code. Table 2.5
provides the wind ~pt:cd data for :-,evcral selected locations with varying wind velocities.
These data must be Lrum,fonned into wind pressure on a given building to determine the
appropriate design wind loads. This transformatjon mu'>l Lake into account such factors as
the importance of the building. height above the ground. relative sheltering of the site, to-
pography, and the Jirecti(}n of the dominate winds. ASCE 7 provides the following equation
to convert the mapped data to velocity pressure:
(2.3)

\vbere
q_ = velocity pressure at a specific height above ground
K~ = exposure coefficient

K:1 = topograph) factor

Kd = directionalit} coefficient
\ = wind speed
I = importance fncror

Once the velocity pres-.ure is deiCrmined through Equation 2.3. it must be converted to
the e:nemnl design wind pre~sure. For the main wind force resisting system. this is given by

p =qGC,-q,CGC11;) (2.4)

Table 2.5 R<!prc~cntall\.: Wind VelocitiC!> and Resuhin~

Dynamic Pressures''

Wintl velocuy Vclowy pressure

Location (mphl (lb/ft1)
\fiam1. Flonda 1~5 53.8
Hou,ton. Tcxns 120 36.9
'\e\\ 'rurk. New York 105 28.2
ChiLago lllinob 90 20.7
San Fran~1":o. Califomiu 85 18.5
 2.3 Building Load Determination 29

where
p = design wind pressure
tf = velocity pressure from Equation 2.3
G = gust factor
CP = pressure coefficient
cc;., = internal pressure coefficient

The actual forces applied Lo the structure are then determined by mulupl~ ing the design
wind pressure by the tributary urea. Because each building code has JX'temially different
requirements for wi nd load detenmnation, the designer must review the pr ~~ 1'10ns pecified
in the controlling code. If there:., no buildjng code, A.SCE 7 should be u...eJ

~.3.5 Seismic Loads

Perhaps the most rapidly lluctuaung area of building load detenmnation Js thJt for -..eismic
design. Although there have been many advances in the use of d~namk analy'l' ior earth-
quake response. common practH;e t" 'till ro model the phenomenon u ing a stalll load. For
those cases where it applies. ASCE 7 permits the determination of the building ba.'e 'hear
through the expression

V=C,W ,,__.
))

where
V = ba'e shear
C, = seismic respon e cu~ftkit-m
W = total building we1ght

The seismic response coeffil.!tent need not be greater than

C _ Sot (2.6)
I- T(R/ 1)

where
C = c..ebm11.: re::.ponse coefficient
Sm = tle-,ign spectral response acceleration
T = building period
R = rc!>pon:-.e modification factor
I = Imponance factor

For the design of steel structures to resi'>t 'ei,mtc forces. the designer must select an
appropriate V<llue for the response modificati on facwr. R. In cases where appropriate. the
:-.election of R = 3 permitS the structure to be de ... tgnec.l according ro the AISC Specification
without using the c..eisnuc provisions. Tf a value of R greater than 3 is u ed. the design must
proceed according to the additional pro' j-,ion' or ANSI!AISC 341-05 Seismic Provisions
for Srmcwral Steel Building:.. This i ~ tli cu,,ed further in Chapter 13.
As with the Other environmental load' tiN:ussed here. the details of load determination
for .-..eismic response must be found in the approp1iate building code.
30 Chapter :! Loads. Load Factors, and Load Combinations

2A LOAD COM13L"\.-\TIONS FOR ASD AND LRFD

In addition to specif:y ing the load magn1tulk~ fnrwhich building ~tructures must be designed.
building codes specify ho\\ the individual!) defined load' 'hould be combined to obtain the
maximum load effec1. Care mu.<;t be e'\ctx:ised in combining load-. to determine the most
t:ritical combination becau~e all load' are not like I} to be at their maximum magnitude at
the 'arne time. For in.;wnce. it is unlil..d) that the ma\imum sn0\1. load and maximum wind
load would occur simultaneously becauo,c the wmd would undoubted!) blow some of the
'now off the structure. Another unlikely occurrence would be a design earthquake occurring
at the same Lime a'- the maximum de-,tgn wind. TI1us. building code<; specify which loads
are to be combined and at what magnitude they 'thould bl.! considered. The designer must
exercise judgment \\hen combining lmu.J... in ~iluutions where the nonnal expectations of
the building code mtght not be satisticu or where !'.Ome rarticular combination would result
in~~ greater demand than previously identified.
The two design philosophies acldressccl tn the AISC Specificatio n are the direct result
of the two approat:he~ to load combinations presented in current building codes. ASD u~cs
load combination\ defined in ASCE 7 us bei ng for allowable stress design, and LRFD
uses load combinations defined as being for stre ngth design. The provisions in ASCE 7 for
allowable stress design combine loads normally at their nominal or serviceability le\·eb. the
load magnitudes di!'cussed in Section 2.3. These lond combin:ttions were hi5.torically used to
determine the load effect under ela~tic !.Ires!> dbtributions and those stresses were compared
to the allowable !>tresses established at some arbitrary level below failure. indicated by either
the yield :-.tres<~ or the ultimate '>li'C~'>. Consitlering load combinations that include only dead.
li\e. ""incl. snO\\. and c;eismic load'>. the load comblllallun'> presented in ASCE 7-05 Section
2.4 for ASD are:

J. Dead
2. Dead +Live
3. Dead+ Roof Li\'e
4. Dead+ 0.75 Live + 0. 75 Roof Live
5. Dead + Wind
6. Dead+ 0 .7 Earthquake
7. Deau +0.75 (Wind or 0.7 Earthquukc) + 0.75 Live +0.75 Roof Live
8. 0.6 Dead+ Wind
9. 0.6 Dead+ 0.7 Earthquake

As used\\ ith the current A fSC Specification. th~~e load combinations are not re.~tricted
to an e lastic stres<> disu·ibution as done in the past. The l:urrcnt Specification is a strength-
based specification. not a '>tress-based one. and the requirement for e lastic stress distribution
is no longer applicable. This has no impact on the use of these load combinations but may
have some historical 'igmhcance to tho.se who were educated primarily with th~ former
1nterpretation.
The second approach a'uilable in ASCE 7 combine' loadc; at an amplified level. Thec;e
combinations. referred to U'> 'trength load combination.,, pennit<o (me to investigate the abilit}
ol lhe ''mcture to resist load' at n ... ulurnate '-trength. In thil- approach. loads are multiplied
or
b~ il loat.l factor that incorporate:. both the liJ..clihood the load~ occurring simultaneously
at their maxtmum level and the mnrgin again:-! which railun! or the <;tructure is meru.urcd.
Agam. ~on,idering load combinations that include only dead. live, wind. 'now. and sei,mic
 2.5 Load Calculations 31

loads, the load combinations prescmed in ASCE 7 Section 2.3. if the !he load is not greater
than JOO psf, for LRFD are:
1. 1.4 Dead
2. 1.1 Dead+ 1.6 Live+ 0.5 Roof Live
3. 1.2 Dead+ 1.6 Roof Li\ t! -r- 0.5 Live
4. 1.2 Dcad + 0.5 Livc+O.S Roof Live+ 1.6 Wind
5. 1.2 Dead+O.S Live + 1.0 Earthquake +0.2 Snow
6. 0.9 Dead + 1.6 Win<.l
7. 0.9 Dead+ 1.0 Eanhquake
The design method to be u'ed. and thus the load combination'-. ~re at the di cretion
or the designer. All current building codes permit either ASD or LRFD 'lJ the AlSC
Specifi.cation provisions add res\ all limit rates for each approach. A' di-..\.u, .....J m Chapter 1.
the resulting design may differ lnr each design philosophy. beeau".> the .!ppp:~,h taken to
as ure safety is different. but ~afet~ ts a sured when following the appropn.tte t'lui Jmg code
and the AJSC Specification regurdle"' of the design approach.

., -
-·:1 LOAD CALCULATIONS
rn order to under~tand the impact olthe-,e two approaches on analysis, iris hcl pful to compute
the load effect for a variety of 'lruc.turJI member. according to both ASD and LRFD 1uaJ
combinations. The floor plan of a moJI!r.ue-beight multi~tory building is gh en 111 F1gure: ;
Load case 2 for dead plus !he load ~~ con idered for several beam~ anJ column' The
building is an office building 1\ uh a nc.m1inal live lood of 50 pounds per 'qu.tr~ foot 1 p-..fJ
and a calculated dead load or70 P'l'.
1. Girder AB on line 2-! ijthl'jloor deck SfJCIII.I'.fr om line I -I to 1-2 'r'l 3-3.
Tributary area: A - = C-1-0)(20) = 800ft:!
Influence area: A 1 = 2A7 = 1600 ft2
Live load reduction:

0.2)- + _1_5 - - 0. 6?"

l17i\r\ - -·
v' 1600

I I :I I I r31
-
I
I I
I
I I
I I
I (;)

I
I I
I I
:I
I
I
I
I -+®
~IJ ll

I I I l 1 ~0 fl
I I I I I __LG)

@
1---40 ft- i-40 n-J©
B
30 II
~
-3011--.j
®
Figure 2.3 Floor Plan of High-Rise Offkc BUtldmg.
32 Chapter:! Loads. Load Factors. and Load Combinations

LRFD
Amplified loads per lineal foor:

Dead load = l.2 (70 p!-.1) (20 fL) = 1680 plf

Live load= 1.6 (0.625) (50 pc;J) C20 ft) = 1000 plf

1.2 Dead+ 1.6 Live= 1680 + I000 = 2680 lbslft = 2.68 kips/ft
11'1 2 2.68(40)2
Required Moment (LRFD), Mu = g = =536ft-kips
8

ASD
Nomi/1(11 loads pt!r lineal foot:
Dead loud=70 psf (20 ft)= 1-100 pounds pe,·lineal fool (plf)
Live load=0.625 t50 psi) (20 ft)=625 plf

Dead + Live= 1-400+625 =2030 lbslfl= 2.03 J..ip~fl

11'/1 2.03(-10)2
Required Moment (ASD), /1/,, =
8
g = 406 ft-k.ips

2. Floor beam 2-3 o11line D-D ijrhejloor deck spans from line C-C 10 D-D to£-£:
Tributary area: A 1 = (20)(30) = 600 ft2
Jntluence area: A 1 = 1A r = 1200 fr2
Live load reduction:
15
0.25 + ~ = 0.683
v 1200
LRFD
\mp/ified loads per lineal foot:

Dead load= 1.::! (70 pc;l) (30 fl)=2520 plf

Live load= J.6 (0.683) (50 pst) (30ft)= 1640 plf

1.2 Dead -r 1.6 Live= 2520 + 1640 = 4160 plf = 4.16 kips!ft
II'["!. -t16(20)2 •
Required .'-.1oment (U~FD). Mu =g = 208 f1-kips.
8

ASD
Nam;nalloads per lineal font:
Dead load= 70 p~r (30 ft) = 2100 plf
Live load=0.683 (50 p~l) (30 ftJ= 1020 plf

D~<td+Live=2100+ 1020=3120 plf=3.1:! kips/ft

w/ 2 3. I 2(20)~
Required Moment (ASD), M., =8 = · = 156ft-kips
8
 2.5 Load Calculations 33

3. Interior column D-2 regt1rd/ess ofdeck span direction:

Tributary area: A 1 = (30)(20) = 600 £t2
Influence cu·ea: A 1 = 4Ar = 2400 ft2
Live load reduclion:
15
0.25 + ~ = 0.556
v 2400
LRFD
Amplified load entering column at /hi~ le~'el:
Dead load= 1.2 (70 psO (600 ft2 ) = 50.400 lbs
Live load= 1.6 (0.556) (50 P'fl (600 fL2 ) = 26.700 lbs
Dead+ Live= 50.400 + 26.-oo = 77, 100 lbs = 77. I kip
Required axial force (LRFD!. P, = 77.1 kips

ASO
Nomina{ load eurering columnar 1his level:
Dead load=70 pl>f(600 ft')=J2.000 lbs
LIVe load= 0.556 (50 ps[) (600 ft.: 1= 16.700 lbs

Dead + Live=42,000+ 16.700=58.700 lbs=58.7 kjps

Required axial force (ASDI. P = 58.7 kips

4. Exterior column D-.J rt'ttarclle~\ of deck span direction:

Tributary area: A 1 = t 30)( 101 = 300 ft2
Influence area: .\t =.1.-\T = 1200tr
Live load reducLion:
15
0.25 + r.=A = 0.683
..;1200
LRFD
Amplified lnad entering column at This level:
De~1d load= 1.2 170 psi) (300 frl) = 25.200 lb
Ll\e load= 1.6 (0.683) (50 psf) (300 fl2 )= 16.400 lb-.
1.2 DeaJ + 1.6 Live= 25.200+ l6.400 =4 l.600 lb-.=~ 1.6 l-1ps
Rcqu1red axial force (LRFD), P11 = ...JI.6 kips

ASD
Nomlllal/(lad eml'ring column arrhis level:
Dead load= 70 psf (300 ft!) = 21 ,000 lbs
Live load= 0.683 (50 psJ) (300 ft2 ) = I0.200 lbs
Dead+ Live =2 1.000+ 10.200= 31 ..:!00 lb~= 31.2 kips
Required axial force (ASD). Pu = 31.2 kip~
34 Chaprer ~ Loads. Load FaciO!'\. and Load Combinauons

2.6 CALIBRATIOI"
The ba<:ic requirement!- of the ASD and LRFD deliign philo!-.ophic!> were presented in
Sections 1.6 and 1.7 and Equation~ 1.1 and l .2. The requir~d load combinations for ASD
and LRFD. as found in ASCE 7. have been prl!sented earlier in thb chapter. This section
establi'ihe~ the relationship betv.een the resi,tance factor. 4>. and the safety factor, Q.
Early development of the LRFD approach to design concentrated on tbe detenninauon
of resistance factor!. ami load factors that would re-:ult in a level of '\tructural reliability
consistent with pre\ ious practice but more uniform for different load combinmions.
Because the design o•· -.tecl o;tructures before that time had no particular safety-related
concerno;. the LRFD ,1pproach was calibratcu to the rhen-currcm 1\SD approach. This
calibration wao; carried out for the liYe load plul> dead load combination at a li\'e-to-deruJ
load ratio, UD = 3.0 It was well known that for any other load combination or live
load-to-dead load ratio. the two methods could gh·e different an ... v.ers for the same design
situation.
The cun·em Specification has been developed with this same calibration. which results
in a direct relationship between U1e resistan<.:e factor of LRFD and the safety factor of ASD.
For the live load plus dead load combination in ASD. using Equation 1. 1. ~md reprec:enting
the load effect simply in terms of Land D.

(D + L) S QR"
This same combination in U~FD. using Equation 1.2. yields

( l.2D _,_ 1.6L) S <t>R,

If it is assumed that the l<>ad effect is equal to the a\'ailable strl.!ngth and each cquarion
i., solved for the nominal strength. the results for ASD are:

Q(D + L) = R,

and fllr I RFD:

( 1.2D + 1.6L)
--~---=R,
<I>

With UD taken as 3. the above equation' are set equal. The) are then solved for the
safety factor. '' hich gives:

1.5
n=-
cl>

The resistance fw.:tor., in the Spet.:iticalion were developed through n stochastic anal-
~!'i'> to be consistent \\ith the 1>pecified load factors and result in the desired reliability
for each limit state. ~lore derail on the development of Lheo;e re'i'-tance factors can be
found 10 Section 83.3 of the Commentary to the Specification. Once the resi'lt..tnce fac-
tors were established. the corresponding sal\!ty factors were detetmmed. Thi1- rclation-
,hlp hus bcetl used throughout rhe Specification to set the safet) factor for each limit
'\L.tte.
,)..Jthough the relationship is simple. there is actually no reason to use it to determine
... afet~ factor,. because the Specification explicitly uefines re'i~tance factor' and 'iafcty
factor' lor c\ e~ limn o;tate.
 2. 7 Problems 35

2.7 PROBLEMS
1. 'Jame and describe fhc bn.\ic types/:-.uun:el> of buildmg the r.:quired ... trength nf the members note..! below for design b~
llMh. lul LRFD and I b) ASD.
i. The beam on column line 3 bel\\ecr ..:olumn lines A ami
2. C:negori...:c the rollowing lom.ls us Je:H.lloud, l iv~ load, snow
B if the tlcck spans from line 2-2 to~-' 1 ' 4-4.
load. wind loutl. \Cbmic load, or special load.
ii. The gudcr on column line C bet'' e.. ,.,,Jumn lines 3 nnd
a. Lo,,J on an office Roor due 10 filing cuhtnt>l" deo;ko; :mtl 4 if the dcck :Jpttns from line B-B to C-C D D.
computer\. iii. The column at t:he comer on Jjne- .: • .\
b. Load on a roof from u pcmmnent :ur h:.mdling uml. i\·. The ..:olumn on the edge atLhe imer,e~ ~lflinesCand
c. Load on stadium bleachers lrnm stuuentl!jumping up and .t
down durmg a college football game. '· The rntcrior column at the inler...e.:, n,, oi ~ lumn lines D
d. Load on a building cau~ctl b~ an e'(plosron. and 3.
e. Weight on a steel beam from a concn:te l>lub that it 1:. I - -- I -- - I - - - I -- - I- 1 CD
supporting.
f. Load experienced by nn oflkc building in California U)l it
\hakes during an eanhquuke.
I ~fl
I -- - -I----- 1- - - -I - - - - I-:-C)
g. Load on a '"-Yl>craper in Chtcago on a blw.tcry da) ..:au,.
mg the butlthng to ~way bac(... und forth .
.t What is one \OUrce you cnn conl>ult to lintl the ~now load
I~n
r-'------I -----I ------+ 17----I -.-~
1
Jatn for a particular ro.!gion a:-. well Ull map~ -.howing wind gu't ......
Jal3 to calculate wind loatls'J I u
~. \\here in the -\ISC :O.Ianual can you find a table of sckctcJ /]'

tllt \\Cighl!. ol 1.11mmon buiklrng material~'! ? I I I I - ' <?

5. Whm c.maly~t ~ method allow:-. the designer w visualit.e the "::::'-30tt-l-3on- -Jon-f--:~,,11-~ ""
lad on a parttcular <aroctuml clement without performing an ~ @ © © ~ P1.15
,.;ural equilihnum c:Jlculatmn'>
h. In <.letermuung the <>now load tm a structure. "hat value rhat 16. II the- trammg plan sho\\n beiO\\ \\ere for the root <•I a
..m be obtainctl from the appbc<tblc bu1lding code rs multrplteJ 'tru1.1ure tiMt ~:arrietl a dead lo:u.l of 55 p-.1 ·• d a~ • '"~ lo;ld
h\ u series ol Iactor' to obtain the actual snow load'! 11! 30 p,f. tletcnnine the required strength 1 t the 1... r ber~ n,>teJ
hell'\\ for (:tl tbrgn by LRFD and (bl de,J,:n b ~SD
7. Name four fm;tors that mu~t be taken into u~.:count \\hen
i. The girdc1 on column line A bet\\.:< n col 1 mes I :md
,.; lll\·ening wind ... peed data referenced by the burltltng code mto
2 if the dccJ.. ~pans from line A--\ 1 B-8.
\ 1nd pressure on a given building.
ii. The beam on column line 1 ht>£\\een .:olumn hnes Band
If a rcspon~e moditication l<tl'tOr of 3 is cho~cn in Je~Jgmng C if the deck 'pans from lint! .!-2 to:-:- Ill J-t .
.. ~teel building tt1re~l<.t seismic loads. what design \rccrlrc:llinn iii. The column m the corner I'IT1 hne- and E.
'huuld be con\ultcd? h. The column on the edge at ihc mteN~.:twn of lines I and
9. Which dc:-.1gn approach combrne~ load~ tim ;m: Jllmnally ;~t B.
· re1r nominal or \en iccabilit) lc\d'' \', The mtcnor column :lithe mrer,,_..:ttl.ln of column Lines C
IU. Strength load combination~ that an: inwrporatctl by the and 2.
RFD methoJ take into account whatt\\tl lauor~·,
II. U<;ing ASCL 7-05. detcmlllll.: the mimmum unifomll) Ji:.·
tnhuted li\'e ltlud for a ho...pital uperating room.
12. U~ing
ASCE 7-05. delCrJJIIJII.' the mmimum umforml) di!oo·
r-r-l-i~·~
I-----I-----I-----I-----I-r-(D
huted live load for llbmry stad.s.
13. U!>ing ASCf:. 7-05. determnlt: the mmimumunifotmly di,.
mbutcd live load for an apartment building.
I Ill T I 1
I-----I-----I----- I-----I-+(D
2 1
H

1~.
t .1
D<!tcmlinc the nominal unrfurml} di~Lnbuted .,elf-weight
6-in. thid, n:infon.:ed con~.rett: ,Jab.
15. A building has a column loyout as ~hown in the next <.:()1-
I I I I IT
I- - -I- - -I - - -X X-- (j)
nrn '' ith 30-ft bay, in each tlirc~.:~ion. It mu~t :.upport n unrform - -.!"11 - 2.'ifl+25h-1- 25fl-l
.k:J ~ load of 90 p~f and a uniform liH~ load of 80 P'f Detennine ® ® © @ ® P2.16
Chapter 3

The Palazzo, Las Vega.~.

Phmo counesy Walt~r P Moure.

Steel Building Materials

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Steel has been produced in the United States since the 1800 . Its liN use in a bridge was a
rajlroad bridge acros. the Mi'>. issippi River in St. Louis . built in 1874 by James B. Eacl~. The
bridge. known as the Ead)> Bridge. is still an inspiring steel structure crossing the river in the
shadow of the St. Louis Gateway Arch. The lirst skyscraper is generally considered to be the
Ho me Insurance Building. designed by William LeBaron Jenney and erected at 135 South
La Salle Street. Chicago. The building was started on May l. 1884 and completed in the
fall of 1885. It was originally a I 0-story building bu1 later had 2 additional stories added.
The original structural design called for \\fOught iron beam::. bolted through angle-iron
brackets to cast iron columno;. As the framework reached lhe 6th Aoor. the Carnegie-Phipps
Steel Company ofPiusburgh. Pennsylvania indicated that they were now rolling "Be!\semer
Steel'' and request ed pct·misi\ion to sub~Lillltc steel members for the wrought iron beams on
all remaining floors. Thus. this was the first use of steel beams in a building. T he Home
Insurance Building was demolished in 1929.
The firsr all-scecl skyscmper was the Rand-McNally Building at165 West Adamo; Street
in Chicago designed by Daniel Burnham and John Root. Thi~ I0-:,tOr) building was buill
from 1888-1890 and wa:. constructed of built-up member!> made from standard rolled steel
bridge 'lhape tha{ were riveted together. IL began a continuous evolution in steel building
structures lhat conlinues today as new ideas arc brouglu into play by architects and e ngineers
who continue to ouild with steel.

36
 3.1 Applicability of the AISC Specification 37

This evolution in steel buildings hru. occwTed in the materials used. the applications of
innovative designers. and the '>pecifications Lhat din::c:t their designs.

3.2 APPLICABILITY OF THE AJSC SPECIFICATION

The specification that guides the de ...ign of our modem steel building., \\ ..~, first published
by AISC in 1923. At that time its purpose was to promote uniform pracu-.e 10 the design of
steel building:-.. Up to Lheo. numerous approaches were being used aero~' the? industry. Steel
producers each had their own stanuard for design whereas the larger citie ... al"o required that
their own standard~ be used. Tim. multiplicity of standards was no stand.uJ .1tnll. It lead to
a confusion of approaches whereby uesigncr<: were continuaHy called upc 111 rn change how
the) designeu, depending on I\ here their current building project wa, t l "'e lc~.J.ted.
The 1923 specification defined ··the practice adopted by the Ameri-..11' Jn-.tt'Uh! of Steel
Constmction for the design. fabncation. and erection of structural ~ted butlding' ·· Tt went
on to provide direction on how to obtain a satisfactory structure. The folio\\ tng rl!quirements
were to be fulfilled:

I. The material used must be .. unable. of unifom1 qual it), and Without detect.. .tnecung
the strength or service ot the -.rrucrure.
2. Proper loads and conditiOn' mu'>t be assumed in the design.
3. The unit stresses must be '-llitable for the material used.
4. The workmanslcip must h~ gond. so that defects or injuries are not produced in the
manufacture.
5. The computations and de ...tgn mu't be properly made c;o that the unit tre>'~ -:-peel-
fled shall not be exceeded.•mdthe structure and its detajls shall pos~e.,~ the requc.ne
strength and rigidity.

The specification also prO\ tdeJ guid:mce on the material to be used ... t.mn,:. "Structural
steel shall conform to the Standard Specifications of the American DLit't~ fnr Testing
Materials for Structural Steel lor Buildings. Serial Designation A 9-:! I a' .tmenJed to date."
These principles from 192;\ are .,uiJ amportant to steel constmction almo... t J centul) later.
The 2005 AISC Specification for Structural Steel Building:. -;uper...ede<; all previous
AISC Specifications and Lhus brings together, into one document. the nece..-.ary provisions
for Lhe design or ~ted building structures. Over the years. the specih~.:ullon hu:. lost the tenllS
fabrication and crcction from its scope. because the development of ~tandard practice of
building: de,tgn and constmction has changed responsibiliue:-. of the \atiou!'> parties. ln addi-
tion. the AISC Specification has regularly been u<;cd to g:Uide the de~ign of strucLUres other
than building '>tructure!.. ln recognition of this practice. anu w en'!!ure that the specification
is properly applied. the scope of this edition has been rc?\ hcJ to !>tate "This pccifkation sets
ronh criteria for the design of structural steel building ... and other structures. where other
structures arc defined as tl1me <:tructurcs designed. fabncatcd. and erected in a manner
similar to building~. with building-like vertical anJ l.nerallond-resisting-clcments...
Additionall}. tl1e specificmion inJicates that 11 ..,hall apply to the design of the structural
steel system. \\here the steel elements are defined tn the A ISC Code of Standard Practice for
Steel Buildings and Bridges Section 2.1. In th:.u document. structural steel is defined as those
elements of the structural rrame that are shown and sized in the structural Design Drawings,
essential to support the design loads ..... and arc given here in Table 3. J. Examples of maoy
38 Chapter .1 Steel Buildmg Material!>

Table 3.1 Definitions of Slructural Steel"

Anchor rods that will receive structural steel.

Base plate:..
Beams. including built-up beam,. if made from '>tt~ndan.l structural shape!. and/or platel>.
Bearing plates.
Bearing~ of ~teeI for g:irde~. trus:;es. or bridges.
Bracing. if pcrmanenL
Canopy framing. if made from standard structurul shapes and/or plates.
Columns, including built-up ~.:olumns. if made from standard structural shapes and/or plates.
Connection materials for framing structural steel 11> :;tructural steel.
Crane ~tops, if made from tandard structural shape:; and/or plates.
Door fntmes. if made from ~rondard struclUrnl shapes and/or plates and if part of the
\tructural steel frame.
Edge angle!> and plates. if anached to tbe struc!Urul steel frame or steel (open-web) joists.
Embedded structural steel parts. other than bearing plates. that will receive strucwral steel.
Expansion joints. if att:.tched to the structura l steel frume.
Fastcn~rs for connecting structural steel items: permanent shop bolts. nuts. and washers: shop
bolts. nuts. and v.a!>hers for shipment; field bolts. nuts. and washer:. for permanent connections:
and pemument pin;..
Floor-opening frames. if made from standard struciUral shapes and/or plates and attached to the
~tructural Meel frame or steel (open-web) joist..~.
Floor plates (checkered or plain), if auached ro the strucwral sreel frame.
Girders. inc luding bujJt-up girders, if made from standard structural s hapes nnd/or plates.
Gil1!>, if made from standard structural shape~.
GriUage beams and girders.
Hanger~. if made from standard strucrurnl shapes. plates. and/or rods and framing
structural steel to struciUral steel.
Leveling nul~ and washer...
Leveling plates.
Leveling screws.
Lilllcls. if attacl1ed to the structural sreel frame.
Machinery supports. if made from standard structuwl shapes and/or plates and attached to the
struClllral steel frame.
Marquee framing. if made from standard structuml !-hupes and/or plates.
Monomil clements. if made from standard structural shapes and/or plate~ and attached ro the
structural steel frame.
Posts. if pnrt of the structuml ~tcel frame.
Purl ins. if made from standard strucwral shapes.
Relieving angles. if attached to the structural steel fro me.
Roof-openmg frames. if made from standard suuctural shapes and/or plntes and auached to the
structu1111:-.teel frame or steel Copen-web) joist!>.
Roof-screen suppon frame~. if made from standard ~tructur.tl shapes.
Sag rods. if pan of the Mructu111l Mcel frame and connectjng structural steel to ~Lructural steel.
Shear ~tud connectors. if !>pccificd to be shop auached.
Shims. if permanent.
Su'lttl\. if permanem and p:.tn of the structural steel frume.
Tie rod~. if part of the structural steel frame.
Tru\'-C!.. if made from stundard structural shapes and/or built-up members.
\\all-opening frames. if made from standard structural shapes and/or plate' and attached to the
~truLtural steel frame.
\),''edge-., i r permanent.
"From C11dc of Standard. Practice for Steel Building• and Bridges. AlSC 2005.
 3.3 Steel for Construction 39

.\x"c"' (wal) lor beams

tr ~p.:n-v.-eb Steel )o<~ll
... ::..~t-..01 rOds fOf .t.!tuc:tur.r a:~
!:.;,se plates or steel ror tteel COlumns
i 5-tams
~ !>a •ng plates lor stru~tut~l steel
""' 'S
• S- .,,,ng lor ste&l mombers or frame5
6.-at<.ets atteclled to~~~~ •teel frame 20 Holtovtstructural set:t•on t.SSl column
Ct ...,ed doul:ju conmoc.~""· 21 l.Jghtil"uge cold !orm~ &:HI t.se<J to suppo~t
Ccl~mns rroor and rO<>fs..
car, ayor S!llletun.· ~,,... tramewoD; 22 Llnteta atmcl!ed to Sloee1'·a:N
= C:a"~ golders. rail&, lind
_ .;,..--.::• lmmes ccntiJhJimg
stop&
part ol and ccMecteCI
23 ~atQtJI!e or canopy (s':n.-:..'11 •-a--e only) v.Mn
lornllng In lllteg,a' l!Crt Of tr~ r.•~lframe
30
31
Slleff angtn attaened to I~<' &:H 'ra.,.e
S:eo! corM lor ~polite cotumrs
t= ·n~ steel frame 2.1 Monoretl beam5 ol st~ncJrc l:"u::""' shapes 32 Steel v.mdows11ls at'«~ch•O to t•e -~~· lr.!me
=FJ170· and roof plato• (rd•&od p;~ttern or platrt) dii>!Ched IO Steel framt 33 Steei6UIIIS and hanoral,o
Q"t~ og connacte<lto steel rt ame 2~ Op0n·web steel JOIII> t.ll ~t7na a"a iicce""o"es 34 SUuta
~ G~ ·D@r g~rder wl>en tuppl•ed 1Mtl1 a~t>tl c:n:s 35 SWb g•rdore·
- -..rders 21. Punms 36 s.-pended oe~•ng s"~ e: w~~·a1 S'H
~ G.;:s 27 5ah angles cor.NJCttcl • - ~~~ t·~,a shapes 75 mm or g<'>:e- 'I ::t:"11
I l3nl ·~ Dea111$ ol .reel :n S4>p.vaiiHs. ilng,=~ •.;a dltl& a•..:J c:-•r c -:.1 1 37 T•es ~angers ann sa; roes •-"T.l'l; pa~ clthe
.....,.,... 01' tnmm~ts lor supPOrt af open·web 1\ttJng essentra: to ,~ s~wra ~~ tra'T\t structural frame
~ J<l'Sis wncrc such ncoden; or trlmmo"' 29 Sllor ccnnecors 38 Trusses and bracE .,.,,..K
':a me tnto structural steel members

I .:ure 3. 1 Steel ElemenK Copyright. Code of Stanuanl Pra~ll~e Canadian ln!>tirute of Steel Conl>lnJCill,n.

t'f th~.:se elemenlioo are ~hown Ill Figure 3.l . All element'S discu~seu "nhin this rex! will meet
the above definitton.

'-' STEEL FOR CONSTRl:CTION

Sine~ the introc.Juction of the first AISC Specification. a \·arict) of steels have been approved
for u...e tn steel construction. Which steels were !>pecificall) appnl\'ed at any Lime has changed
with the changing techniques of manufacture and -.t~.el chemhtry. Steels available for use
in construction have inc:rea~ed in strength ru. m3nufJt;:tunng hao; become more refined. One
imponam aspect ot all steel b that it general!) heh:l\1!!- in a uniform and consistent manner.
Thull, ulthough Lhl! strength might be different l o1 JdTerenl grades of steel, [he steel can be
cxpc~tct.l to behave the same. regardless of grade. up to its various strength limits.
The charactl.!rbtics of steel that are imponant to the structural engineer can be deter-
mined through a ~i mple uniaxialten~ion 1e~t. Th1-, .,UI.Odard test is conducted according to
rhe requirements of ASTM A370 Standard Tc'>t Method~ and Definitions for Mechanical
Testing of Steel Prouucts. A spectmen of a ),pecific dimension is subjected to u tensile force
40 Chapter 3 Steel Build111g Material~

!
Ten~ih! strength
/ !ultimate 'll'l!SS)
Upper yield
point
Elastic
limit
Proportionill
limit

Ela,l!c
Figure 3.2 Typical Stre:.s-Stmin Plot for \1ild Carbon Steel.

and the resulting stress and strain arc plotted for the duration of the rest. The stress./. and
<;train. E. are i>hO\\ n plotted in Figure 3.1 and defined as follows:
p f>L
!=-
A
and G=-
L
\\here
\ = cross-sectional area at start of test
L = length of specimen at stan of test
P = tensile force
( = axial tensile tress
~L = change in length of specimen
E = axial strain

The curve 'hown in Figure 3.2 is t)'pical of mild carbon steel. Several characterislics of this
stress-strain curve are \\OJ'Lh noting. FirsL the initial ponion of the curve, which indicate~ the
response that \\auld be ex peeLed under most normal or service loading conditions, follows
a straight line up to a point called the proportional limit. For structural steel with yield
stJesscs at 65 ksi or les.... thi.-. proportional limit is the point where the curve first deviates
from Jinear and i~ called lhe yield poim. The ratio of stress to strain in this region is constant
and called Young'<; Modulu . or the Modulu:-. of Elasticity. £. All <;tructural steels exhibit
the same initial stress-'>trJm bcha' ror and thus have the same £. The value of E obtained
through a wide number of te'h is cun'\i~tt!mly between 29.000 ksi and 30.000 ksi. For all
calculations according to the AISC Specificat.ion. E = 29,000 ksi has historically been used.
Within the straight-line portion ofrhe cune. the material is -.aid to behave claMically. A load
can be applied and then removed with the structure retuming to its otiginal configuration.
~howing no permanent deformation.
After reaching the yield stress. the stress-strain curve for mild carbon steel exhibits a
long plaLeau where the stress remain~ essemially constam while the strain increases. This
region io; called the plaslic region. Any structure that i!l loaded i 1110 this region exhibit~ a
 3.3 Steel tor ConstrucLJon 41

permanent plastic deformation a~ ~hown by the unloading line in Figure 3.2. The length of
this plastic region depends on the particular type of sleet but typicall) i<. 15 to 20 limes the
strain at yield.
At the end of the plastic region. the curve again rises with increa~mg <:tress and strain.
This increase i:. called srrain hard('llillg and continue~; until the specimen reaches its tensile
strength. or uiLimate stress. F,. Ut Lh\! peak or the stress-strain CUf\'e. Once the tensile
strength is reached. the '>pl!cimcn rapidly sheds load and increases strain anti! the specimen
completely ruptures.
Yield stress, tensile strength. anti modulus of elasticity are the en; neering data used
throughout design to fully de~cnb~ rhe material and to detennine the strenfth lithe structural
clements. The ratio of the Lensik \trength to the yield stress is also an impcnar, chnracteJistic
of stc~l. Lt is used to control th~ ba-.tc material behavior so that uL ,.:m u, ,,.lit -;tates, the
expected behavior can be assured.
Figure 3.3 shows the lower '-Lra.tn region of the stress-strain cur\'e, fonru ~ ... <.tee I with
different yield stresses. 36 ksi. 50 bi. and I00 ksi. Ela'i6c behanor 11r the r : er -.trength
tccb is the sumc us for lower -.trength steels as seen in the llgure. A' .1 rc ..J~ noted,
=
E 29.000 ksi for all steel. Th~.: tlttlerence~ occur after Lbc proponional lim t b reached.
For Meets with a yield stres Je-., than or equal 10 65 ksi. the plateau dcfim :: :he pl~­
tic region can be expected to occur. However. for steels \\ ith a ) teld :.rre-.-. ::rt:at~r than
65 ksi. it is expected that no"' eli-Jehned yield point will exi ... t und no well-dclincJ pl:Nic
plateau will occur. For these steel' ll is neces~ary to tlefine yield strength b) 'ome other
means. ASTM A370 provides f<'r ~ teld strength determination by the 0.2% offset methl,J or
the 0.5o/r elongation method. In either case. the stress-strain curve must be obtamed anJ the

(c)

hn I, = ICXl ~ ...i: typi\.'nl for steel~

wi1h F, > 65 bi

lJ.~'i 011,~1 t0.002 mJin.l

Fur F, =50 l.'i: typ1cal for mo>t \tnJctural

· ~teet~ with F~ 5 65 l.~i

SlrJin-h:J.rJ~mr.:; r:mge
.!0 Pla.,uc range w ma\ r.:n-1le ,tren •1h
~~--~~~~~----~----~~~~~~~----~

0
Strain E. m.lln.
Figure 3.3 Enlarged Typical Stress-Slnlu1 Curves for Steels with Different Yield Stre!I~C!i.
42 Chapter 3 Steel Building ~latertal:.

<.pecilicd ol'l\et or elongation used to determine the appropriate stress value. The resuhs of
these two approache-. arc shown in Fig ure 3.3. and the two method would yield different
~ ield trength vaJue-..

3.-J TRUCTURAL STEEL SHAPES

Strutlllral -.reel de!>tgn 'erves to determine the appropriate shape and quantity of steel
needed to carT) a gi,en applied load. This is nom1ally accomplished by selecting, from a
predetermined list of available shape~. the lightest-weight member. However. it could also
re uh from the combination of steel e lement~ into some particular des ired form. The early
day~ of "tee I construction had very li ttlc ' tandardizalion of avai Iable shapes. Although each
mill would produce it'> own shapes. the variety of avai lable shapes was limited and most
structural member'-'' ere compo ed of these a\'ai Iable shapes riveted together. One of Al SC's
original goa Ill wa." ro -.tandard.ize the shape<, being produced. Over the years. shapes became
srandordit.ed and more shapes, designed !>pecifically for the needs of building construction.
became O\ ai table. Modern production practices now make a wide variety of shapes avai Iable
£O the deo;igner o that des ign can almo!>t always be accomplished by selecting one of these
standard hape . fn ituations where lhe-;c '\tandard shapes do not meet the needs of a project,
member~ compo:.ed of plate mate rial can be produced to carry the imposed loading.

3.4.1 ASTM A6 Standard Sha pes

The fiN -.tandard shape to be discu!>o;ed are those defined by ASTM A6: W-shapes. S-
shapl!~. HP-~hapes. M-shapes. C-shape!>. MC-shapes. and L-sbapcs. Cross-sections ofrhese
shapes arc shown in Figure 3.4 where it can be seen that W-. M-. S-, and HP-sbapes oil take
the form of a n I. C- and MC-shapes are channels and L-shape:. are called angles. Part I of
lhe Manual contains table<; of properties for all or the l>tandard shapes.

W-Sha]>es
W-slwpes are usuaUy referred to as wide flange shape and are the most commonly used
hapes in buildings. Tbey have two flanges with essentia lly parallel inner and outer face.s
and a single web located midway on the flanges . The overall shape of the wide Oa nge may
vary from being a fairly deep and narrow section. as shown in Fig ure 3.4a, to an alrnost
square !-e~ tion, as shown in Figure 3.4b. TI1ese shapes have two axes of symmetry; the.r-axis
is the strong axis and the y-axis is the weak axis. Wide flange shape~ can be as dct:p as
44 in. and as shaUow as 4 in. A typical wide flange shape would be called oul as a W 16x26
where theW indicates it is a W-shape. the 16 indicates it has a nominal depth of 16m., and
the 26 indicates its weight is 26 pounds per foot. The nominal depth is part of the name
of the shape and indicates an approximate member de pth but does not i11dicate its actual
depth. The production of wide fl ange s hapes results in shapes being grouped in a family
according to the size of the rolls that produce the shape. All shapes in a family have the same
dimensio n between tht! inner faces of the flanges. The different weights are accomplished
by increasing the actual depth of the member. Manual Table I-I provides the dimensions
and sectio n properties needed for desig n fo r all W -shapes.

HP-Shapes
HP-shape~ are wide fla nge shapes normally used a bearing piles. The e shapes have parallel
face flanges like the wiuc flanges hapes but unlike theW-!>hapes. tbei r webs and flanges are of
 3.4 Structuml Steel Shapes 43

(a) W-shapes

~ ;::==;---6i

,__l_-_, ' vine inside

.;_m~~

_\'
lcl HP-shapes

1-•haped crosssections

)--I

L.:,;

_,_
Heel

(e) Channel~ (f) Angles

(C-ancl MC-shapesl (equal or unequal leg~)

,___ --
T Oll!s1de
wall
dlmen,l•lll

OUlside ..I- ' I_ Outside _I

d1am~wr (00) I ' \\'all dimension r.wallj
eli mens ion
lhJ Clrculartube •1 ~qu...re .1ml rccLangular
or p1pc !HSS-~hape~) ,tru~tur" tub1ng {HSS-shapes)

Figure 3.4 Stmclural Shapes.

44 Chapt~r 3 Steel Building ~latcrials

the ~arne nommalthitkness and they are all close to being square. as shown in Figure 3.4c.
\n HP 1-+xll"' \\ 1\Uid be an HP-shapc with a nominal depth of 14 in. and a weight of
I 17 pound<> per foot. Manual Table 1--+ provides the dimensions and section properties
needed forth~ Je,tgn for nil HP-shapes.

- hapes
'•Hizape.l are Am"·n~<tn Standard Beam-. and were previously referred to as (-beams. They
\\ere the 'tandard . . hape.., u~ed in construnion prior to the development of the rolling process
that permll!ed the inrmduction of the wide flange shapes. Although these shape are still
a\ at Iable. thetr uc;e 1' infrequent and thei r availability <>bould be confirmed priorto specifying
them The...e .,hapc' ha' e relatively natTO\\ llanges compared to their depth and the flanges
h,t\ e a ~loping mtemlr face. as shown in Figure 3Ad. The Manual lis~ 28 S-shapes and their
properuc.. are found 111 Table 1-3. As with the .,hapes previously discussed. the numbers in
the 11.1me refer ro the nominal depth and the weight per foot. ln all cases except the S24xl2 1
and 52-l- 106. the nomtnal depth and the actual depth are the same.

M-Shapes
M-sllape.\ are nw,cellaneous shapes that do not fit into the definitions of W-. HP-. and
S-..,hupes. The ~lanual list 1g miscellaneous <:hapes. They are not particularly common
and 'hould bl' u~.ed in design only after confirmation that they are economically available.
A t~ptcal Je-.,Jgnation would be M1 2xll.8. As with the other shapes. the 12 indicates the
nommal Jepth and the I 1.8 indicates the weight per foot. Dimensions and properties for
the...e \1-,hape" are found in Manual Table 1-2.

C- hapes
C-,/wpe~ are American Stnndard Channel' and are produced by essentially the same process
a-. S--..hape:>. They have two flanges and a -;ingle web located at the end of the flanges, as
hO\\ n in Figure 3.4e. These shapes have only one axis of symmetry and, like theW-shapes.
the x-a.\J" I" the 'itrong axis and the y-axis is the weak axis. As with the S-shapes, the flanges
ha,·e ''l)ptng mner faces. One of the 3 1 C-shapes fou nd in Manual Table 1-5 is a C8xJ 8.7.
All C-l>h.tpe:> ha'c an actual depth equal to the nominal depth.

MC-Shapes
MC-shapes are mhcdlaneous channel-. that cannot be classified as C-shapes. Their desjg-
nations folio'' the '-ame ru lc" as the previous shapes with a typical shape being an MC6xJ 8.
Manual Table 1-o li~b 39 MC-~hnpes. and I heir sizes fit into the same overall range as the
C-shapes.

L-Shapcs
L-slwpes are angles that can have equal or unequal legs. The largest angle legs are 8 in.
and the smallest are 2 in., with rhe dimension taken from heel to toe of the angle. A typical
angle designation would be L6x4x 7jl) where the first two numbers are the dimensions of
the Jeg., and the third is the leg thickness. Leg dimensions are acrual dimensions and the
leg thickne!>s is the same for both legs. For unequal leg angles. the longest leg is given first.
Equal Leg angles h<~ve one axis of symmelry whereas unequal leg angles have no axis of
 3.4 Structural Steel Shapes 45

symmetry. All angles have three uxes or inlerel>tto the designer: the geomeu·ic axes are the
x-ruos. parallel to the shonleg; the \'-axis is parallel to the long leg: and the minor principal
axis. which for equal leg angle<; is perpendicular to lhe axis of symmetry. is the ::-axis.
Manual Table 1-7 provides the dimem.ions and section propertie~ needed for the design for
all angle:-..

WT-Shapes
\VT-.\Iwpes are tees that have been ~:ut from W-shapes. They are also cal .~d "Plt! tees. These
shape~ are designated as WT5x56 \"here both numbers arc one-half of\\ hat \\mtld indicate
the purenL W-!.hape Lhutthey were ~:ut from. Dimensions and propertie'- ·(lr \\ T-shapes arc
gh en 111 Manual Table l -8.

l\IT-Shapes a nd ST-Sha pes

MT-slwpes and ST-.\·hapes arc 1\.'C' that have bct>n ('Ill fro m the rarCI1! \1- and \-<.hapes. The
properties and dimensions for the~c ...hapes arc found in Manual Table<.. 1-9 Jnd -I 0.

3..t.2 Hollow Shapes

Another group or shapes common() found in buildi ng construction are thl! hollm' ,hape~
referred to as tubes or pipe~>. The~~ ..hapes arc produced by bending and welding flat plate'
or by hot rolling to form a seamk" 'e~:tion. For all hollow structural shape!> (H$$ 1. A.ST\1
o;,pec:ificatioos set the requirement' h•r both the muterial and the sizes.

Round HSS
Round lwllvw ~lmc:tura/ :-.hapl, nrc round hollow strucrural section'-. The~ .trt manufac-
tured through a proct!ss called h1m1ed-From-Round which takes a flat 'trip I'll 'tee! and
gradually bench it around it' ll>ngnuJinaJ :t\ i~ ancl joins it by welding On~.t the \\ elt.l has
cooh;d. the round shape b pa'>set.lthrough atlditionol shaping and si7.ing roll'''" tl\ the final
diameter. A round HSS would be indicateu as HSS5.563x0.258 v. here the: liN number is
the diameter and the ,ec:ond t'> the nominaJ thickness. These shape- are rounJ in Manual
Table 1-13.

Square and Rectangular HSS

Squan' and Rcc Tt/1/~lllar HSS may be formed ru. Round HSS \\ th the hnal siz.ing used to
change the .;flape tnlO a ructaugle. or formed from a flat plat~ through a Formed-Square
Weld-Square prm.:li!S'- wherein the plate i~ gradual!> nem lllh) ih near final size. Another
prot·c.,.., start!. with two flat pieces that are each bem anJ then the two half sections arc
joint:d to form the final l>hape. A typical rectangular HSS would be H SS 12x8x 1/2. T he
fir<.t number indicates the actual height of the \C~twn. the ~ccond the aclllal width. and
the tlmd the nominalthid.11ess of the section \\all \1anuJI Tables 1-1 I and 1-12 provide
the dimensions <tnJ section properties needet.l t'ur the design of rectangular and square
HSS-shapes, respectively.

Steel Pipes
Steel pipes are another hoUow round ·e~tion u~eu in building constntction. They are pro-
duced to different material standurd~o, than the round HSS. Pipes are available as standard
46 Chapter 3 Steel Building ~laterial\

r-- - - - - Width~ 8 in.

/
-------11•
Rolled 'urlace

TThicknes~o ::'! 0.23 m

~------------~~
Cu1 edge " heareJ or tlume cut)

(a) Plate~

0
Width <8 10

I·
DI
'I Th1ckne~~.
0.:!03in.or
up l<l

0.:!3 in.. depending

0
on \\ldth
Solid square Hexngonnl
or rectangul~r

(b) Bar prodw.:h

Figure 3.5 Pl:ne and Bttr Products.

weigh1 (Std.). extra 'trong (x-Strong). and double-extra strong (xx-Strong). which refer to
the wall thtckne:,:, for a given outside diameter. The ~tandard designation for a pipe section
would be Pipe 5 \-Strong. indicating that it was to meet the pipe material standards, have a
nominal 5-in. out'iidc diameter, and a thickness corresponding to the extra strong designa-
tion. Thi" panicular pipe would have an acrual outside diameter of 5.56 in. and a nominal
"all thi~:.J...ne,., of 0.375 in. Manual Table 1-14 provides the properties for teel pipcl>.

3.4.3 Plates and Bars

In adt.linon to the shapes already di.cus ed. teel is available a. plates and bars. as shown
in Figure 3.5. These elements are rarely used alone as shapes but are combined to form
bmlt-up shapes or used alone as connecting elements to join other shapes.

Plate
Plare.\ are Hat rectangular elements hot rolled to a given thjcknc s and ~>heared to U1e
appropriate v.idth. At o ne time, plates were also available that were rolled to a given
width a~ \\ell as thickness. These plates were called universal mill plates. Because of
the manufacturing proce~s. these plates had different patterns of residual slreSsl.!s than the
sheared plate~ that re~ulted in lower strength. Current manufacturing practice is to produce
all plates as ~heared plates. By industry definition. plates are a minimum of 8 in. in width
'l
and may vary in thtcf...ness from 16 in. The designation for a plate is PL 1hxl0x2 ft-4 in.
where the first number is the thickness, the second the plate width. and the third the le ngth.
Table 3.2 gives the preferred standard practice for plate thickness increments.

Bars
Ban are available in rectangular. circular, and hexagonal shapes with the rectangular bar
the mo!.t commonly used hape in building con. truc1ion. The only difference between
rectangular bars and plates is the \vidth. Any rectangular solid element less than 8 in. in
Width 1. technically referred to as a bar. Because lhe distinction between bars and plates is
nor igmticam to the designer, the designation for these naJTow elements is the ~ume a1:. for
a plate. Thus. PLihx6x2 ft-4 in. is a 6-in. wide bar.
 3.4 Strucmral Steel Shapes 47

Table 3.2 Preferred Dimensions for Plates and Bars

Range ofThicknes es/Dinmeters
P roduct 1 ~% in. X< 1 S I in. I in. < I

Plate! x. ~
Square nnd Ys ~
rectangular bars
Circular bar ~ ~
Noll!. Table !:lives increments in tbicknc" or diameter.

3.~.4 Built-up Shapes

Other shapes are available and Illa) be found in the Manual but are of ltmi!ed ..!Ppltcation in
building construclion. The manual also contains tables for combination~ of standard hapes
thai have. over the years. been fou nd ro be useful to the designer. Figure 3.6 -.ho\\' a "ariety
of built-up shapes formed from combining plates and hape .

I
W-shape whh Double angle
][
Doubl.- chonnel
cover plotes

I I

~--11.--"'t Rolled
W-shapc
I I
Welded \\ -<>hapc BuA ~hup<: Combinanon .nape

r~I
I I
LPot. longitudinl
__:J stiffener (one- - r-
Depth or two-sides)
may be-l- 1-
very large I
Poieii'tialrransvcl'\e
I ~tiffcner (one-
I - ~

I I, or two ~ides)
I I I
Plnte girder Cructfoml shape

Figure 3.6 Examp.l c~ of Built-up Shape~.

48 Chapter 3 Steel Building l\l::ucnab

3.5 CHE~UCAL COMPONENTS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

The ba.''' mechanical propenie'> o( -.tnh.:tuml ''eel "ere pre-.cntcr.l 111 Section J.J \dth a
limited di!>CU<.-~ion of the I) pe~ of steel avail.1ble for u'c by Lhe building intlu,try. E~\entiall~
three type-, of 'iteel an: useu for 'hapc-. in the con,tn•ctlon 111uu-.1ry: carbon o;tcel. high-
~trength lo~-a1loy ~tccl. and C<.liTosion rc~isram high-,trengtJ1 ln\H.llloy Meel. For plate<..
and bat"'... quenchcu and tempered stet!!' 1rc :.tlso available:
The chemacal lompo~lllon of 'ted ,jgnitlcantl) influence-. the propcrtic!> that are uf
ullimatc 1mponancc ll"l the engmeet• ~kt:l ~'- primartl) madt.:. of 1rnn but Jl,o conta1n' ~uch
mher elcmcms a-; carhon. "illcon. md.Ll. mangane,e. ;md copper The pnmaf) demenl. in
atldilion to iron. il> ltirbon. The addiuon nt' carbon lllcrca!'lcs steel 'trenglh but dcneuse'
duclllit~ und weluabillt\. Even tJmugh carbon j, tht: mo ... t stgniti~o~llll cumpon~nt l>f ste.::l.
after aron. Ill\ sull a \Cl) -.mall percent of the tinul product Steels generally ha\'c a t•arbon
content of up LO 0.3' t b} weight.
Although the fnnnulu for any 'pe<:lllc o;tccl miglll he diiTerent Irum :m~ other steel.
certain dements are rl'qwred in nnkr w meet a -.pccitic 'iet of cntr:na. I helle ~pcclhcations
come from the AST\ I 'tundard-.. for coach 'tccl I) pc .anu are dt-..cu..,.,cd in Sccuon 3.6.
However. the chemkal elcmems thai rna~ he found in the mo<;t unminam -.ted lor \\>Ide
flange ~hupcs are re\icwcd here. The sped tic pcn.:cmagc requirements for \ST\1 A992
~teel arc given in Tahk 33.

Carbon
Carbon (C) j, the mo"t common clement founu mall steel It j, the most economkul dement
used to increa<>e ~trength llowever. it uho Jecrcusc!'l ductillly. Carbon content usually ranges
from about 0.15~ to 0.30ri. Anythmg lower than 0. I 'ir,f would prouuce 'teel \\ 1th too lm\
a <>trength. and anythin~ htgher than U.30c;f woulu ~ 1elll 'ted\\ ith poor charactcrhtics for
use in construction.

i\langunesc
Manganoe (t\--lnl ha' an effect on strength 'imihu· to that of ~arbon. lt is a nc~:cssary
component because of the '~ ay it comb me" with uxygl'n and "ulfur and its impal'! \ln the
rolling process. ln addttion, manganes~· improYe!> lhe notd1 roughnc~' of steel. It 1' added

Table 3-~ Chemical Rcquiremenr~ for;\ 9C)2 Steel

Carbon. max 0.23

Manganese 0.50 tn I 'ill
Silicon. mn:~; 0.40
Vanadium. ma'( 0.11
Cotumhium. rna\ 0.05
Phosphnru.,, max 0.035
Sulfur. 111fl\ 0Jl45
Copper. mu.~ 0.60
:'\id..el. ma\ O.J5
Chronuum. rna\ 0.35
Mt)l~ bdcnurn, max 0.15
Nitrogen. ll'UI\ 0.015
 3.5 Chem1c11 Components of Structural Steel 49

10 steel to off,ct reductions in notch wughncss due ro the presence of other elements. lt has
a negative e ffect on material wcltlability.

Silicon
Silicon (Sil i~ an important element lor removing oxygen from hot steel

Phosphorus
Phosphorus (P> increases stren~th anti decreases ductility. It impro'e' r"'t't.mce to atmo-
:-pheric corroc;ion, particularly ''hen u<oed in combination with cop~~ t iil' a negative
impact on weldability that is mort "~"ere than that of manganese. It '' :~ncr:llJ~ an unde-
sirable element but is permitted tn \cry limited quantities in all steel

Sulfu r
Sulfur (S) is also permitted in \t.'J! limi ted quamitie!-> in all -.tee!. h lw' a ,jnnl.lf negative
impact to that of phosphorus.

Copper
Copper (C11) in limited quamuie' 1' beneficial lO the strength of steel. It incrca"t:'> 'trength
with only a limited negatin! in P"-~d ''" ductility. Ir it!'. content is heltl relmhel~ lo\\. it
will ha\'e liule effect on weldabllit~. It 1' the most significant contributing element in the
production o r corrosion-reshtant ..tc~ I

Vanadium
Vanadium ( V) i). another ... rrength!!lHng dement. It relines the grain si7c untlthu .. inl"rew.cs
strength. Its biggest ad\'antagc j, that\\ hile increasing •trcngth. it doe' m•t nc.-gatl'.t I~ unpact
weldability or notch toughnc~'

Columbium
Columbium CCbl ''a ,trcngthening element thal. in small quamille... 1..111 increase the yield
point and. w <t l~"er extent. the tensile strength. H(1\\C\er. 1 1-]..t' ..1 ,jgnilicant negatjve
impact on nntt:h H'ughnes!..

Nitrogen
Nitrogen (tV) is normaUy found in very low quanllttt:., hut dllCS provide !-tOme increase in
'trength. When Ui>ed in combination with vanadiurr 11 ~..~n improve wcldability.

Nickel
Nickel (Ni) can provide a moderate irnpro\'ement in -..trcngth and enhances corrosion resis-
tance. It can also improve resil!tance l!l comJston for ...tccl subjected to seawater when in
combination with copper or phosphorou,. It generally produces a slight improvement in
notch toughncl.s.
50 Chnpter 3 Steel Building Material~>

Chromium
Chromium ( Cr) is typically used incornbination with copper to improve corrosion resistance.
lt also provides <;orne strengthening in ~;reels containing copper and vanadium. Chromium
is an integral component or stainless steel.

:\lolybdenum
Holybdenum (Mol inaeul.Cl> strength but ,;;ignificantly decreases notch toughness. although
its negative impact can be lessened through appropriate processing or balancing with other
elements.

3.6 GRADES OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

3.6.1 Steel for Shapes
More grades of ... teel are produced than approved by AISC for use in structures. An ASTM
number designate:. each approved steel. The steels approved for structural shapes are
grouped as carbon IA36, A53. A500. A501. and A529); high-strength low-allo) (A572,
A618. A913. and -\992): and corrosion-resistant high-su·ength low-alloy (A242, A588. and
A847). Figure J.7 howl. these approved steels. d1eir minimum yield and tensile su-csses.
and the ... hape:-. for which lht:y are applicable.

.-\ 36 Steel
AJ6 -.ted v.:.h the most commonly available structural steel for many years. It was first
tmroduccd in the 196 L AlSC Specification and until rhe late 1990s was the steel of choice
for most \teel shapes except for HSS. pipe. and plates. lt is a mild carbon steel so it is
well ~;uited for bolted or welded con truction and. even if higher strength steels were being
u~ed for members, this c:tcel was the norm for connecting elements. lt cominuel. to be the
preferred '\teel forM-. S-.C-. MC-. nnd L-shapes. It has a minimum yield stress, F1• = 36
ksi .•tnd a tensile stress. F, =58 to 80 ksi. although F, =58 ksi is used for calculations
throughout the specification.

A53 Steel
A53 steel '' the single sLandard for steel pipe approved for construction. This standard
provides for three rypes and two grades. l11ese pipe are generally intended for mechanical
and pressure applications and the only grade approved for construction is Grade B. This
grade comes as Type E. which calls out electric-resistance welding of the seam. or Type
S. which is a &eamless pipe. A53 Grade B has a minimum yield stress. Fy = 35 ksi, and a
minimum tensile stre~'>. F, = 60 ksi.

A500 Steel
A500 steel is a carbon stc~ l used for tructural tubing in rounds and shapes, otherwise k'Tiown
a'- HSS. Tt comes in two grades approved by AJSC for construction: grade B. which is the
preferreu grade. and Grade C. The standard permits either welde-d or seamless manufacture.
Round HSS Grade B has a minimum yit!ld stress. F, = 42 ksi, and a minimum tensile stress,
F,, =58 ksi. whereal:i rectangular HSS Urade B has a minimum yield stress, F,. = 46 ksi,
with a minimum ten.::ile '\tress, F, = 58 ksi.
 3.6 Gmtlell of Srrucwral Steel 51

Table 2-3
Applicable ASTM Specifications
for Various Structural Shapes
F1 Min. lt.nnH,.,.hl~ Shape Series
Fu
Yield Tensile HSS
Steel
Type
ASTM
OesignaUon
Stress Stressa
(ksi) (ksi) w M S HP C MC l ReeL 1 Pipe

~
A36 _36 58·CSI
A53 Gr. B 35 60
42 58
GtB
46 58
A500
cartJon 46 62 l
Gr. c
50 62 I I
A50i 36 58 I
Gr 50 so 65-100 I
A529' I
Gr 55 55 70-100
~ 42 so I ~
Gr. 50 50 65~ I
A572 Gr. 55 55 70 I
GrSOO 60 7S I
High· Gr. ss• 65 80 l
Strength
A6181
Gr.l&ll 50~ 701 I
Low- GrIll 50 65 I
Alloy
50 50" 60ft I
_!jO 60 75 I I I
A913
65 65 80 J I
70 10 I eo ~ l f

Corrosion
A992 ~s·
~2·
~
63 I .
Reslstanl A242 45' 67 I
High- 50 70' I
Slfengrh A588 50 !0
Low-Alloy
_A84!_ 50 _Ill_ • I
• ; Preferred matenat ;poc,ftcat•on
0 =Other applicable mati!nal specification, the avallability ol whtcll should be connrmed orl()( wCl!t:f.c:abon
0 = Matenal specf.a:a\Jo!l does not apply
• 1.1 . mum ur.te5S i! rar.._. IS sno.o.n
c For ,~~apes 011er 4261~ " ootv the mtmmum of 58 k.o;j applieS
< For shao8S wltn a flange th•ckness less than or equailo 1l,i In only. To Improve welda); •, a rrz. - m t~roon equivalent can be Specified
(per ASTM SupPlementary Requirement 578).11 des•red, max1mum tensile stress of oo ·.sl t2'l =~ >:.'eC f•ed (per ASTM Supptomentary
R\'qu emert1 5791
• ~c"' 1!11 max•mumt1!11Sfle~ressof70kslcanbespec1f•l!dtperASTMSuopl1""<" T~~tS91)
• Flll siD!les w11h a flange thiCkness less !han or equal 10 2 111 only
' ASTM A018 can also be specified as ccnOSiOII·reslstaJlt. see ASTM A618
• M1ntmvm npphes roc walls nomloalld~-in. thick nJld under. Rlr wall ti11Ckllesses ••;r ~ n F,- 4611Si and F,, .. 67 ksi.
h It ces•r~o maximum yield stress of 65 ksl and maximum v•eld-lo·tenstle sr-f·.:;-· ra~ o• 0 85 can ba spacllled (per ASTM Supplementary
llequ•rem~ot 575)
' A m;vumum yleld·lrrtellSIIO &llength rauo ol 0 85 and C3ltJcn equ .'3..r.l tr;J!,a artlllduCed as mandat«yln ASThl A992.
• Rlr snapes with a flange th~ grealef lllall 2 in only
• FQr 511311tlS Wllh a flange thickness greater than t ·~ ln. and less tr~ • 01 •c:a! :o 2 11 only
1 For shapos with a rtange thickness tess than or O!jual to 1 1~ In ooly

Figure 3.7 Applicable ASTM Spccificatinn' tm \,mou.~ Structural Shape:.. Copyright © American
ln~tllUlC of Steel ConslrucLion, Inc. RepnmeJ \\ 1th Perm is~ ton. All rights reserved.
52 Chapter 3 Steel Building Material:.

A501 Steel
A50/ steel is a carbon ~tee! similar to A36 but used for round and rectangular HSS. It has
a minimum yield srres!'>. F, = 36 ksi. and a minimum tensile srre:;c;, f.,= 58 ksi

A529 Steel
A519 Meel is a carbon-manganese steel available in Grade!) 50 and 55. It is approved for the
smaller shapes with flange thicknes:. no greater that 1.5 in. AS29 Grade 50 ha~ a minjmum
yield stre!lS, F, =50 ksi, and a tensile <;tress, F,, = 65 to 100 ksi. whereas Grade 55 has a
minimum yield stress. F, =55 ksi. and a tensile stress. F.,= 70 to 100 k:-.i.

A572 Steel
A572 is a high-strength low-alloy steel. also referred to as columbium-vanadium structural
steel. available in live grades. It is a ver!.atile high-strength steel with good weldability.
Availability of shapes and plates is a function of grade, generally depending on clement
thickness. It is a\'ailablc in all shape!. other than HSS and pipe. The full range of minimum
yield stress is 42 ksi to 65 ksi. depending on grade. and the minimum tensile stre:<:. ranges
from 60 ksi tO 80 ksi, again depending on grade. A572 is the preferred ~teel for HP-:.hapcs.

A618 Steel
.46/8 j., a high-strength low-alloy steel used for HSS. Gradcsl.li. and Ill are approved ror use
in tructure:- by AlSC. 1t i~ the onJy high-strength low-alloy steel available in HSS. Grade ll
has limited atmospheric corrosion resi!.tance and Grade m can be produced wilh increa.c;ed
corro,ion resistance if required. The mini mum yield stress depends on the particular product
and may vary from 46 to 50 ksi. The minimum tensilt:: stress varies from 65 to 70 ksi, ugain
depending on grade and product wall thickness.

A913 teet
A913 i a high-strength low-alloy steel produced by quenching and self-tempering. It is
available in Grades 50. 60. 65. and 70. This steel i currently not produced domestically
but can be obtained from one foreign producer. The minimum }ield stress range:. from 50
to 70 ksi and the minimum tensile stress ranges from 60 to 90 ksi.

A992 Steel
A992 steel has become the steel of choice for wide flange shapes. It was first upproved
for use in 1998 as a replacement for A572 Grade 50. This standard was developed partly
as a result of an improved understanding of the impact of material property variations on
structural behavior and partly as a re~ult of the changes occurring in propertiel> resulting
from the U!.e of scrap as the main resource for steel production. The cherrticaJ component
for A992 '>leel were given in Table 3.3 and discussed in Section 3.5. It has a minimum yield
stress. F, =50 ksi, and a minimum tensile stress, F11 = 65 ksi. An additional requirement
is that the yield-to-tcnsi le ratio can not exceed 0.85.
 3.6 Grades of Structural Steel 53

A242 Steel
A242 is a high-strength low-alloy con·osion-resistant stee.l also caUed lle(lthering steel. It
was one of the first conosion-re~i.,tant ~teels and has a corrosion rcsi ranee approximately
four time. that of normal carbon Meel. It is available in three grades but i' now less common
than the newer A588. The minimum yield stres range from 42 to 50 l,..., and the minimum
tensile stress range from 63 to 70 bi.

A588 Steel
A588 is a high-strength low-allo) con·o ion-resistant steel with substantt.L ~ betterconosion
resistance than carbon steel \\ith or'' ithout copper. h i~ available for all' -T'It:'. except HSS
and pipe. as well as plate. For all .,hapes. and for plates up to 4 in.. it r ....... ~ mmum yield
stress. F, =50 ksi. and a minimum tensile stress. F., = 70 ksi. Plates up w m ..re a\'ailable
at reduced stress values.

A847 Steel

10\~-alln~ corro ion-re i tant . tee! used for HSS. It ha-. the ...arne
A847 is the high-strength
minimum yield and tensile srre-....e, a\ A588.

3.6.2 Steel for Plates and Bars

Many of the steels alread) di.,cu,,cd for shapes are aJso available for plates and bar...
Figure 3.8 hows the ASTI\1 de,Jgnauon. the corresponding yield and t.en,ile 'tre,,e,. and
the plate thickness for which the~ appl~ The only steels available for plate' and bar, that
are not also available for hape ... are the t\\O quenched and tempered steel'\. A5l .l and.-\ 52.

A514 Steel
A514 is a high-yield strength-quenched and tempered alloy steel o;wtab.e tor "elding. 1t
is available only a. plate material up to 6 in. There are 14 different ;r..tde.... "hich vary
according to the chemical content and maximum thickness. The mimmum ) 1eld stress is
either 90 or 100 ksi and the ultimate tensile stress ranges from 100 h' 130 ksi. This is the
highest yield !o.Lre..,, ~teel approved for use according to the AlSC Specification.

A852 Steel

A852 i:> a quenched <tnd tempered high-strength IO\\ ·<tllo~ o..:orrul>ion-resislant steel. It is
intended primarily for use in welded construction'' her~ Jurobility and notch toughness are
imporrant. It is available as plate only up to 4 in. Tt ha" a minimum yield stress. Fv = 70
ksi. and a ten ilc strength, F 11 = 90 to 110 ksi.

3.6.3 Steel for Fasteners

Fasteners for steel construction today include hjgh-l>trcngth bolts, common bolts, threaded
rods. and anchor rods. In addition. nuts. wa her:.. and direct-tension-indicators must be spec-
ified. The ASTM steels approved for the11e elements are shown in Figure 3.9. Marly grades
or steel are appropriate for the variet) of mechanical fasteners used in steel construction
but only the three tee! conunonly !lpecified for bolts are di cussed here.
54 Chapter 3 Steel Building Materials

Table 2-4
Applicable ASTM Specifications
for Plates and Bars
Plates and Bars
FyMin. Fu over over over over over over over over
Yield Tensile to 0.75 1.25 1.5 2 to 2.5 4 to 5 to 6 to
Steel ASTM Stress Stressa 0.75 to to to 2 2.5 to 4 5 6 8 over
Type Designation (ksi) (ksi) incl. 1.25 1.5 incl. incl. incl. incl. incl. incl. 8

::..:~
32
A36
36
Carbon
Gr. 50 50
A529 b II
Gr. 55 55 70-100
Gr.42 42 60
Hrgh- Gr. 50 50 65
Strength
Low-
A572 Gr. 55 ~5 7Q_
Alloy Gr. 60 ~ ~
Gr.65 65 80
42 63
Corrosion A242 46 67
Resnrtant
High- ~ __IQ_
Strength 42 63
Low-Alloy A588 46 67
50 70
IOuenched
and 90 100·130
Tempered A514°
Alloy tOO 110·130
IOuenched
and
A852° 70 90-110
1~::~:~:~
• = Preferred material specification
0 = Other applicable material specification, the availabllrty of whrch should be confirmed prror Ia specification
0 = Matenal spaclflcauon does not apply
a Minimum unless a range Is shown
b Applicable w bars onty above 1-ln. thickness.
c Avallable as otare~ MIY

Figure 3.8 Applicable/\ 'iTlVl Spi.!cificalion.., for Pl:lte<, and Ban,. Copyright ~.: American Institute
of Steel Con.'otn.u:trnn. Inc. Rl!printec.l with Pemlission All1ighL' rc:-.erveu.

A307 Bolts

A307 bolLs are also called rrmu11011 ho/r_c, or blacf... holt.\. Although the ASTM standard
'PC.cifies three grades. ont;. Grade A j-, approved for use a-. bolts in general applic:.llion.,.
The~e bolt\ hnve an ultimate tensile strength of 60 ksr ant.l are thus at a strenglh level similar
tu -\36 steel. Although these hollc; cnnti.nue to be lhted hy AISC. th~y are rarely used in
'teet-to-steel <;tructural connection~.

A325 Bolts

A3.?5 bolt~ are a quenched and tempered steel-heavy hex stmctural boll. They are Lb.e
dominant htgh-,trength boll& used in construction. Two I)-pes are available: type I. the
 3.6 Grades ol StrucLUral Steel 55

! Applicable ASTM Specifications for

Table 2-5

Various Types of Structural Fasteners

High·

I
oe
Strength Anchor Rods
E
Bolts <.>

F ~ !!3 ,"' c3~

= :i
iii 0 Q

Mfu. F,,
c: co
..
a:
~
..
u
0
,
~ ~~
c: 'C
!!? :;;
~·;
Yield Tensile c: 0 "0

"',.. "'

-
E

.
z:; <= :,c
ASTM Stress Stress9 Diameter Range
~ ~~
.!!3
~
c: E
Designation (ksl) (ksQ
0
0 ~. 0
0 z"' "'
"'
:;;: ;:;;
::0
~
~IUS -
~··m
A325d -
__§_
105 ~
.
-- 120
150
05
I
I
M90 ~
Ft852 ~ _!_ill_
- 12U 0.5 l;J 1 lncl __!
~94Gr.ZH - - ~m·~

~
/1563 ~
F436b - _o2~ :a 4
£959 - - 0.51.01 5
_A36 36 ~80 IIllO
- _l{l(ll D'm4~7

-
At93 Gr 87• - 115 over2SID~
- J~S 2.5 and under

A307
Gr. A - 60 0 2!'1 104 '
I

Gr.C - 58-80 025to4

A354 Gr BD
- 140 2 5 t:· 4 .ntl. ~ I

- _150 0.2511125 lnd

- 90 1 75 to 31nGI c
A44!l - 105 1125 to 1.!>,1nct. •
- 120 0.25 lo 1 lnct ~
J
Gld2 42 80 106 J
Gr. 50 50 65 _104
AS72 ~5~ 55 lQ_ to2
Gr 60 BO '!.5_ ~
Gr. 65 65 .!C!. to 1 2&
~2 63 Over 5 lo 8, mel
A588 .!_6_ _E!_ __lll!r_J to 5. rncL
I
50 _II!_ ~ arul uncle!
A687 105 150 max. 0625103

~
1=1554 Gr 36 36 58-80 o251o 4 !
Gr 55 55 75-95 0.2510 4
_ Gr. 105 105 125·150 0 2510 3
I~ c
18·="' Pltl.-rred material speclhcalton
Other appliCable mal~rial specifH:a!lon tne ava•lab•r.ty ol wnocn ,too: oe c:r..!J!mfi! poor to spectflca1ion
Material specJIJCaUon does no! apply
- lnOicates Ulat a value 15 nc1 bpetrf.ed in the m~lcrll!l specrflcalioo
·• Mroimum unless a rang~ JS shrlwn or maxrmum lmroc.l ls Indicated
t S~IJI washer requ~emants may apply per RCSC Spcclllcabon Tab. 611... 10!11• sl•el-lo·Sieal balling a~plie-dt!OilS and per Part 14 lor
~!IChor-rod applil;aliOOS.
• lite AJSC Spet:lfJCallon sect100 A3.3 for lrlllltahons on use ol ASTI.I !.:.C9 co.'!S
1 Wt1en 8tmosc:ileoc CCrroslOn 11!$1Slance Ill d~ Type 3 can lie S;)W'""
• For ancbor roc1s WIU•tcmoerdt<>re and COfTOSIOille:i:Sian<::e clla1!Ceristlc5

H~-:ure3.9 Applicable ASTM Spcl"llication~ lor Variuu~ Types of Structural Fa.,lencf"'>. Copyright
i: ,\mcricun lthtilutc ul Steel Co1htruct1un. lltL Rllprtntcd \\ Jth Penntsston. All right~ reserved.
56 Chapter 3 Steel Building Materials

normal medium carbon bolt: and type 3, which i!> the same bolt. provided in a weathering
steel. The ten ile strength of these bolts is 120 ksi for bolts up to I in. diameter and I 05 ksi
for bolts with a 11/s to 11/2 in. diameter.

A490 Bolts
A490 bolts are also a quenched and tempered steel-heavy hex structural bolt. These fasteners
are u ed when a higher rensile strength is required. As with lhe A325 bolts. they are available
as type I or type 3 with the same distinction. The minimum tensile strength for bolts with
diameters from Y 2 to I ~ in. diameter is 150 ksi.

Fl852 Bolts
F 1852 provides the standard specification for "twist-ofP' tension control bolL-nut-washer
assemblies. These structural fasteners are unique in that they do not have a hex head but
rather a splined shank that permits installation through the use of a special torque wrench.
These connectors are essentially A325 bolts but must be manufactured ro a separate standard
because their geometric characteristics differ from normal bolts. The tensile strength of these
fasteners is 120 ksi for diameters of 'h to I in. inclusive and I 05 ksi for 11/s in.

3.6.4 Steel for Welding

Steel u ed for welding is callJedfil/er metal because it essentially fills in the gap between
the base metal pieces that it is joining. The most critical aspect of selecting filler metal.
actually the welding electrode, is matching the welding electrode with the base metal. ln
all cases, the weld must not be the weak part of the joint. The American Welding Society
provides the specification for appropriate matching of the base metal and electrode in Table
3. 1 of their standard, ANSl/AWS D 1.1. The most commonly used weld strength is 70 ksi.
A discussion of welding processes and material matching is presented in Chapter I 0.

3.6.5 Steel for Shear Studs

Shear studs are mechanical fasteners welded to structural shapes and embedded in concrete
that permit steel and concrete to work together. This is called composite construcrion.
Becau e these studs are welded to the steel shape. their properties are specified jointly
between AWS and ASTM. ANS I/AWS D 1.1 specifies that Type B shear stud connector~
made from ASTM A I08 material be used. These tuds have a tensile strength of 65 ksi.

3.7 AVAILABILITY OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

Structural engineers normally use the list of shape found in the Manual as the basis for
design. Unfortunately. all shapes are not equally available in lhe marketplace and the selec-
tion of difficult shapes to obtain could negatively impact the overall cost of a project. For
instance, some shapes arc a\>ailable from a wide variety of producers. such as a WI Ox30.
which can be obtained from eight different foreign and domestic mills as of January 2006.
However, the largest shapes like the W44x335 are available only from one offshore mill.
Also. severaJ of the smaller M-shapes are not rolled by any mill. In order to judge avail-
ability of shapes from the 12 mills identified, the annual January issue of Modern Steel
Constmcrioll shou ld be consulted. Shape availabi lity data is also maintained by the mills
on the AlSC Web site at www.asic.org/steclavailability.
 .lS Problems 57

Another important source of ~teet are the service center·. These organizations obtain
steel directly from the mills and stock the full range of shapes. Although obtaining the
steel needed for any given project fall:-. to the steel fabricator, it is aJwa} s beneficial to the
engineer to have some knowledge of availability.

3.8 PROBLEMS
I. When wns lhe first AlSC Specification published and what 10. Whntts the outside diameter and \~wIt .J(.kness of a Pipe
., as ils purpose'? ..t 'x-Strong? (Hint: Use your AlSC ~tanu.tl
l. In addition to buildings. \\hat other types of strucrures are 11. What is the difference between a rc.:ungular bar section
ndudcd in the scope of lhe 2005 AISC Specification'! and u plate'?
3. Sketch and label a typical stre~<.-•arain curve for steel sub- 12. What are the three types of steel 1-.:td tor ,hapes in the
c:etc!d to a simple uniaxial tension test. con~truction industry?
-1. Whm is the value of rhe Modulus of' Elasticity used for cal- 13. Whal effecL~ does the addition ot .:arb<'n ha'e on steel?
_uJations according lo rhe AISC Specilicntion, and what doe~ J..t Name three elements that help tll unprO\e lhe ~orrosion
1' value represent in relalion lo lhe graph of stress versus strain
re~•~tnnce of l>teel.
-,ted'?
15. What grade of steel is most common!) used to.:b~ m lhe
5-. What happens to a steel element when it is loaded beyond pr<XIuction of W-shapes and "hut ·~ ib yield :.tre" 311d .cn<.ile
.; dustic limit and then unload.e d'! 'tre-..~'l
• Oc!'>cribe the difference between the yield stress and ultimate 16. What grade of steel is preferred for lhe fabricnuon d mo't
c,<; of a steel element. ,rru, turn! shapes olher than W-shape:.. and" hat j, tts) 1eld 'rre--..
Sf..ctch and label I 0 different strucruroJ :.hapc cross section:. .1.111.! ten~ile stress'? (Hint: see Figure 3.7.)
,,e propertie) are given in the AISC Specification. 17. \\'har grade of steel is rypically used for high-.,t:renglh bolt"
What il> the nominaJ and actu:ll depth or a W36x l35 wide u,cJ 111 l'On'>truclion'?
~e member? Wllat is the weight of thi.!. member per linear 18. \\ hJt re~ources can be consulted to detenrune the a'ail-
•' <Hint: usc your AISC Manual.) •btht~ nt a particular steel structural shape?
\\'hut JS the weight per linear fool of n L5x3x1h member'
-1· L'se your AlSC Manual.)
Chapter 4

Temporary PATH Station at lhe World Trade

Cemcr Sire. Ne\\ York Cll).
Photo ~:oune~y John Banebtnne.

Tension Members

~.1 Il"TRODUCTION
The most efficient way to can·y a force in steel is through tension. Becau.se tension forces
result in a l'atrl~ unHom1 stre!!s distribution in the member cross section. all of the material
is able to work to ih fullest cnpacity. TI1e normal a~~umption that tensile forct:s are applied
to a member through the centroid of the cross <;cction means that other structural actions,
such as buckling or bending. arc not nonnally present to reduce the material's ability to
carry load. Thus. ten-.10n members are perhaps the simplest to design and a good starting
point for studying -.trucrural steel design.
Tension member... are fairly common elements in building structures. although they
may not be found in e' Cf) ~tructure. The structural membe" considered in this chapter
~1re those subjected to a l' om.:cntric tensile force as their primary force. Secondary effects,
-.uch ru, load misalignment and the innuence of connection~. will be addressed; however.
the intemclion of ten!.ion anJ bending b ...aved for later treatment.
Table 4.1 lists the s.ectimh of the Specification and pa1ts of the Manual discussed in
this chapter.

58
 4-.2 Tension Member" in Structures 59

Table 4.1 Sections ofSpecificaLion and Pan~ of Manual Found in rhi~ Chapt~r
Speci licauon
Dl Slenderness Limir:nions
02 T~n~i le Strength
D3 Area Dctcrmi11ation
04 Built-Up Members
D5 Pin-Connected Members
D6 Eyeban;
J3.2 M111imum Spacing
13.5 Maximum Spacing and Edge Di-~
J3.6 Ten~ion and Shear Strengrh ot a. It• And Threaded Parts
J-U Strengt11 of E1ement5 in Ten!>iur
J4.3 Bloc!- Shear Slrength

Mnnu.tl
Pm1 I Dimensionl> and Propenie~
Part 5 Design of Tension Membel".

-t2 TENSION MEI\-ffiERS IN STRUCTURES

A wide variety of tension member~ ..:an be found in building slJ'trcturc5. Amon~ me m0rc
important are members of trusse-.. l,r;.u.:rng members. hangers, and '\Ug rOth
Tension members are founu 111 rru-.. ...c:. as chords, diagonals. and v~nk.tk F1gure 4-.1
illustrates a typical simply upponed mr-;s. with lhe tension member., mdkateJ. Ten... ron
members used as bracing for ~tru~ture' are normally long and slender. a' 'I!C'l in Figure -L~.
Because these slender member' Jie relatl\el) flexible. they must be caretLit~ de... rgned and
erected. panicularly if there j, an~ chance of them experiencing load fc.'\cr-..L ....u ..mg them
to be called upon to carry a compre:-.sion load. Even the smallest w1 r"'e" 'e rorce in a
memberthaL has been designed a~ a tcn~ion-only member can cause ''EPlfiC~"lt ' e" 1ceability
problems in the finall>tructure.
Other example~ of tension members are hangers that corme.:t I • .;or floors to some
support above. a:- seen m Figure -t3, and sag rods that support purlin... 111 the roof sm1cture
or the gins in the wall' of a steel-frurneLI bui lding. It is eas) Ill 'ce th~o importance of most
tension member" because they normally carry an obviou~ . din:!.. 1~ .1J S•1g rods. as seen in
Figure 4.-t ho\\ e\·er. may not be as easy to understand. The load the~ ... arr) is not a obvious.
Their failure can produce unsightly di:.placements in the \\,til--. and could cause stability

Figure -U A Simply-Supponcd Truss \\llh Tc:n•l{lO ~!embers lndicated

Figure 4.2 Ten,ion Bracing Members.

Figure .t.3 Tension H<mgers.

 J,.3 Cw~~-S~:!~o:I HHhll Shape~ for T~n,ion Members 61

rrohlem~ for Lhe pmlin'> or gin,, but the~ wil l unlikely bt: seen as carrying .,ignilicamJm!ct
loauing.

-t3 CROSS-SECTION \L SHAPES FOR TE:\SIO:'\ :\IE:\ffiERS

Ten::.ion members tan be \tructural 'teet 'hap~~- plate.... and combinatillth ,, 'hape' anJ
plate-.: eycbar' and pin-connech:d plat~:'. rmh anJ bar!>; or wire rope und 'ted cabk' \\'ire
rope and sted {;able., are not ~''' l.!r~J by the Speci lication nor conmlereu here. although
they are important element'- in th~· 'P~I..ial -.tructure!'. where they occur
Eyebar!'. are nnt in practi..:al u'l' wday. but can be lounu in olderappltl..'auon... partjcularly
in trusses and :o.tmJiar applicatH.m,. a' seen in Figure 4.5. Although rard~ u.. eJ. the~ are still

Hgure -1.5 E)chur~ in an Hi\tork Building Rlltll Stru~·turc.

62 Chapter .l Tension ;\Iembers

Figu re -t6 A Pin-Connected Member a.., Pan of a Connection.

covered in the Specification. The pin-connected plate shown in Figure 4.6 is actually a pm"l
of a connection. Thi~ configuration is u~ed in industrial structure and most commonly in
bridge girder .
Several common ~hapes used for tenl.ion member are shown in Figure 4.7. and some
typical built-up shape:. are given in Figure 4.8. The solid round bar is frequently used.
either as a threaded rod or welded to other members. The threaded end provides a simple
connection to the 'tructure. but the de.,ign must take into account lhe reduction of the cross-
sectional area cau.c;,ed by the thread.-.. Up-,et rods arc occasionally u ed in. read of the nomml
rods: the enlarged end permits threading without reducing the cross-. ectional area below
the main ponion of the rod. The difference between these two types of rods can be seen in
Figure 4.9.
Square. rectangular. and circular HSS have become more common as tension members
OYer the pa<.t fe,, years. largely due to their attractive appearance and ease of maintenance.
Ho,,e,er. the end connections may become compJj.cated and expensive, depending. on the
particular Jpplication. HSS are especially useful for longer tension components. when
lendernc and relared .serviceability consideraLion. rnay be important.
Sin!'le angles, as shown in Figure 4.8a. are used extensively in towers. such as lho e
~-upponing cellular telephone communications and high-voltage power lines. Double angles
and Jouble channels, a shown in Figure. 4.8b and d. are probably Lhe most popular tension
membero; for planar trusses due to the fact that gusset plates can be conveniemly placed in the
!>pace between the individual shapes. The end connections for Lhcse members are therefore
strrughtfon,ard to design and fabricate. and allow for symmetry in the vertical plane.
Large tensile forces usually require cross sections lhm may dictate that the member be
made from a wide-flange shape. a tee. double channels, or buill-up shapes. such as those
given in Figure 4.8e and f. Built-up cross sections were more commonly used in the past.

Plate
D
Bar
0
Round bar
0 Hollow
structural sections

L[ITAngle Channel Wide flange

Figu re 4.7 Common Shapes for Tension Members.
Tee
 4.4 Beba' ior and Strength of Ten~ ion Members 63

(a! (b) (d

Batten~
--~-----

::::tJ:::::___ '
L-------------~
{e) (f)

Figure 4.8 Typical Built-Up Shap~' L'ed as Tension Member;;.

Threaded rod Upset rod

Figure 4.9 Threaded and Up!>el Rod,,

when the cost of labor was I0\\\!1. hH..I.t~. large-force ten:.ion member~ \\ould probabl~ be
made from rolled shapes. Current '>tructural applications of such eleml!m' ....re found in
long-span roof trusses. bridge tru,,e,, and bracing members in large indu,oial '-trucwres.

-'·-' BEHAVIOR AND STRENGTH OF TE~SION MEJVIDERS

Tension member<> are co\·ered in Chapter D of tl1e Specification. Tv. o ;x~,,tble limit states
are defined in St:!ction D2 for tension members: yielding and rupture The ~onrrolling limit
state depend~ on the ability of the member to undergo pkmic detorrn..tuon. Both of these
failure mode' reprc~ent limit states of strength that mu~t be taken mr. account in the design
of the rem.ion member. The design basis for ASD and LRFD \\ere presented in Sections
1.6 and I 7. n!-.pectively. Equation 1.1 and 1.2 are repcatel. hi're 10 order to reinforce the
relation::.hip between the nominal strength. resistance 1-t-..or. and safety factor presented
lhroughour the Specification.
For ASD. the allowable strength b
R,,
Ra<- (l.J)
- n
For LRFD, the design strength is
R, ::;: <bR ( 1.2)
As indicated earlier, the Specification pn.n ide, the rdaLionsbip for the determination of the
nominal strength and the corre pondlllg re~ismm:c factor and safety factor for each limit
state to be considered. The provisions for tension members are:
6.:$ Chapto:!r .! Tension ~lernb\!n.

4.4.1 Yielding
Yielding occurc; when the unil"om1ly distributeu stress throughout the cross section reuche~
the yield stress over the length of the member Although the member will continue to resist
the load that caused) ielding to occur. it\\ ill undergo excessive stretc-hing and this elongation
v. ill make the member unusable. The longer thr member. the greater the elongation. Because
the limjt :.tate or~ 11:ldmg on the gross ~ecuon of the member i~ accompanjed by this large
deformation. it will rc:Jui ly wnrn of any impending failure.
The yield limit ~tate t). Jctined a1.
P, = F,A~: (4. 1)

\\here
P, = nomtnal h:m,ilc yield strength
F 1 = yieiJ ... tre''
A .~ = gnw- area of the member
The design qrength and allowable su-ength are to be detem1ined u~ing

(j>, = 0.90(LRFDl Q, = 1.67 CASD)

4.4.2 Rupture
Hole' in a member will cause stress concentrations to develop under the service load. as
... hm\ n in Figure -+.1 0. Elastic theol) shows that the stress concentration results in a peak
't~'' appro\lmately three time:. the a,·ernge stress. As the peak '>tress reaches yield. the
mt!mher ''Ill continue to strain and load can continue to increase. With increasing load. the
,tra1n 10 the region of the hole increases into the <:train hardening region. and the member
ruptun.'s once the stress in this area exceeds the ultimate strength. Although the material in
the region of the hole~ yield\ initially. it yield' over a very short length. resulting in a small
tot.~l elongation. Thuo;. the material can reach its ultimate strength through strain hardening.
\\ ulwut C\ces...ive elongation. and failure occurs through rupture. fhe limit state of rupture
on th~o. d ·el'tive net area of the cross section i!. accompanied by small deformations from
yie!Jmg. gn ing little or no warning of the impending sudden failure. and offering limited
opportunllle' to take corrective action before the rupture.
The rupture limit swtc is uetined as
(4.2)

Figure 4.10 Stre~!> Concentmtion Due to Hulc m 1\tcmbcr.

 4.5 Computation of Areas 65

where
P, = nominal tensile rupture srrenglh
F,, = ultimate stress
A,. = effective net area of the member

The design strength and allowable ~trcngth are to be determined usinf

<1>1 =0.75!LRFD) Qt = 2.00(ASDJ

If the two limit stntes were to re!.ull in the same available strength. u'm= th_ LRFD fonnu-
lation

(-U)

or

t-+Al

The limit state of yielding on the gw'' section go\ em. \\hen the nght-hanJ' Je of Equa-
tion 4.3 is Jess tl1an the left-hand ~tde. Using Equation -1-.4. ~tel ding on ilie ,;;ro~ ... ...e.:uon
govems if

A \, > 0.9Fr/0.75F,

and ruprure on the effective net .,c~uun governs if

A \ < 0.9 Frf0.75F,, ~.6 1

Steel with a smal l (F1./F,J vnlue ....u~h a'-. ASTM A36, with 0.9F /0 --.r = qf36!1
(0.75(58)) = 0.74. will allO\\ more or the cross section to be remo\ .:d .r. the torm of
boil holes before the rupture limll 'tale wi ll govern than <;teels with a h1= er F I FU1 \alue.
such as ASTM A992. with 0.9F /0.75F,. = 0.9(50)/(0.75(65)) = 0.92.
The comparisons discu-,-.ed above are applicable only for nomut bolted ...onnections
and their corresponding area>. Equation!~ 4. 1 through 4.6 are not im~nded to 1.0\er tension
members with large cutouts. These require special design con<ader:m ' ••nJ are beyond
the scope of Lhic; book because they are not common in mo r bUJld m~ , n tdures.
Although \\Cltled connection ~ uo not normally r~quire the :emo1 .tl of materiaJ from
the cross 'ection. the placement of the welds and the t~ pe .... ~ro'' ~ecuon may require a
reduction from the gross area to derem1ine tbe effccth e ne• are:1.

~.5 COMPUTATION OF AREAS

The design of tenl>ion members uses the follO\\ ing cro" -'el·uonal area definitions:

1. gross area. Ag
2. net area, A,
3. effective net area. Ae
Tbe criteria governing the computauPn or th~ ',miJus areas required for tension member
analysis and design are given in Secuon 03 ol the Specification. They are discussed in
further detail here.
66 Chapter -t Tension >.tembers

4.5.1 Gross Area

The gross area of a member might also be thought of as the full cross-section area. A section
i~ made perpendicular to the longitucJinaJ axis of the element, along which the tensile force
j, acting, and the g.roc;s area, Ag. is the area of that cross section. No holes or other area
reductions can be present whe re the section is taken.
fn the case of plates, bars. and solid circular shapes. the value of Ag is found directly
as the value of widtl1times thicknes~. bt. for plates and bars and Trd 2/4 for circular shapes.
where d is the diameter. For structural steel shapes commonly used in construction, tlle
Manual provides values for gross areas in Part J. However, in lieu of using the tabulated
values, A~ may be approximated as

(4.7)
where w; and r, are the width a nd thickness. respectively, of the rectangular cro<;s-sectional
e lement. i. or the shape. Equation 4.7 applies only to shapes that are composed of flat plate
components. such as wide fla nge~ and c hannels. The calculation for hollow circular shapes
is similarly straightforward. The gross area of HSS shapes meeting the requirements of
ASTM A500 is determined using 93% of Lhe nominal waU thickness of the shape. Because
HSS are con~i'!tently manufactured with a thickness at the low end of the tolerance limit,
the value1. provided in the Manual are all based on tllis reduced thickness.
The procedure for angles requires a s light modification. The a ngle may be u·eated as an
equjvalent flat plate. wherein the etfective width js taken as the sum of the leg dimensions
less the thickness a nd the gross area is this effective width times the angle thickness.
An angle und iLS equivalent fiat plate is shown in Figure 4.1 I.

4.5.2 Net Area

The net area is obtained by subtrac ting the area of any holes occurring at a particular section
from the gross area of that section. Thus. holes resulting from mechanical fasteners, such
as bolts. and welds. such as plug welds a nd slot welds, are considered. These fastening
elemenr~ are normally used o nly to connect tension membe rs to the adjacent parts of the
. rructure. and the reduced areas therefore normally appear at member ends. However, if
holes occur al any point along a te nsio n me mber. their effect musl be considered.
Plug and slot welds are made through holes in a member and are relatively uncommon
in most structures in which the framing members are made from structural shapes and
plates. Normal welded joints do not involve making holes in members. Thus, welds do nol
nom1all y reduce the cross-sectional area of rension members so the net area is equal to the
gross area.

Figure 4. Ll Angle and It~ Equivalent Flat Plate.

 4.5 Computation of Areas 67

I
Damuge due 1
lU punching-1 r - 1
~~
F UJ=i_{ I

I
I

I
( Q) (b )
F igure -U2 Damage Caused b:t Hole Punching.

In the compuralion of net an.:a for a tension member with bolt\!'d ~m.l ... nn~ctions.
determining the size of the hofc, j , important. The criteria for '-lanuard. t..l\er-. ze. and
loned holes are covered in Specttkation Section 13.

Standa rd Holes
Normal Steel construction reqUire' the , peciflcation o r ra.,tener s ize rather than hole ' "ze.
The hole is Lhen sized according tll '' hat is required to accommodate the fastener The
manner in which the hole is fabru:ateJ ''also critical.
In recogni7.ing the needs for f..thnt....ttion and erection tolerances, Mandard bolt ht Je,
are made 1/ 1r, in. larger in diameter than the boiL to be inserted in the hole Thu .... a ' _·in.
bolt requireS a hole with 3 e;~ - , I = I Jfl in. diameter. Jn the CCL'\e O f pUn~hed hole.,.
1

the punching process may damage '\lll11e of the material immediately adja('ent to the bole.
That material may not be conqJe r~ lull~ ellecli\'e in rransmitting load and mu ...r abo be
deducred from the gross area along \\ 11h the material that has actuall) been remOH!J.. Tbt
is schematically illustrated m Figure 4. 12. for the case of punched hole... A' the punch i.
applied to the material. the edge... around the hole are deformed. as shO\\ nan Fi~ure 4. 11b. Ln
discounting thic; region. the effecti' e hole diameter is increased by another 0 1n according
to Specificalion Section D3.2.
Standard practice permits punching of holes for materialthtcl.nc" up to 1/R in. larger
than the nominal bolt diameter. Otherwi~e. holes would be drilled. o.>r .,ub-punched and
reamed.
Bt!c:au...e the decision to punch or drill a hole i:-. a function ot the ~tecl fabricawr·s
equipment ~apac tt). for the de. ign or tension members it i~ '-l<tndard practice to deduct for
hole... with a diameter 1/ 8 in. greater than the pecifted boll '>t/e
The tollowing examples demon•.trate gross and net area calculations for several
shapes.

EXAMPLE 4.l GOAL: Determine the gross and net area~ of a plate 11 itll a ~ingle line of hole:..
Gross and Net Area
GJYEN: A smglc line of standard holes for .1 • • m. bolt~ is placed in a 6 x 'h plate. ns shown in
Figure ~. 1 3a.
68 Chapter 4 Tension Mem bers

7
314 in. bolls /g i.n. bolts
(a) (b)

CD
I

-t 0

•
CD
•
0

•
L6x6>f/4 with 7 /s -in. bolts
(c)

I I

0
II 0 ~
II II >

0 II 0 ~
I
I
CD
MC 12X31 with LO-in. bolts
-
I
I

(d)

Figure 4.13 Plates a nd S hapes with Holes for Use with Examples 4.1 thro ugh 4.4.

SOLCTJON Step 1: Determine the g ross area at Section 1- 1.

I A !I = 6('h ) = 3.0 in?

Step 2: Determine the effective hole size for a %-in. d iameter bolt.

Step 3: De tem1ine the ne t area at Section 2-2.

A, = (/;- d,)r = (6.0 - ?jg)('h) == 2.56 in.2

 4.5 Compul.ation of Areas 69

EXAMPLE4.2 GOAL: Dt:tcnnine the gross and net areas of a plate with a uouble line of hule~
Gross and Net Area
GIVEN: A double line of Mandard lmle!> for 7/s-in. bolt~ are placed in a I0 >- .\ J plate. as shown
in Figure -t 13b.

S OLUTION Step 1: Determine the gros.c; area at Section 1-1.

Step 2: Dercm1ine the effective hole 'lie for a %-in. diameter bolt.
d = eJs + 1/ro + 1/lt,) = 1.0 in.
tep 3: Determine the net area at Secuon 2-2.

EXAMPLE4.3 GOAL: Determine the gross and net Mear.; of an angle with a smgle line of hotel>
Gross and Net Area
GrYEN: A ~ing le line of standard hnle" for 7/ 8-in. bolts is placed on each leg of a 6 x 6 x ; .. :mgk
as sl10wn in Figure 4. 13c.

OLUTJON Step 1: Determine the gross area at Secunn 1-1.

A =:-. .l6 tn.~ from Manual Table 1-7

Step 2: Detem1inc the effectiH~ hule 'ite for a 7/ 8 -in. uinmcter bolt.
d = (7/b - V11, + V~r,) = 1.0 in.
Step 3: Dctemune the net area at Section 2-2.

A, = (8.46- 2( 1.0)(0.75)) = 6.96 in:

EXAMPLE4.4 GOAL: Determine the gross and net areas of a channel\\ tth mulnple lines of holes.
Gross and Net Area
GIYEN: Four lines of standard holes for 1.0-in. bolt' d!~ placed in an MC 12x3 1. as shown in
Figure -+.I 3d. Two lines are in the web and one line il> m ea~h flange.

\OLUTION Step l: Determine the gross arc<~ at Section 1-1.

A.~= Y.l:!tn.~ !rom Manual Table 1-6

70 Charltcr -+ Tension Member!.

Step 2: Determine the effective hole siLe for ft 1.0-in. din meter bvl!.
d. = ( 1.0 + 1/16 + 1/tb I = I 125 m.
Step 3: Determine the net area at Section 2-:!.

An=(9.12-211125)(0.37)-:2(1.125)(0.70)l=6.71 in.1

Oversize and Slotted Holes

Section J3.2 of the Specification give!: the required measurements for larger-than-•aandanl
or oversi7C holes. a' well as for short-slolled and long-slotted holes. Figure -1-.1-1 illustrate~
the criteria that appl) ror nominal bolt din meters or% in. and 14 in.: refer to the Spcci£kation
for dara for other bolt '-izes. These type!> of hol!!s are used to facilitate the erection of the
structure and. in some cases. to permit larger rotations or deformation.:; to take place under
loading.

Short Connecting Elements

Tension member<; within connections are usualJy short connecting elements suc.:h as link<.,
flange plate~. or gus!.et plates. When the member is short. and the net area and gross area
are close to equal, there may not be sufficient length for the entire eros~ section lo yield
uniformly. In this case. the. area that is the first to yield may reach rupture at an early stage.
and the rupture limit ~tate would therefore be reached prematurely. Thi!> i1- an undesirable
mode of failure, primarily because it i~ not ductile. and because it occur., suddenly, with
liule or no warning. Section J.+.l specilies that the net area in these splice plate' and other
'hort connecting elements may not be taken larger than 0.85 times the gross area.

-'.5.3 InHuence of Hole Placement

The example~ shown in Section 4.5.2 represem simple cases in which the net area is found
in tile section that produces Lhc largest reduction in area. usually the section with the large:.t
number of holes. However. hole placement does not always follow simple patterns whereby
every secuon has the same number of holes. TL is sometime::. advamageou-. to use a pauern of
staggered holes. such as those shown in Figure 4. 15. Figure 4.15a shows un arrangement or
staggered holes for a plate and Figure -l-.15b shows an example for an angle. When there an:
multiple hole,. the center-to-center distance between adjacent holes in the direction parallel

0\'CNlt!hOI~
(ttl
Short-\loucd hole, Loug-sloued hok~
tbl !CI

Figure -t 1-' Site Criteriu for %· to Y1-in. Bolts in Ovcr,ize and Sloued I Joles.
 4.5 Computation of Areas 71

CD Q)

Q) Q) •I

'' .-1'-' G)
__,_..- I
t

' 1---67-+----'-'-
I I
~·I
- -
Q) Q)
'

f ;
I
.t

Phue
; ~
{
I
• ~r,
I .

(al I ,I
Angle
(b)
F igure 4.1 5 Swggered Hole Pattern' in Plate and Angle.

to the primary applied force is der1ned a the pitch. .\. When there i' murc than l''it' line of
hole parallel to the line of force the center-to-center dic;tance bet\.\.een adJacent hoJe, en
the direction perpendicular to the primary applied force is the gage. g.
ft is not clear from Figure -+.15 ''hat the governing. net section would be for enher l.~'e.
For the plate. Section~ 1- 1 and 2-2 g1' e identical A, values, in which a deduction for one
hole is taken for each line. Another pn"ibility wou ld be to follow a line that mcorporate'
two holes. <>Laning along line I amJ enJmg along line 2. as shown by the diagl'nal J~ht:J
line. The Specification refers tel thi' hne a ... a ··chain"' because it unks together H'dl ll.iUal
holes. fn this ca~c. the area of (\\0 h•lle' \\Ollld be deducted from the gTO" l.f·'" 'ection.
However, this approach would be nll thherem than if both holes were along •1e ,.m1e hne.
It seems reasonable in this siruatH' Il thnt an approach that would deduct bC't'l ""le-... \\Ould
deduct too much. because the~o,e hllk\ rollo\.1. along a diagonal and not a ,tr.ug! t lme. The
correct solution s hould be '~mlC\\ here between deducting for one hole '" Jeuut:ting for
two holes.
A implified approach to .aJJreS!. the interaction of staggered hole.. na... Jdopted long
ago by previou-, AlSC Specatkation~. Although numerous studie... h;~\~ been ~onducted
since this origmal .;.implilication was first introduced, none have pn•po..eJ ;t \ignificantly
more accurate approach rhat i ~ equally easy to implement.
The Spccilication approach requires that every potential failure line he assessed with
the full area of c.tch imersectcd hole deducted and :;ornetllin_g aadeJ bad for the increased
strength pro' idcJ by the diagonal path. For every diagonal •"ll .. potential failure path. the
quanti!) ~::. -lg i!> added back into the net width to a~~ount ·or the overestimation of the
required deuuction when a full adj acent hole hru. been JeJl!-.1eU. Examples 4.5 and 4.6 show
the application of Lhe staggered hole criterion.

EXAMPLE 4.5 GOAL: Detennine the net width of u plate '' ith ,raggert>ll "tole' .
\ et Width of Plate

GIYEN: The hole pauern for an 18-in.-\\ ide pl.tte \\lth holes for %-in. bolEs that is loaded in
tension as hhown in Figure 4. 16. A and F repre,ent the edge~ of the plate. whereas B. C. D. and E
represent hole locutions.
72 Chapter-+ Tension Members

I i F
Figure -'.16 Hole Panern for an 18-in. Plate Used in Ex.amp1e 4.5.

SOLUTION Step l: Chain:\ 8 F !a straight line through one hole).

Deduct for I hole C% + 1
/ 8) =- 0.88 in.
Step 2: Chain .-\ B C F.

Deduct for 2 holes. 2(J;~ + 1

/ 8) =- 1.75
For BC add s~/4g
'
= 2.0·z 4(4.0))
0 (
= + 0.25
Total deduction =- 1.50 in.
tep 3: Cham A C EF.

Deduct for 2 holes, 2e14 + 1/s) = - 1.75

ForCE add s~/4g = 2.5 L(4( 10.0))
2
= + 0.16
Total deduction = -1 .59 in.
tep -'= Chain A B C E F.

Deduct for 3 holes. 3(% + 1/s) = -2.63

2
For BC. add s j4g = 2.07(4(4.0)) = +0.25
ForCE. add sl;4g = 2.5 2L(4( l 0.0)) = + 0.16
Total deduction = -2.22 in.

Step 5: Chain A B C D E F.

DeduC! for-+ holes. 4(% + 1j 8 ) = - 3.50

For BC. add as for previous chain = +0.25
For CD. add sl/4g = 4.5J(4(6.0)) = + 0.84
For DE. add s~/.J.g = 2.02,/(4(4.0)) = +0.25
TCllal deduction = - 2. 1.6 in.

Step 6: Deduct the largest quamit) to obtain the least net width.

0/et width = b = 18.0 -

11 2.22 = 15.8 in.
 -l.5 Computation of Areas 73

~\AMPLE4.6 GOAL: Detem1inc the gross and net orcns of an angle with staggered holes.
ross Area and Net
vea of Angle GIVEN: A6 x 4 x h angle with hole' for 7/ 8-in. bolts arc placed a~ shown 111 Figure 4.17.
1

'OLUTION Step 1: Detcnnine the width of the ClJuiv:llent flat plate representing the width .~r the angle.
n =I -!- /2 - t = 6 + -l - 'h = 9.50 in.
Step 2: Determine the gross area ol tht: equivalent plate.

A.~~ =II'~/ = 9 50(0.5) = 4.75 in.! (as found in Manual Table 1-7l

Step 3: Detem1ine the gages for ca.:h boltJjne.

The gages for the hole~ .trc ~ho" n in Figure -t.l7. The gage between the h :.-~~!~est to the
heel of the angle in the til o leg' must be adju,ted to account fort he ..ng!. ' ... i..nes;,. Thus,
(g- I! - ( l = 2.50 + 2.25 - 0.50 = 4.25 In
Step -1: Detcnninc the net area.
The governing net section '' 111 be Section 2-2 or Section 2- 1-2. There IS no need to ··l•ru.tder
Section 1- 1 because b, "ill d ettrly be greater than b,2.
For Section 2-2:
b = (9.5- 2('/s + Ys)) = 7.5 in.
1

\..: = 7.5(0.5) = 3.75 in.'

For Section 2-1-2:
This chain ha:; two stuggcr' nl the bolt holes. and both have the same pitch (~= 2.50 tnL
The gages are different. '' llh one at -US h1. and the other at 2.50 in.
The net area for this cham be-:ome<.:
2
? 50 ) 2 50! )
b~J = 9.5 1(.- '.)- ( .:::__ + ( _·- = 7.-1910.
-l(2.5) 4(4.25)

Step 5: Select the leust net area

The lowe~t net area controb. In this case. both chairts yield the same nl!t an!;~.. thu~

/ Lll > -1 x 1 , 10.

G) - Hole for 7/s in. bolt
CD

-~--+
I
I I

-- $---~

(T)p.)

Angle

Folded oul angle

FiguJTe 4.17 Hole Pattem for L6x-lx 1h U~ed in Example 4.6.

7~ Chuptt.'r;.! Tension :-!embers

I -
----- L ---~-f-

45
\\'dtl

- ---- L ----1
Figure 4.18 Cont:eptual Basis for Shear I ag Keuuction Factor.

4.5.4 Effective Net Area

When all e lemenL" of a tension member are auached w connecting elements. the entire
member panictpate-. fully intransl·erring the load to the connection. However. when not all
clements are anached to connecring elements. they cannm all participate fully. Figure 4.18
-;how' an angle" ith one leg atl;lched w a connecting clement and the oilier. the out~tandin£
kg. unauacheJ. To account for the inJbJiit) of lh1s unauached leg to transfer load. the net
area u....:J m ~..akulating the rupture •.trength i' reduced to the effective net area. A...
nu. . phenomenon occun. becuuse the uniform stresses. occurring near the mid-length
or the member at some distance from the connection. mu\t be transferred through the more
re ...tnued area where the connect ion ,.., located. The portion of the member area that is
p;u-tlupating effectively in the transfer of force is -.maller th<u1 the full net area. Thus. the
nt:t area j., reduced to the effective net area.
Thi' general behavior is called shear fort. Since its onginal introduction into the Spec-
tnlatwn. it has been approximated hy the usc of the shear lag reduction factor such that

SpeclhC:llion Table 03. 1 provides valut!s <)f tht! shear lag factor. U. for a wide variety
or elemenb. For aU tension members. except plate~ anti HSS. when the tension load is
u·ansmirred lO \OffiC but llOt allor
the CfOS"i-'\CCtional clements. the effective length of the
connection '' reduced to L' = L - .r. where I is the distance from the attached race to
the member ~emroid and L is the length or the connection. as shown in Figure 4.18. The
reduction in net .1reo 1' then taken in proportion to the reduction in el'fective length. L'1L.
Thus. the reduclton becomes

L' l.-X f
L'= - = - - = 1 - - (4.8)
L L L
Figure 4. 19 shows the detmition nf connccuon length. L. for both a bolted and welded
~onnection.
Certain shapes ha,·e the potenttal to 'lgnilicantl) reduce their cffe~tive net area due to
their geometry and the length of the cnnncction. \llembers such a., -.ingl e angles, double
.mgle~. and WT shapes must be proportioned so that the shear lag factor i~ not less !han
0.6. lfthe-,e members exceed this limit. the) 111U\t be designed a.. combined force members.
 4.5 Compmmim1 of Area~ 75

(<t) Bolted

Figure .f.l9 Defini tion of Connection Length. L , for Bolted and Welded CMnedJOn

a'> discussed in Chapte r 8 of Lbl5 book and Chapre r H of the S peci.tk ..nion TJh'e D3. 1 of
the Specificatio n also provide. a .,implified approach to the hear lag factor\\ h::n certain
c titeria are met.
For W-. M-. S-. and HP-shape,.. or Tees cut from these sh ape~. the foliO\\ ing appl~:

Flange connected with :1 or more bl ~ ~h d u = 0.90

fas teners per line in the direction of loading b, < 1h d u =0.85
Web connected with-l or ffilll'e u = 0.70
fasteners per Line in the t.hrection or loading

For single ang les

Wilh 4 or more fa tener-. per ltne L =I

in the dire<"tion o!' lu.u.hng
With 2 or 3 fa:.1ene" per lme 111 ( = f)()
the di rectio n of lo:tJing

EXAMPLE4.7 GOAL: Determine the de ~ign ~trength (lRFD) and the allowable "trengtb ,\:,OJ ol an angle.
Tensile Sh·ength
of an Angle GIVEN: Con-.tder an L-+ x -+ x 1h. anached through one leg to a gu,-.et pbte " ith 3;~ -in. bolts as
shown in Figure .J-.20. U~c A36 steel.

1.5 in. ~ .
3
H~~

~
0 0 0

1.1 K m.
Figure 4.20 Single-Ang le Tension Member lor E\ample -+.7.
76 Chapter-! Tension ~!ember-;

SOLC:T/0\ Step I: Determine the areas needed for calcul:nion:..

At= 3.75tn.~Cfrom Manual Table 1-7}

An= 3.75- {YJ + 1/s) {1h} = 3.31 tn.~

Shear lag fad<1f for ~~ 6-in. connecuon length and on angle w1th i' = 1. 18 in. (from tvhmual
Table 1-71
.\' l.L8
U= I - -
I
=I - -
6
= 0.80

A , = 0 '0( 1.3 I I= 2.65 in.2

For LRFD

Step 2: For the limit swre of yielding

P. = 3613.75) = 135 kips

<!>, Pn = 0.9( 135) = 122 kips

Step 3: For the hmit state of rupture

P, = 58!2.65) = 154 kips

<f,, P. =0.7Scl54)= 1161dp·
Therefore, the limit state or rupture controls and lbe del>ign strength is

cp1 P11 = 116kips

For .\ D

Step 2: For the limit state of yielding

=
P,, = 36(3.75) 135 kips
Pn 135
- = - =80.8kips
n, 1.67
Step 3: For the limit state of rupture

P, = 58(2.65) = 154 kips

P,, 154
n, = 2.00 = 77.0 kips
Therefore. the limit state of rupture control~ and the de.,ign strength is

~ = 77.0 kips
 ~.5 Computation of Areas 77

EXAMPLE 4.8 GOAL: Detennine the design strength CLRFD) and the allowable st.rength lAS D) of a WT.
Tensile Strength
of a Tee GIVEN: Consider a WT6x32.5 amu.:hcd to a gusset plate with welds a~ ~ho\\ n in Figure 4.21.
Use A992 steel.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine Lhc needed area-.

A = 9.54 in.2 (from Manual Table 1-8)

Because the force is translcrred by longitudinal welds only.

A, =A.t
Shear lag factor for a 6-in. \.Onncction length and a Tee with .\' = 0 9:-5 m. :"rom ~1anual
Tuble 1-8)
~
L =I - X
-
L
=I - 0.985
-
6
- = O.8J6
.-\, = 0.836(9.54) = 7.98in.J

For LRFO
Step 2: For the limit state of) ielJing
P =5019.54) = 477 kips
d>P = 0.9!477) = 429 kip
Step 3: For the limit state of rupturt!

PF = 6517.98) =5 19k.ips
c,p = o .-5t5 19J = 389kips
Therefore. the limn !>Wtc ol rupture controls and the design strength 1'

<f!Pn = 389 kips

~ l >=0.985m
I
Figure 4.21 A WT welded to a Gus et Pl<lle tor f:.xample 4.8.
78 Chaptu -1 Tension .\!ember~

For ASD
Step 2: For the limit ~tntc of yielding
Pn = 50(9.54) = 477 kips
P, 4-77 .
- = - =286kips
n, t .67
Step 3: For t11e ltmit state of mpture
P" = 65(7.98) = 5 19 kips
Pn 519
- =-
Q, 2.0
= 260k.ips
Therefore. the limn state of rupture controls and the allowable strength is

P, •
- = 260ktps
Ql

4.6 DESIGN OF TENSION MEMBERS

To design a structural ~teet tl!nsion member. the member size must be determined and then
the appropriate limit <;taLes checked. The only additional issue to address j;; the lcnderness
of tbe member. For tension members. slenderne!>s b defiJJed as the member length divided
by the lea..;;t radius of gyration, Ur. The Speciticalion has, in the past. pb.ced a limit on
the slenderness of tension members. However. there is currently no specified limitation
on tension member slenderness. as indicated in Section 0 I. The de igner sho uld exercise
caution when selecting tension members wilh very high s lcndcrnes. ratios. lhal is, those
near the Fonner limit of Ur = 300, because tl1ese members could easily be damaged during
erection and might cau:.e otl1er problem:. due to their flexibility in the transverse direction.
Because the main taJ>k in tension member design is to determine the area of the member,
the two limit states of yielding and rupture can be used to determine minimum gross and
net areas such that

p" Q,Po
A11 min = '+'t
,~,. F
r
(LRFD) or A~: min= F. I -\SO l

and
Pu s-2rPu
A, 111111 = "' F, (LRFD) or Ae min = -- (ASD )
'Vt II G,
Because connection detuib. are not normally known in the early '>tages of member :selection,
it may not be possible to determine the actual deductions nece ...!>ary to obtain the exact
effective net area of the member being designed. One approach would be to assume a fixed
percentage deduction for the effective net area. The designer would decide the magnitude
of this deduction.
Part 5 of the Manual provides tables for tension member design that give the stre ngth
of tem.ion members based on the limit states or yie lding on the g ross nrea and rupture o n an
effective net area equal to 0. 75A~. If the actual effective net area differs from this assumed
\aluc. lht: designer can simply adjust the strength according ly.
 -l.6 Design ofT<!n-.t:>n Members 79

EXAMPLE 4.9a
GOAL: s,~J~ct a uouble-:mg le li~Jh!On member for u:.e as a 11 ch member in., tru'~ and determine
Tt.•11sion Member Design
the ma'timum arcu reduction that 1\llUid be pcrmittetl for hole' and shear Ia~
by LRFD
GIVE:\: The member mu~l carr:- an LRFD required strength. Pv = -105 1.. "' U:.e equal leg
nng l c~ of A36 steel.

.SOLUTION S tep 1: Dc:termmc the minimum rec.Juired gro,-, area based on the limit 'tat~ cof. teiUing
.I ""' = -105/ (0.9(36)) = 12.5 in.~
Sll'P 1: Ba~cu lJJJ Llti:. mi11i111u111 ,_tLM ..u-ea. from Manual Tobie 1- 15. s<?ln.•

~L6x6x~,~. wit.h As= 12.9 in.~

Step 3: Dctcm1inc the min11mun ~·Jlcctive net oren based on the 1Jm11 ,t:ll<' ol rupture
-\ = -105/ <0.75(5&}) = 9.31m.·
Step -t: Thm. the combinatton M h•1le!> and '>hear l<~g rna~ not retlu~.:e the arcu , 1 thh pJir 0 1
angle~ hy more than

.-\, ~' = 9.31 / 12.9 = 0.722

EXAMPLE 4.9b
GOAL: Select u d~)uble-angk tcn,ion member for use as a web member in a lt'.l" and determine
Tension Member Design
Llle maximum area n:ducuon th.u \\Ottld be pcmlttlcd for holes und shear Lg.
byASD
CIVE~: The member mu~t carr} an ASD rcqu1rcd suength. P = :-o IP' l 'e equal leg
angles of AJo .;tcel

SOLUTION Step J: Determme the minimum required gros~ area based un th..-limll 'tate .1f yielding
A, mm = 170/(36/ 1.671 = 1.:: .:; m ~
Step 2: Bu-,ed on this minunum gross area. from Manual Table 1-15 ~el<!ct

2l6x6x 9/ 1t. will1 .4 = L.9~

Step 3: Determine the minimum effective net urea ba,ed on the limit state of n1pture
Aemin = :no ,5~ 1.001 = 9.3 1 in.
2

Step -': Thus. the combination of holes and "hear .sg ma) not reduce the areA of Lllis pair ot
angles by more than

rl ,:\ r = 9.3 1/ 12.9 = 0.722

80 Chapter _. Tensicm Members

EXAMPLE -UOa
GOAL: Select a \\ T9 for use as a ten!> ion member and dctcm1ine the maximum area reduction
Tension Jfember Design
that would be permiu~d for hole and ~hear lag.
by LRFD
GIVEN: The member must carry :tn LRFD required strength, P, =8 18 kip!>. Use AQ92 steel.
OLLTION Step 1: Determine the minimum required zros - area bused on the limit state of yielding
Ax 111,, = 8 18/ (0.9(50)) = 18.2 in.1
Step 2: Based on the minimum gros!> area. from Manual Table 1-8, select

I WT9x65\\ithA, = 19. 1 in? I

Step 3: Detem11nc tht: minimum effective net area needed to resist the applied force
A,,, = 8 18/ C0.75C65)) = 16.8 in. ~
Step 4: The .:ombmation of hole. and \hear Jag may not reduce the area of this WT by more
than

A /A = 16.8/ 19. 1 = 0.880

EXAMPLE 4.10b
Tension Member Design GOAL: Select a WT9 for use as a ten~> ion member and detennine the maximum area reduction
ili..t \\Ould be permiucd for holes and shear lag.
byASD
Gf\ EN: The member must carry an ASD required strength. P11 = 545 kips. Use A992 steel.

SOLUTION lep J: Detennine lhc minimum re4uired gross area based on the limit Mate of yielding
A ~ mw = 1.67(545)/ 50 = 18.2 in.1
Step 2: Based on the minimum gross area, from Manunl Table 1-8, select

2
I WT9x65w1thAR= I9.1in. 1

Step 3: Detem1im: the minimum ell"ective net area needed to resist the applied force
A,..,.= 2.00(545)/65 = 16.8 in.2
Step 4: The combin:uwn of holes and shear lag may not reduce the area of this WT by more
than

A,/A ~ = 16.8/ 19.1 = 0.880

 4.7 Block Shear 81

4.7 BLOCK SHEAR

When a ponion of a member tear::- out in a combination of tension and -.hear as shown in
Figw·e 4.22. the failure is known as a block shearfailure. Even though thts failure mode b
primarily 1hc result of a connection fa ilure. it may possibly control the O\ erall strength of
a tension member. The resistance to tear-out is provided by a combinauon of shear on 1he
plane parallel to Lhe tension force and tension on 1he plane perpendicular 10 it.
Rupture will always be the controlling mode on the tension face of lhe failure block,
due to the relo.1ively short length of material that wi ll be available to) teld The controlling
limit states on the shear face will be either yielding or rupture. whiche er has the lower
strength. Unlike the situation for O\ era II member strength. in which th" : dd and rupture
limit state. had different resbtant:e and safety factors. block shear u,e ... :.ne ..arne values
for both limit stales. Thus. a , tmple comparison of nominal srrengt'> 1' ...~"propriare Lo
determine the controlling limit state. Section 14.3 of rhe Specification ;ne, · e hlock hear
strength as

14.9)

where
Ag, = gross area in shear
A,,. = net area in shear
A111 = net area in tension
u h.f = 1.0 if the tension ' Lre,, .., unifonn and 0.5 jf the tension tre:-.' j, not um;orm.
(Uhs = 0.5 i addre, ,ed n Chapter 7.)

The de ign and allowable , tren_;th' are determined using

<b = 0 -s l LRFD> r.! = 2.0 (ASD)

For tension members. the ten,tle stress is assumed 10 be unifom1. Tbu... L = 1.0 \,·iJI be
used.

--
c:
0
·~
c:
Load ~

Figure 4.22 Example of a Block Shear Failure ol .t Plate.

82 Chapter 4 TensiOn ~!embers

EXA~ TPLE 4.1 1 GOAL: Determine ~hether the gusset plate has .sufficient strength in block shear.
Gusset Plate Tension
C JVEN: The gusset plate shown in Figure -l-:23 hn.~ a plate thickness ~)f 1h in. The required :.trength
Srrengrll
=
for LRFD i P, :!251..ips and for ASD i~ P. = 150 kips. The steel i~ A36 and the holes are punched
for %-in. bolt'>.

OLCTJON Step I: Detem1ine the arcus needed to perft>rm the calculations.

A,1 =(6- (f, + 1h})( 1/2) = 2.50 in.1
A~, = 2(1111 1 '~J= II.Oio.~
A•• = 2(1 1.0 3.5('/~>+'/~))( 1/l) = 7.50 in 1
Step 2: Determine the.:. nominal block shear 't.rcngth.
Rn = 0 6t5SH7.50J + 1.0(58)(2.50) = ~06 kips
but not ~reater than
R,. = 0.6( 36 I( I I .(}) + I .0(58)(2.50) ::: 383 kips
Seb:ting the lowc:.t nominal 'trength.
R. = 383 kips

Step 3: F11r LRFD. the ul.!sign ~Lrength i~

IR., = <t>R., = 0. 75(383) = 287 > 225 kips I

Because this is greater than Lhe required l!Lrength of225 kips. the gusset plate is adequate
to resist this force based on block shl.!ar.

3 in.
I
- i-
+
+
3 in.

2 in.
_L_

Figure 4.23 Block Shear Gcometl) for Example 4.9.

 4.- Block Shear 83

Step 3: For ASD, the allowable wength IS

R, 383
R = -
• Q
= -2.00 = 19J > 150 kips

Because this b greater than the required strength of 150 kips, the gu--.et .-,Jate is adequ:ue
10resist this force bused on block shear.

EXAMPLE 4.Ua
GOAL: Detenrune the de\lgn 'trcngth or a sphce between IW() W-shatx"'
Tension Strength of
Spliced Members Gl\'£:'1(: Tv.o Wl~x~3 A99: v.idc Hauge:. are :.pliced by Hang~ pLll. ' -ho\1n in
by LRFD Figure ~.24, with 'lH-in. diameter h,,Jt, arranged as shov. n. The LRFD \.UI.lb ~ -tr~nglh of a
group of six boh)J. i~ 211 kips. The: pl.tte~ will be elected ~o that the) J, not hmn the ~ember
:.trength.
S OLUTION Step 1: Determine the design 'tr~ngth for the limit $late of yicldmg .
. \ = 12.6 in.
P. =50( 12.6) = 630 1-.ip'
ili P, = 0.9(630) = 567 kJps
Step 2: Dete1minc the net area.
Area to be deducted lor c;s.:h riange

-"' , 11 )(0.530) = 1.06 in.~

Thu\. deduction for l\1 <l !lange' t rom the gross nrea.
. I, = 1 ~ .6- 2( 1.06) = 10.5 in. 2
Step 3: Detcm1jnc the shear .1g I actor.
The \VJ4x~3 1" treat~d ,1, l \ \ll Tee section~. each a W17x21.5
The J for each \\ T I' tound 111 Manual Table 1-R ns 1.31 tn. an.! =o tn

-
'Til
: m.• 111 . , ,
-Ill.

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0

I I I I I

I I I I I I l I

p ----
..._ __________ I I I I I 1

- - - - ---------...> - - - p
WI4X43
I I I I

I I I I I I I I
I I I I I

Figure 4.2-' Spliced Tension Member lnr E\ampk 4 12.

84 Chapter.! Tension ~1emben.

0 0 0

0 () 0

--
- - - - -Shc:1r ' p
~ lin . .....!.._
Tcn~ion
3 in. 3 in. ~-.--
1• • • - sn.
Figure 4.25 Block Shear Check for Example -L 12.

Thus.
31
L' =I - 1. = 0.782
6.0
Spcc,nc.mon Table 03. I pro, ide<. that for this case, with b1 > 2h d a value of U = 0.9
can lx u-.ed.
Step ..J: Determine Lhe design strength for the limit state of rupture.
..-\r = 0.9( I0.5) = 9.45 in.1
P. = 65(9.45) = 614 kips
d>P. = 0.75(6 14) = 461 kips
~tep 5: D~tennine the design block shear strength of the Banges.
The block shear limit ~tate must be checked for tear-out of the flanges. as shown in
Figure 4.2S. The calculations will be carried out for one block as shown in the figure
and the total obtained by adding all four tlange secLions.
Rupture on l11C tension plane

F11 A,, = 65(2.0- ( h)<'f~+ /x))(0.530) = 51.7 kips

1 1

'11eld on the ~bear plane

0.6F,.A8 ,. = 0.6(50)(8.00)(0.530) = 127 kips

Rupture on the shear plane

0.6F.A,, =0.6(65>(8.00- 2.5r/s + 1/s))<0.530) = 114 kips

Becau'e ~hear rupture is less than shear yield, the design strength for a single block
shear dementi~

R, = ( 114 + 1.0(5 1.7)) = 165 kips

!f>R, =0.75(165)= J24k.ips
:lnd the total bloc!.. ' he<tr .,rrength of theW 14x43 is
<I>Rn =: 4( 124) =496 kips
"tcp 6: Compare the destgt1 .w ength for each limit state.
Bolt design st;ength 422 kips
Yielding of the member 567 kips
 4.7 Block Shear 85

Rupture of the member 46 1 kips

Bluck shear for the ml.'mber 496 kips

Step 7: The bolt design strength controls the design. Therefore, the design ..trength of the splice
i~

<f>R, = 422 kip:.

EXAMPLE 4.12b
GOAL: Determine the allowabl!! strength of a splice between two W-<;h_ne,
Tension Strength of
Spliced Members
GIVEN: Two W 14x43 A992 \\tdc flanges are spliced by flange plate~. a' ~rr •n Figme
byASD
4.24. with %-in. diameter bolt arranged as shown. The ASD available sm:ngth nl :~ gn. up of six
bolts is 141 kips. The plates will be ~elected so rnat they do not limit the memlx>r ~treogib

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the allowable '>trength for the limit state of} ielding.

A# = 12.6 io2 •

P,. = SO( 12.6) = 630 kips

630
pft = = 377 kips
Q 1.67

Step 2: Determine the net area.

Area to be deducted lor c..,h l'lilllge

2
2!% + 1
/ 8 ){0.530) = 1.06in.

Thus. deduction for t\\<l ftnnges from the gross area.

An= 12.6 - 2(1.06) = 10.5 in.~

Step 3: Determine the shear lag factor.

The \.\ 14 x -B is treated as 1wo Tee sections. each a \\'T- K ~ i.5
Th.: .\ for each WT is found in Manual Table 1-8 us I .3 m. ru;d L =6.0 in.
Thu~.

U = I - 1.3l =0.-"~
6.0
2
Specification Table 03. J provides that for rhr c:t~. \~ uh b r > h d a value of U = 0.9
can be used.
Step .J: Determine the allowable .strength for the 11.,11 •Wte of rupture.

A,= 0.941 - = 9.45 in.2

Pn = 65 9A51 = 6 1.:1 kips
Pn 614 .
- = - =307k1pS
Q 2.00
86 Chapter~ Tension \!embers

Step 5: Determine the dc~ign blocJ.. she;tr '>lrength of the llangc!'..

The block -.hear hmit ~tate mu~t be checked for tear-out of the flangel!. a-; shown tn
Figure -l.:!S. The cnlculationwc. Will be carried out for on~: bl(lC.k a~ shown in the figure
and the total obtained hy udchng all fou r flange sec tions.
Rupture on the tension plane

Yield on the ,hear plane

0.6/- A = 0.6!501(8.00)(0.5301 = 127 kip'
Ruprure on the shear plane
0.6FuA, = 0.6(651(8.00- 2.5('/w + 1/s))C0.5]0) = 114 kips
Bccau-.e ~hear rupture is lcs~ lhnn \hear yield. the design strength for a single hlock ~hear
elemelll is

R = Cll4+ 1.0(51.7)) = 165 k1ps

nR. = 165
2.00 = 825 kips
and the total blocJ.. ~hear ~.trength of the W 1-l x-IJ b
R
n = 4(82.5) = 330 kips

Step 6: Compare the allowable strength for each limit state.

Bolt allowable :-.trcngth 2R2 kip~
Yielding olth..: member 377 h.tp'
Rupture of the member 307 ktp~
Bloch. shear for the member J30 kips

!ltep 7: The bolt allowable ~trcngth controls the design. Therefore. the allowable !>lrength oftlw
splice is

n-=-<-
R" "8" k ipS
J
E~A \lPLE 4.13a
GOAL: Determine the de\ign \trcngth of one of a pair ol angle' tn a ten,ion member.
Temion Strength ofan
Angle by LRFD GIVEN: The tru..~ dtagonul memlxr in Figure -1.26 con-.t<,h of a pair of angle~ lAxJx f, that
are louded in tension. The boltll to be used are 1'~-in. and the "eel '' .-\36. llle bolt dt:\lgn \hear
strength for this connec\itlfl j., H 7 ktps.

SOLUTJOS Step I: Determine the angle: tlc~'lgn 'tn:nglh for the limit o;tate of) ielding..

P, = 136)C2..J.8) = R9 •.1 1\ip"

<f>P. = 0.9(89.3) = 80.4 f..tp'-

 4.7 Block Shear 87

~
-r = o.-hs in. ~
Figure 4.26 Tmo;,'> Diagonal \ ll!nbcr 1or E>.ample 4. 13.

Step 2: Determine the angk J~'lb'll ,lrl!ng.th for the limit ~late of rupture.

A = ~ .:x - Yxf'/J + 1M = 2.15 in~.

The shear lag coeftictent ''

L =I \ L =I - 0.775/6.00 =fl,-l
P,, = (58)(0.87 1)(2.15) = 109 ktp'
dJP" = 0.75(109) = 81.!! kips

St t>p J: D~temltnl! th<= angk de~ignl>Lreng.th in block shear.

For t.:n'1~1n rupture

F, A., = 58(1.5- 1h(% + 'MJC .) = : :.;I ktp'-

For ,h~a r yteld

0.6F, A~, = 0.6(36)17 25 ) =~;:..Hip~

For :.hear rupture

0.6F_A,, = 0.6(58)(7 25-.: ~ • _. 1 ,J)(Y~) = 66.1 kips

Total bloc.:l. she•1r l!ll'ength, using thl.! lll\\l!'t 'h..:ar term. is

R = t:' .-- • O(n.l)) = 81.8 kips

<f>R, = n -;;•. 1.8) = 61 A kips
88 Chapter.! Tension \lember~

tcp 4: Compare lh0 design strength lur cach limit state.

Bolt ue,tgn '>trenglh 47.7 ktp<,
Yiel dmg ,,r the member 80--t kip!-
Rupture llf the member !<1.8 kip'
Bh,~:l.. 'hc•n for the member 6 1A kip~
tep 5: The bolt Jc-.i!!n ~trenglh control' the de:.tgn. Therefore. lhc Jc,t!!n 'lrength of one angle
IS

d1R = 47 7 kips

Bccau,..._ tht luwest design o,trength t' lh:n of the bolt shear. the design <:~rength of tlw.
'ingle ....gk tension member'" -17,"' l..tp,,

EXAMPLE ~.l3b
GO\ L: Detenrunc the design strength ul one of a pair of angles in a ll:lll>ion member
Tension Strengrh
of an Angle bJ ASD GI\ [": The trus~ diagonal member in hgure 4.26 con-.ists of a pair of angles L-J. x 3 x 11 that Y
are loddcJ mten:oion. The bolts to be u:.ed .~re ~ in. anti the ~tccl is A36. Thl.! boll allowubh.: shear
... trenglh fur thb connection is 31.8 ki ps

SOLUTION tep J : Dctennjne the angle allowable 'trengrh for the It mit :.tate of~ icldmg.
A , = 2A8 in-.
P,, = (36)(2.481 = 89.3 kips

Pn ~
Q = 89.3
• =
1 67
,
53.:> ktps

Step l: Detem1ine the angle allowable strength for the limit state of rupture.
A, = 2.48 - %('/.t + 1/R) = 2.15 in •
The shear lag coertkient il>

U= I - .iJL = 1 - 0.775/ 6.00 = 0.871

P,. = (58)(0.87 1)(2.15) = I09 kips
P., 109
- = 54.5 kips
= -
Q 2.00
Step 3: Determine the angle allowablt! slrenglh in bloclo.. !-hear.
For tension ruptun.:

For shear yield

0.6F, AR, = 0.6(36)(7.25)(%) = 58.7 lo..ips

 4.8 Pin-Conne<:ted Member-. 89

For ~hear rupture

0.6F.A,,. = 0.6l5R)(7.25- 2.5(Y4 + 1/ 8 )){%) = b6.1 kip.s
Total block shear ~trcngth . using the lowest shear rerm. is

R, = (58.7 + 1.0 (23.1}) = 81.8 kips

R 81.8 .
- = - =40.9 kipS
Q 2.00
Step 4: Compare the allm,ablc ,trength for each limit state.
Bolt allowable Mrength 31.8 kip!>
Yielding of the member 53.5 kip~
Rupture of the member 54.5 kip~
'Bloc~ shear for the member 40.91\ifh

Step 5: The bolt allowable \trength corurols the design. Therefore. the aJIO\\ able strengm ofone
angle is

R, =.I.
Q '\ 8 kip:,
.

Because the lowest allo,,3bJ~ -..trengtb is that of the bolt .shear. the allo'' able ,tren~ of
this single angle tension member 1s 31.8 kips.

~.8 PIN-CONNECTED MEMBERS

When a pin connection j, toN: made in a temion member. a hole h c·u• n holh -Le member
and Lhe parts to which it il. to be attacheu. A pin b inserted in the hnl.:- and :1 mechanical
means is found to \...eep the clements together. Thi::. type or COJUlt:.... on 1' lhe clo~est to a
rrue frictionJes<> pin a' can~ made. Figure 4.27 show~ Lhe end 01 ~m""'onneued member
w

and the dimen-,ton-, neeJcd 10 determine its strength. These mo:Jltbe~ .1re 'lL'I particularly
common in builJin~~: they ure used mninly for special appftl_, uon-......u~.h "~hanger~ in
susp(!n!.ion structure' or connecting links in bridge slructure-,.

Fi~ure -L!" Pu -Conn~ctcd Tension Member.

90 Chapter , Tension ~!embers

Specification Section 05 idemifie~ the limit states for which pin-connected me mbers
must be designed. The-;e are: (I) tension on Lhe effective net area. (2) shear on the effective
area. (3) bearing on the projected area of the pin. and (4) yielding on Lhe gross ection. Tbe
!>trenglh of the pin-connected tension member is taken as Lhe lowest strength predic ted by
each of these limit \late~ .
I. For tension on the effective net area. actually a rupture limit tate

P, = 2tb..ff F,
<j>, = 0.75 !LRFD) n, = 2 .00 (ASD)
where t i"' the thjckness of the plate and b~ff is the effective width of the plate taken
as (2t - 0.6J 1 in inches, but not more tban the actual distance from the edge of the
hole to Lhe euge of the part me:l'.ured perpendicular to the direction of the force.
2. For shear on tht: effective area. again a rupture limit state
P = 0 .6 F, A ,f

<1>, = 0.75 cLRFDl n, = 2.00 (ASD)

"'here -\ = 21(a + d /2). a = the shortest distance from the edge of the pin hole
to the edge of the member measured parallel to the direction of the force, a nd d =
th~ pin dw.meter.

3. F1lr beanng on the projected area of the pin. from Section J7

P11 = l.8F)A 1111
cj>, = 0.75 CLRFD) Q, = 2.00 (ASD)
\\ hae Apt> = td. the projected area of the pin.
4. For yielding in lhc gross section

<1>1 = 0.90 CLRFD) n, = 1.67 (ASD)

E'\ \ \lPLE 4.14a

GOAL: De-.1gn a pin-connected member using LRFD.
Pin-Connected Member
De~i~n by LRFD
GrYE:'I:: -\ de~d load of 30 kips and a live load of 70 kips. The steel has a yield stress of
50 ksi and an ulrim:tte 'trength of 65 ksi. Assume a %-in. plate with a 4-in pin.

SOLCT!O\ Step 1: Determine the required strength.

P. = 1.2(30) + 1.6(70) = 1-lS kip!>
Step 2: Detcnuine the: m1mmum required effective net widtl1 for the limit state of rupture.

P,. 148 .
b. = ~2 f,l = 0.75(2)(65)(0.750) = 2 02111
· .
and
b,11 = 2r + 0.6~ = 2r.750) + 0.63 = 2. 13 in.
Therefore try n 9.0-in. plntc. which will give an actual distance to the edge of the plate
greater than b,ff. Thus. b,1, is u~cd to calculate the rupture strength of the plate.
 4.8 Pin-Connected Members 91

S tep 3: Detemline the design strength ror !he limit Stale of tension rupture
<!>P,= 0.75C2l(2. 13)(0.75)(65)= 156 kips > 148 1-.tps
S tep .t: Determine the destgn '-lrcngth for the limit state of sho.:ar rupture.
For a 9-in. plate and a 4-in. pin. a = b = 2.5 in.
A,1 = 2t(a -d = 2(0.75)(2.5 +4.0/21 =6.75 in.'
2)

wPH= d>0.6...\ 'Fu = 0.75(0 .6)(6.75)(65) = 197 kip\ > ~~ ltp"

Step 5: Determine the design ~Lrcng th for the limil stale o f bearing on tht! pmJe~ted area of the
pin.
A 1,b = td = 0. 75(-l.O) = 3.0 in.'

<l> P, = <j>l.RF .·\.., = 0. 75( 1.8)(50)(3.0) = 203 kip' > J.l\ r. "·

Step 6: Determine the design , trtngth for the limit state of yieldi ng on the gn...," :~rea of the
member.

<!>P, = 4>F .-\ = 0 .9(50)(0 .75)(9.0) = 30-1 kip > 148 kip!->

Step 7: Conclusion. the propo~eu

will be sufticiem to re~tst the apphed load.

EXAMPLE 4.14b
GOAL: Design a pin-connected membet using ASD.
Pill-Connected M ember
Desig11 by ASD
GIVEN: A dead load of 30 l.tps and a live load of 70 kip:.. The steel h.b il ~tdd tress of
50 ksi and an ultimate strength of 65 ksi. Assume a %-in. plate with a 4-in. pm.

SOLUTION Step I: Detemune the required strength.

P, = 30+ 70 = 100 kips

Step 2: Detem1mc the minimum requtrcd effective net width lor the limit 'tate of rupture.

Pun 100(2.00! , _.
b,u = 2 F,,t = (2)(65)(0.. -5 1 = -·0:> m.
and
b, 9 = 2r + 0.63 = 1( -s -0.63 = 2. 13 in.
Therefore try a 9.0 in. plate, which will gi\c: an actual dista nce to the edge of U1e plate
greater than brlf· Thus. b~u is used to calculate the rupture strengLh of the plate.
Step 3: Detem1ine the allowable strength for the limn state of tension rupture.

lOOk'
-nP, = (2)(2. 13)(0.75){65)
2.00
=
k.
104 IpS> IPS
92 Chapter.! Tension \tem~r.

Step 4: Dctcm1inc the al low~thle strength fm the limit ~tate of ~hear rupwre.
For a 9-tn plute and a 4-in. pin. t1 = b = 2.5 in.
, \ 11 = :!t(u + d ::! = 210.75)(2.5-,-- 4.0/2) = ll. 75 in.1
P, 0.6A, F (0_.6...:..)1_6_.7_5_H_6;,_-) ..,,..
Q Q
-
2.00
= I3_ "''P~ > IOOkips

Step 5: Dctermme the allowable strength for the limit Mate of bearing or1 lh~ prqjected areu of
the ptn.
·\ 1,1. = ul = 0.7514.0• = 3.0111.1
Pn l.SF Ap, ( l.~li50)(J.0) .., .. k. l"'l"'
-;::;
~'
= Q =
2.00
= '-'-' lp~ > V\ .up~

Step 6! Detemnne the ullo"able wength fur thl! limit stute of yielding on the gros~ urea of the
mcmh<:r.
P, F, ·\~ t50H0.75)(~.0)
Q =Q = I.C1
7
= lOHip'.,. 100 k1ps
Step 7: C ilndu,ion. the prol)<,,cd

\Hll be sufficient to reststthe applteJ loud.

~.9 EYE-BARS Al'(D ROD

E~c-bar l~n-;ion member'> have not been m.eJ in nc\\ con\lrut:tion for m.m~ year'-. although
the pr ., 1'11'11" for their ucsign are still found in Set:tion 06 of the SpccJfication. Historically,
th~~ \\Cn. wmmonly found a'> tcn~ion member'> 111 Lrusse!. and a~ link" fonuing the main
ten-. n m~:mber 1n <>uc;pension bridges. Eye-bar:. are designeu on!~ for tht! limit -.tate of
yieh..ltl'= the gnh~ section because Lhe dimension~ requiremem., for the eye-bar preclude
the ro"'•b I t~ of failure at any load below that level. Figure 4 .2~ "hm\''- n ~chernauc of an
eyebar .md Fi~ure 4.5 .-.how!. an cyebar in a building application.

...-\1-
Figure ~.2K Eye-Bnr Geom..:tr)
 4.12 Bracing Members 93

Rotls are commonly LL-.ed for ten!>ion member~ in situations where the required ten~ile
strength is small. These tension members wouldgenerall) be considered ~econdary members
such as ..,ag rods. hangers, and tic rods. Rods may also be used as part of the lateral bracing
system in \\all!, and roofs.
Although it h. possible to connect rods by welding to the structure. threading and bolting
is the mu'l common connection. Rod can be threaded in two way~. St:1ndard rods have
threau-. that reduce the cross-section area through the removal of matenal The upset rod
has enlarged ends with the threads reducing lhaL area to ~omething larger t&n the gross area
of the rod. The strength of the rod depends on the manner in which the thread, are applied.
For a standard threaded rod. the nominal strength is given in SpecitL..t m ection J3.6
as F11 = 0.75F11 over the area or the umhreaded body of the rod. which p e'
P,, = 0.75F11 An
and for design.
<j>, = 0.7S t LRFD) Q, = 2.00 (ASD l
4.10 BUILT-UP TEl\SION MEMBERS
Se<.:tion 04 of the Specification permits tension members that are fabricated fron, the com·
binalion of shapes and plate.!.. Tlh:tr ,trength is determined it' the ~;ame wa~ a!\ th~ ,trength
for single-shape tension memh~r,. Hlmever. the designer must remember that m i-:mt-ur
member~. bolts are usually placc:J along the member length to tie the various ~hapc., to·
gether. These bolts result in holco; along ~he member length, not just at the emh. '0 thJt
rupture on the effective net c;ccti(ln m:l~ become the contJolling limit state at a lo~:uion other
than the member end.
Perforated cover plates <lr ue pi:He' can be used to tie the separate hape" tl gether. Ltm·
itation~ on the spacing of these d~m.:'lll' .1.re also provided in Section D.l and requiremems
for the placemem of bolts can he tt1unt.lm ection J3.5.

4.11 TRUSS MEMBERS

The most common ten-;ion members found in building strucrurc~ arc ihe ten,ton web and
chord member... of tru~'e'. Tru~~e are normally found as roof 'tru~.ture' and as transfer
structure!. \\·ithin a butldmg. Dl!pending on the particular load pancm'- that a truss might
experience. a trus~ ml!mber might be called upon to always resi-.tten' m or to resist tension
in \Omc ca. e~ anJ l.'umpression in others. In cases in which a mc•·tt-.:r *"required to catTy
both tcrNon ..mJ cnmpression, it will need to be sized accordm;.~ . a~~.Ju~e the compression
strength 01 ... m~mber il> normally significantly Jess than the .:r ..... n -.rrength of lhat same
member. 3!- \\'til be seen in Chapter 5. compression ma~ ..~ctuJ. ~ control the design.
The: typical truss member can be composed of e1ther ...n;;le 'hnpes or a combi nation of
shape, \\hen composed of a combination of shape... the r ~ymrements discussed in Sect ion
-U 0 mu-;t be included. Otherwise. tn.tss member' arc: c;..-..tgned jul>t as any other tension
member t.liscussed in this chapter. Example, -1-.9. ..1 0. and -1-.13 showed the applicatjon ot'
the ten~i on provi:.ions to several truss tens.ion memt-cr-..

4.12 BRACING MEMBERS

As with truss members, members useJ "' pro\ tde lutcral load resistance ror a building
might abo be called upon to cart) ten,rcm unJer some conditions and compre sion under
others. They £00 would need to be de,tgncd to resist both loads. However, it is often more
economical to provide twice a-. man~ tcn-.1011 members and to assume that if a tension
member were called upon to re..,i<.L compre.....,ion. it would buckle and therefore carry no
94 Chapter ..1 TensJOn \!embers

load. Thil> would permit all bracing to be designed as tension-on!) members and almost
certain!} pennu them to have a . maHer ~ro-.!t -;ection than ir the\ were required to resist
compre-."ton -\n .tddntonal ~implifkation that this assumption p~rmit!> j., the c!limination of
potent1aJ compre,,ton members from the nnalyl>is for member force,, Thi' may then I'Cl>Ult
in the -;tructure betng n c.lcierminale '\Lrltcture rather than an indctermtnnte one and thereby
imphf~ tng the aiDJI~ ,j.,,

~.l 3 PROBLEMS
1. o~tennine the gross and net area~ lor an ~- • .-tn. plmc 10. Dl.'termtne the gro~s and net nr.;u-, lor u Juublc angle ten-
'' th a \tngle line of standard holes for-,, in. bnlt- sion member wmpo,ed of two L4 x-1 x 1• :~... 'hO\\ n belt)\\ w1Lh
2. Determine the l!mss and net area-. for .. 10- • :·Ill. plate hob 1t1r -tn. bnlh ~taggcrcd m each leg.
'' th a !>ingle line ofstandard hole-. lor' rin bc.oJL,.
3. Determine the gros~ and net areas fo1an ' • s -m pl.•tc with
a \ Ingle line of standard holes for l-in. bolt-..
.J. Determine the gros' and net area~ for an L- · .! , with two
lines. one in each leg, of standard hole' lor _-m. bJib.
5. Determine the gros~ and net area" ror un L' 5 · ' with two
lines. one in each leg. of sto.ndard hob tor· .-m. holt\.
0 •
~2 in.
0
I} m.
•
~ m,.j
t
6. Determine the g.ro~~ untl net areil for a\\ TS '20 with three
line.s of '-landard hob for -tn. holt- E •~h clement of the WT P-'.111
wilJ be atLached to the ~:onne~ti••n.
7. Determine the !Jm" and ner :u-ea ~l•r :1 Cl5x50 wuh live 11. 1-nr the WT8 x 50 auuched through the lla•lge toil 12- x YJ-
lines of standard hole' lor - ,-m. bolt' Each tl.mge wlll contain in. plato:'' ith eight 7/g-in. bolts at u spacing of 3-in. and placed in
une line or bolts and the web" ill ~ontnm ~ Ime'> of bolt~. two rl'''' a" 'hown. detcrmme the '>heal lug !'actm and effective
8. Determine the net ''iuth lor u J()... x 11-m plate with YJ·in. net area t•f the WT.
boltl> placed in three line' a' ,tJ<l\, n
- ,-, ;,u
0 0 I WT8x50

_,>
0
0 0

P.J.8
-----
:.an =.tn

P4.J I
9. Detc:m1ine the net width for the L6x4 x% shown" lth /~-in. 7

bolt!.. 12. A ~inglc L6x6x l i' u~ed a~ a ten,ton brace in a multistory

buildmg One le~; ol the angle 1~ a11ached to a gus\t!t plate "11h
a \ingle line of -/s-m. bolrs. Derermtne the 'hear lag factor and
0 0 ef!'ectivc net area for t hr~e bolts with a 'ra~:tng or 3-in.
6 in.
0 0 -,- 13. The \o\'T8x50 nf Problem II .... weldt.!d along the ltp~ of
the Oange lor a length of 12-in. on each flange. Dctcrmme the
'hear lag factor and cllcctive net area lor the WT.
14. Detem1inc the uvuiluhle su·ength of a 12- x 1/,-in AJ6
plate ~:onn ected to two 12-in. plates u' ~hown with two lines of
~~·i n. holts. Determine the (a) dc~•gn .,tnmgth by LRF-U amJ (b)
P4.9 allowable strength by ASD.
 .1.13 Problem'\ 95

,,., ),hnwn. Determi nt: th~ available blocJ... ,heur strength of the
--~ I I I -\36 angle. by (a) LRrD and (b) ASD

0
0
0
0
0
0 l':u:r- 1~. -_o__o_ _o__- - -~1 -~
P4.14
1 · + 3in.+~
11hin.

P-U3
1.5. Dctennine the U\:lilahle 'tren~th of an L6x4 x·YJ uu.acbed
through the long leg ro a gu.,,el plate \\ 1th tl:n 1~-in. bolt~ at
J '·in. lipacing m two line,. L-;e A.36 steel. Determine the (ul :!~. Determine lhe available block ,t- ~ar •trm:th l Jr rhe 7 x
dc~ign Mrength by LRFD ttnd (bl allowabll! ),LfCngth by ASD. l 4 ·tn. AJ6 plate shown. T he holt-s are o· •·tn It· Dcrermine
h~ lal LRFD and (b) ASD.
16. Detelmine the avai lable \lfCngth or an H- X 1h·in. A572
Gr 50 plate connected with three lines of%-in. bolls. Determine
the (:1) de..-;ign :.trength b~ LRFD and (b) allowable :.trengtJl b~ - .- ,-----------1
-\SD 11 n
17. Detenninc the a\uilabh:,tn:ngthot a WT7x 15. A992 steel. - :- 0 0 0
'' itll tht: llange..' welded to u ~-in. gus~et plate by a 10-in. weld > ---
along each side of the llange. Determine the (u) uesign S[rength
b~ LRFD ;md (b) al lownhk '>lrength by ASD.
-1-0 0 0
18. Design u 10-fl-long. "mgle-ungle ten~wn member to ~up­ ·'"~
' - ...___ __ _ __ _ --!
pun a ll\e load l1f -195 1-.tp!-. <Jnu a dead lo<td of 16.5 kips CUD=
.31. The member b to he connected through one leg and onJ~ one
bolt hl)lc will occur at <lll)' cro'>s l>ection. L-.c t\36 ~tee I .tnt! limit
,Jendcrn~!. to length/.'~00. De!>tgn by (a) LRFD und (bl ASD. I 1, in.

19. De.. ign a 10-I'L-Iong. o;j ngle-anglc LCIN\)11 member a~ Ill P-U-1
Prohlem I R With the ~ome tntul service load. 66 k1p~. Use a li\t'
load of 7.3 kip., and a dead lund of 58.7 f..1p~ . (UD = 0.1.:!5 ). 1 1
25. Determine the available bl()d. ,hear •tren;lh for the
Jt:"!!" b) LRFD and thl design b) ASD
WT6x 20. A992 l.teel. nuuched throu;b the tlang..- "tth eight
111. Design a 10-ft-long. smgle-anglc tcnc.1on member .1' an 1-111. boiL' :c. :.ho'' n b) ta) LRFD .1v .. b t\..')0
Pnlhlem 18 \\ irh the ,,unc \en ice load us1ng a lt"e IPad or 55.0
=
ktps and a l.iead load ol 11.0 kip-.. !UD 5J.I.X~ign h) 1.11 LR£ D
.md (b) ASD.
11. Design a ~7-ft long WT tcn ... wn \\ mu brace tor" multisrory
t,ut!dmg to resrst a w111d force of 3XO ktp' L''.: W9:! <:teel and
0 0 0
• -111 boiL;;. Assume that nn more than fuur 1-vlt~ \Hll occur at
:m~ panit·ul:lr secuon. The length ot the umnedHill !the number
,t holt~) is not known. Dc:-tgn b~ 1:11 LRFD .tnd (bl ASD.
- ·- ---------------------
---
12. Ot:sign a W l4 A992 tenswn memhet ror a trus' that will
m-y n dead load of H9 k1ps and a live loatl of 257 kips. The
-'--
0 c 0 0
·~..tngcs \\ill he bolted w the connccung plutc~ with %-in. bolt~
1catc.:d so that four bult~ \\ 1llo-:cur m any net :.cction. Design
, tal LRFD and (bl ASD
:.m.
·I ·I
3 in.
13. An L~ x3 x "!~ i' att.tt:hed w i.l gu~el plate with three Yrin.
,,.,Jt, »paced at 3 inc he~ \\ ith an end and edge di:-wnce of 1.5-in. P~. 25
Chapter 5

Experience Music Project, Scaule.

Photo courtesy Michael Dicktcr/Magnusson Klemenck
Associates.

Compression Members

5.1 COMPRESSION M EMBERS IN STRUCTURES

C01npression members are structural e lements subjected to axial forces that tend to push
the ends of the members toward each other. The mosl common compression member in a
building strucmre is a column. Columns are vertical members Lhat support the horizontal
el emenr.s of a roof or floor system. Several column s are shown in Figure 5.1 as part of a
building structure. They are the primary elements that provide Lhe venical space to form
an occupiable volume. Other compression members are found in Lrusses as chord and web
members and as bracing members in floors and wal Is. Other name!'; often used ro identify
compression members are struts and posts. Throughout this chapter Ll1e terms compression
member and column wi!J be used interchangeably.
The compression members discussed in this chapter experience only axial forces. In
real structures, additional load effects are often exerted on a compression member that
would tend to combine bending with the axial force. These combined force members are
called beam-columns and are discussed in Chapter 8. The majority of the provisions thal
apply to compression members are located in Chapter E of the Specification.
Table 5.1 lists Lhe seclions or the Specification and parts or Lbe Manual discussed in
this chapter.

96
 5.1 Compre!ision Member; in Structure:. 97

I igurc 5.1 Column' m a ~lultistol) Bualding. Ph01o Cnune-~ G~ Grt~"

rable 5.1 Section, ot 'lpeLllication nnd Pans of M:munl Found in tha, Cbpter

Specification
B..l t •·t"alicati~m of Sections for Local Bucklin~
E:! ')t.:ndcmes<; lamiwtion' and EITecthe Length
EJ Lompres:.ive Strength for Flexural Buckling ot :\tem "" '' ithout Slender ElemenlS
E4 Compressive Su-e1\gth lor Tors1onul and Fle\u .ti-Tt~N,lllal Bucklin~ of Members
\\ llh('lut Slender Element~
E~ Sin~lc-Ang!e Compn:..,iun Member'
F.o Built-L p Member-.
E7 ,\!!embers with Sh:nder Element)
~ lmual

P.m I Dimensions tmd Propl•nie~,

Pan l Dc,ign of Comprc,ssnn \ lember-
Pan 6 Dc~ign of !\!ember.. Subtt?ctto Cnmbin.:d Loading
98 Chapter 5 Compre;;,.ion ~!embers

5.2 CROSS-SECTIO:'\AL SHAPES FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Compression members carry axial forces ' o the primary cross-sectional property of interest
j.;; lhe area. Tbu . the ~imple relationship between force and stress.

J =!...A (5. 1)

il> applicable. As long a~ rhis relationship d ictates compression member strength, all cross
"ections with the c;;:une area will perform in the '>arne way. ln real structures, however, other
facto rs influence the "-trength of the comprec;;~io n member and the disuibution of the area
becomes important.
In building ~tructures. the typical compression member is a column and the typical
column is a rolled ''Ide flange member. Later discussions of compression member s trength
will how that the ~W-<;hape does not give the most efficienr distribution of material for
compression members. It does, bowe\'er. provide a compression member that can easily be
connected to other members of the system such as beams and other cohLmns. This feature
significantly influences its selection as. an appropriate column eros ssection.
Figure 5.:2 'hO\\ " examples of rolled and buill-up shapes that are used as compression
members. tvlan~ of these are the same shape used for the tension members discussed in

\\..:.lwpe
:II
Channd
(b)
T Tel!
lcl
L Ang:le
(d)

0 Squ.w HSS
I<: I
D 0
Recwngulur HSS
(fJ
Round HSS JJJd pipe
{g !

T (h) (i) Ul
~ l k)

il l ( Ill) Cn)
Figure 5.2 Rolled Shapes and Buill-Up Shapes for Compression Members.
 5.3 Compression ~!ember Srrengrh 99

Chapter 4. This is reasonable becaul!e the forces being considered in these two cases are
both axial. although they act in the opposite djrection. However. other t::tctor that influence
the strength of compression member~ will dictate additional criteria for the ~election of the
most efficient shapes for these members.
The Tee and angle shown in Figures 5.2c and dare commonly found .l• .:hords and web
oftrus e-. In the e application'. the geometry of the shapes heJps simpl•·. the connections
between members. Angles are abo U'ed in pairs as built-up compres ll''IO ""'ember with the
connecting clement between the t\\O angles as shown in Figure 5.2h. The ... hannel can be
found in trusses ~ts n single element or combined wilh anmher channel a' 'n l\\ n in Figw-es
5.2b. i. I. and m. Built-up column-. can aJso be found ul!i ng back-ro-t-.... : ,hannels. The
HSS hapes and pipe shown m Figures 5.2e. f. and g are common!~ ur.! a-. columns
in buildings. particularly one· t~lr) tructures where the connection' • the -~ape can be
simplified. Later you will see that the distribution of the material in th~'~ ,~a .... 'the most
efficient for real columns.

5.3 COMPRESSION MEJVffiER STRENGTH

If no other factors were to impa...t the ' treogth of a compre !.ion member. th~ '1 _,., e a.xial
stress relationship given in Equauon "'· J could be u ed to de~cribe member 'lrt:n.:-'il 11tu,.
the maximum force that a compre,~JOn member could resi!>t at~ ield would be

where P,. is the yield load. someume' .:alled the squash Joall: F,. js tbe y11:ld <.~re'"· .1nd 4
il> the g:ros area. Thi i the re ... pon'-~ that would be expected if a very shon -.pec1mer:. •ne
whose length approximates it.-. other 1,, d1mensions. were to be tested in compr~..-.1 n Thi'
type of colunm test specimen i' ..:alleJ J ... rub column. Because most compre,,J n jlemlx>rs
will have a length that great!~ e\ce..:J, t-- 1,ther dimension .length effect~ cannot~ ignored.

5.3.1 Euler Column

To address the impact oflength on compression membe1· behavior. a Mmpk moJcl. as :-.hown
in Figure 5.3 is used. The Sw1s' mathematician Leonard Euler first pre...e:>'ed th1' analy i. in

- -j
r r =P..

r <r
L
Tb -
J ma.-'\
f'T"Mz
I 2
::
_,_ I _,_
r
A
- '- - \'

lp
(a)
I
(b)
P.,
(C)

Figure 5.3 Stability Conditions for Elru.uc Columns.

1-59. A number of a-. ... umptions are made in this column model. including: ( I) the column
emh arc l'rictionle-.-. pin:-.. (2} the column i.., perfectly slraigbt. (3) the load is applied along
the ccntroidal aw... and (4) the matenal behaves elas tically. Ba-.ed on these assumptions.
rhr-. column model1' w.. ually called the perject column or the pttr<' column.
Figure 5.3a ..hn\\' the perfect column '' ith an applied load thm will not cause any
lateral dh.plac.:emem •1r yielding. ln thi-. an-.mgement. the load t'an he increased with no
later<~ I di,placement of the column. Howe' cr. at a particular load. defined as the critical
load or the buckling. load. P,,. the column "Ill displace laterally ns shown in Figure 5.3b.
In thi' configuration. the dashed Line repre-..cnts the original position or the member and
the ...olid line repre ...enh the Jisplaced po,iunn. Note that an axis sy.,rcm is presented in
the tigure \\ ith the :-..rxi, along the member length and the y-axi.; trans\erse to the member
length. This place' [h~ r-axis perpendicular to rhe figure. The x- andy-axe" correspond to
the cemroidal axe' nlthe cross section .
.-'\ free boJ~ Jtagram of the lower pun ton of the column in ils displaced position is
shO\vn in Figure 5.3~ lf moments are taken <~bout point C. equi librium requires

,\1. = P,,y

From the pnn<..~p'e-. of mechanics anJ u'm_g small displacement theory, the differential
equation nf the dene\.·ted member i:, ghen <~ ...

t(\ 1H.
-,=--
d:- £/

Combmtn~ r~e--e two equations and rearrangrng the term yields

lithe ..·oerticienl of the <;Ccond term is taken a~ k~ = Pcr/EI , . the differential equation for
the ... 1 mn becomes

which t-. o.t 'tJnJard .._econd-order linear ordinary differential equation. The solution to this
equation'' g:nen b)

y =A sin k:.+ B cosk<. (5.3)

where A and B are ... , ~N.mt' of integration. To further evaluate thi11 equation. the boundary
conditions must be ..tppl!ed Because at~ = 0. y = 0 and at :. = L . ·' = 0, we find that

B= 0

and

A -.mi.L = 0

For EI.JUUtion 5.3 to have a nontrh ial solution. hin kL) must equal t ero. This requires that
kL =lilT ''here n is any integer. Substituting fork and rearranging yields

(5A)
 5.3 Compression Member SLrength 101

;.'/
u=l 11•2 n=:;: u=-1

p
u
=::l/1
I!
p = -lnl£1 p = 97t.J
cr L!
p
.,
=Jbrrl£1
Lz
" LJ
Figure 5.4 <; ~~ ro Bu-. ,.Jed
IUJ Ih ) rtl> Column"
'"'
Becau~~ 11 can be taken as an) Integer. Equnlion SA has u minimum '.~tue ,\her, t• = 1. This
is called Lhe Euler Bucklin.(( Load t'r the Critical Buckling Loud anJ '' giYen .,,
n :!Elr
P,= ----v- 55 1
Lf Hlluc" forB and kL are ~uh,utut..-d into Equation 5.3. the shape of the bud...Jed column
l:an be determined from
= ..\sin nn 5.01

Becau~c any value for A will ,;ui,i: EyuatJon 5.6. a unique magnitude oi the di,pb~ement
cannot be determined: ho\\e\ cr. 11 i' de.tr that the shape of the bud.kd o..olumn '' .. half
~inc ~:urve whcnn = I. Thi' i, -.htm n ..tga1n tn Figure SAn. For other' alta:-' oi n. d.ifferem
buckJed l-hapes "ill resuh along \~ nh the h1gher critical buckling load \\-nen u >I . Lhe~e
shape!- arc referred to a-. lugh ... r node,. Sc\'t:raJ ca~es are shown in Fi;un~.,. 5 .!b ..... and d.
In all cases, rhe bn-,it.: <.hapl! '' the ~ine curve. ln order for these htgher mo.;;e;; 10 occur.
some type of ph) ~ical reqr,unl ..tgainst buckling is required at the rxnn: \\he·.: the buckled
shape cro...ses the nngtnal unJetlected ~hape. T11is can be accomp -hed ••, nh the addition
of brm:es. which 1-. dho.. u...,ed later.
We now han: equalions to predict the colwnn strength Equ~uun .5.2. which does
t\\1)

not add res<., length. anJ Equation 5.5. which does. These L\\.'0 eq ._uon- .1re ploucd in Figure
5.5. Bl!~:au.::-e the lil.'mntion of the Euler equation was ba...etl 1 ela,u~ behavior and the

figure 5.5 Column Strength Ba),ed on

Column l.:ng1h Length.
102 Chapter 5 Compre"Jon .\!ember.

~-olumn cannot carr) more load than lh~) ield load. there is an upper limit to the column
-.trength. Jf the length at which Lhi!. limit occurs is taken ru. L,. it can be detennined by
~.:-tung Equ:nion 5 2 <!CJUalto Equation 5.5 and <;Oiving for length. giving

LI = 7T lEi':"
{"F;A;
To s1mplify thi" equauon. rhe radiu-; of g~ rauon. r. will be used where

Be.:ause the moment of inertia depend' on the axis being considered and A is the gro. s area
of the ;,cctioo. mdepcnllem of axis. r" ill depend on the budJing axi'. In the derivation just
de,·elopcd. the a.xb ''I buckling for the <:0lumn of Figure 5.3 was taJ...en as the x-axas. thus

L = Tir {f.
V r,
For thil> thenreti.. al development. a column who;.c length is les!- than L 1. would fail by
yielding and could be called a short column. wherea>. a column with a length greater than
L, would fJJI b~ buckling and be called a long ~.:olumn.
II ... ai'C'I helpful lO write Equmion 5.5 in terms or stress. Dividing both sides by the
area and 'ub,uruung again for the rad1u' or g) ration yields
7T!£
f:,. = - - , (5.7)

(~r
ln th1, equation. the radius of gyration i~ left un,ubscripted ~o thut it can be applied to
'' ht,hevcr a>Js is determined to be the en ti cal axi . A plot of -.tre" vero;u.;; Ll r would be
of the 'amc hape as the plot of force in Figure 5.5.

5.3.2 Other Boundary Condition

De0\.111\ 11 ot rhe buckling equation<; presemed as &luations5.5 and 5.7 included the bound-
ary condlll• 10 of frictionless pins at both ends. For perfect column-. \\ ith other boundary
condition,. the m0mem will nor be zero at the end~ und will result in u nonhomogeneous
differential equation. Solving the resulting differential equation n.nd applying the appropri-
ate boum.l:tl') com.litJOil\ will lead to a buckling equation of a form "llnilar ro Lhe previous
equations. To gener..hte the buckling equation for other end conditions. the column length.
L. is replaced b~ the column effective length, KL. where K is the effective length factor.
Thus, the general bud.ling equations become

(5.8)

and

(5.9)

Figure 5.6 shows the original pin-ended ~olumn with :-.evcral exampli:~ of column!.. bowing
rhe influence of different end condition!..;\ II columns nre shown with the lower supporlfixed
again~1 lateral rranslation. Three of the <.:olurnns have upper end<> that arc also restrained from
 5.3 Compressjon Member Strength 103

-'-
/.: =- I ~ =- 115 I.::. I
:l) lhJ (\11

Figure 5.(1 Column fhtcJ..Icd Shape l••r DJ!fcrenll:.nd Cond ilinn~.

lateral lr.m'>laLion. ''here~ thret h.l\ e upper ends Ll1at arc free tll tran-.Jate. Th eu~uw
length c.: an he visualit ed us the len:;th bet\\ een inflection point'>.-.. 11ere the ~un atur~o re1 ~r...e-..
Thi, t·e ... ult is simHar tu the origtn·tl Jm\'ation when n wa~ taken as ~orne integer llth:r than
one h '' most easily ~een in Ft.;:ure' "'.6b and c bm can af..o be ~een in Figure ' ~-u b~
'isu:tlt11nr the extended budleJ ,h.!pe above the column as .. bown 10 Figure ' - l:: o~'l
l'nse'>. the buckled curve is a !iegmeml)t the s.ine curve. The most i mpon unt thing ll~ ,,b....·'"' e
i'> that the column with fixed enJ, in Ftgure 5.6b has an effective length 0f 0 ..- L. \ hert:.l.'
Llle l:olumn in Figure 5.6a ha!- an ettecu' e k nglll of L. Thus. lhe fixed end colurr r \ dl h:lw
four time.. the strength of Lllc ptn end Ctllumn.

5.3.3 Combination of Bracing and End Conditions

The inl1uence of int~m1cdJ JlL bractng on lh\? effective length wa-. tou hed U[11'n tn the
dic::cussion of the higher nwdc' tll buckling. In those cases. the budd m~ "l!'u tcJ 111 equal
length scgmcnL'i lhut rcfle.:teu the mode number. Thus. a column '' ith = 2 '.1J I\\ o equal
segmcllls. where a., a c.:nlumn "llh n = 3 buckled '' ith three equal •e:;men ' If physical
brace-. arc u::.eJ to pn•\ 1de bucl..ling resistance to the column. the ette.::i.ne length will

o, --,-
'
''
'
I
I
I
I
I
I

'I
L

Figure 5.7 Extended 'il1.1pc of Buckled Column from Figure 5.6d.

104 Chapter 5 Compre~'-J( n \ lembcN

-, -, -r
l.
T
... ......L
I
-' :!L
3

:::::::1 +
c==
L

_,

.. = 0.! J. =0.5
(c)

figure 5.8 Bud....e-J Shape for Columns \\ 1th lmcmledmte Braces.

depend on the tocauon of the brace . F1gur~ 5 8 show~ three columns with pin ends and
uHcm1ethate "upport!i. The c<>lumn in Figure 5.Bu b the same as the column in Figure 5.4b.
The effective length is 0.5L so K = 0.5. The column in Figure 5.8b shows lateral braces in
an un ... ~ mm.:tn ...al arrangement with one ~egmem U3 and the other 2U3. Although the exact
localion of the to flection point would be ~hghll) into the longer segment. normal practice
, ... tO 1:1i...e the longest unbraced length as the effective length, rhus KL = 2U3 so K = 'h·
Th" .:olurr" m Figure 5.8c is braced at two location . The Ionge ...! unbraced length for this
=
.....,e ~t·t>' Jn effeclive length KL = O.SL anu a corresponding K 0.5. A general rule can
be '-\3ted that. when the column ends are pinned. the longest unbraccd length is the effective
ko~.h lor buckling in that direction.
\\hen other end t.:on<.litions are present. these two influencec; must be combined. The
co!Jmn~ c1t Figure 5.9 illustrate the influence of combinations of end ...upports and bracing
on th~: o.olumn cfiet:Live length. The end condhion would influence on!~ the effective length
of the! c:nd '~.;ment of the column. For the column in Figure 5.9a. the lower segment has
L =a anJ Ll:l..;t ,egment \\ould buckle with an effective length KL =a. The upper segment

Figure 5.9 Buckled Shape for

Colum n ~'' ith Difterent End
Condirion~ and lntem1edi:nc
WI lbl Brace~.
 5.3 Compression I\ !ember Strenglh 105

has L = b but also has a fixed end. Thus. it would buckle with an eftectivc length KL =
0.1b, obtained by combining the end conditions of Figure 5.6c with tht! length, b. Thu~.
the relation hip between length:. cl and b determine which end of the column dictates the
overall column effective length. A an example. the column in Figure 5.% hows t.hat t.he
lowest segment would set the column effective length at 0.35L.

EXAMPLES.! GOAL: Determine the lheoretical ,trenglh for a pin-ended column and v. h~r ..:r t v. 111 first bucJ...Ie
Theoretical Column or yield.
Strength
GIVEN: A WIOx33. A992. column \\ith a length of20 1'1 .

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the load that \\nuiJ ~·uu'c buckling.

With no other information. 11 must be ru.sumcd that this column\\ til bu.= · !~ about its
weak axi~. if it buckles at all. because the effective length is 20 it tor both \es
From Mnnual Table 1-1 I = 36.6 in.~ and A 1 = 9.7 1 in.!
The load that would cau~c 11 to buckle is
P. = 7';-£/, =
2
'IT (29.000)(36.6) =I
" L- {20(12))' 2klp:-
Step 2: Determine the load thai \\ouiJ cau~e yielding.
P = F, A, = 50(9.7 I)= 486 kip~
Step 3: Conclusion.
Because Prr < P_,, the th.:<>rcucal column strength is

p = 182kip.:. l

And the column would buckk bc:Jnr~ n could reach it~ yield stress.

EXAMPLE5.2 GOAL: Determine the overall column lenglh thal. if exceeded. would .:..tu-.e • ~olumn to theo-
Critical Buckling retically buckle elasticall) before yielding.
Length
GIVEN: A W8 x3 I column with fixed ~upports. Use steel with F, =- ; •I
SOLUTION Step l: From J\lanuul Table 1- 1. 1,. = 37.1 in.J and A,= 9. 12 in.:
tep 2: Detennine the force that would cause the column to ytelJ

P, = F , A. =- 40{9.1:! 1 - 265 ';lf•

Step 3: To determine the length that would cause thi, ' .lme lo:sJ to be the buckling load. set thi~
force equal to the buckling f()n;l! nnd determine r11e ength trorn

.r-EJ ~ - ~IJ.IlOOH 37.l)

365 kipS= ~ = U

which give~

L = \ ;;- t ~9.000)(37.
365
1) 7 .
= I 1 m.
106 Cllapter 5 Cornpre,.,wn Members

So the effe..:tivc length is

171
L = - = 14.3ft
12
Step 4: Conclu~inn
Becau~e a fixed-end column ha~ ao efJeClive length equal to one-half the actual
length. hul"kling will not occur if the actual length is less than or equal to

L = 2( 14.3) = 28.6 ft

5.3.4 Real Column

Physical re ~ung ot .,pecimens that effecti\'ely modeled columns found in real building struc-
tures sho\\'et1thatcoJumn slrengtb wa<, not as great as either the buckling load predicted by
the Euler bud.Jing t!t]Uation or the squa:.h load predicted by material yielding. This inability
of the the01: to predict actual behaYior wa., recog11ized early and numerous factors were
founi.l to mrluence this result. Three main factors influence column strength; material in-
ela-,tidt). c<llumn initial out-of-straightne ·s, and modeling of end conditions. The influence
11f colun1 n end I.'Onditions has alread) been discussed with respect to effective length de-
temlin:ui,m. \ faterial inelasticity and initial out-of-straightness. which significantly impact
real ... olumn '-trengrb. are discussed here.
lnd~htJL behavior of a column direclly results from built-in or residual su·esses in the
L'T0'' ...-.:tion. These residual stres&e!. are. in turn. the direct result of the manufacturing
pn. c':> Steel is produced with heat. and heat is also necessary to form the steel into the
:--lupe.. u"ed in construction. Once the shape is fully formed. it. is then cooled. During
thJ., '-')llling process residual stresses are developed. Figure 5.10 shows wide flange cross
-.ed rh 10 ,·arious stages of cooling. JnitiaiJy. as shown in Figure S.lOa, the tips of the
tiange .. '' !Lh the most surface m·ea to give off heat begin to cool. As this material cools, it
contract'. t'\ entually reaching the ambient temperature. At this point, the fibers in this part
of the 'e.:t 1.l0 reach 1.vhat is expected to be their final Jengd1.
A uJJ......-en• hbers cool. they too contracL In the process or contracting, these newly
cooling fiber-, pull on the previously cooled fibers. placing them under some amount of
compressi' e ..ir~..... Figure 5.10b shows a cross section with additional flange elements
cooled. When the pre\ wu ly cooled porrion of the cross section provides enough stiffness

lnmal~:t>Pling I ntem.tl coul mg Completely cooled

(J) lbl tel
Figure 5.10 Di,uibution of Residual Stres cs.
 5.3 Compression Member Strength 107

Ela,tic/plaMic
mndel-no n:\lduol
, tress

I
I

I
~E
I
I
I
I
I
I
I Figure 5.11 ..., "C umr
I
Strc-.,. t• .u,.. Ds;.s= , ~.~; uh and
Avent!!~ •tram without Re,tdLJ~ ,. •• ''

to re~train the contraction of the ne\• l~ cooling materiaJ. a ten\tle -.tress i., J~,e •ned in
the newly cooling material becau-.e it .:annot conu·act as it otherwise would '' nL. ut lhi-,
restraint. When completely cooled...... 'hown in Figure 5.1 Oc. the tip!> of the flange... and ~e
middle of the web arc put into comrr.:-....IOn. and the flange web j11ncture i<. put tnto ten ..lon.
Thus. the first fibers to cool are 10 n mpression. whereas the la'>lto cool are in ten.;.ton
Several different represemanon.. otthe residual stress distribution ha\e bee n 'Jg_ge..;::J
One distribution is shown in Figure 5 toe. The magnitude of the maximum rc,tdu-- 'ue-..;
doeJ> not depend on the material yield ..trength but is a function of mmenal th~::--..ne" In
addition, the compressive re!',iduul -.tre'' h of critical interest when considenn; l'O!!'"..c''JOn
members. The magnitude ofthi-. rt-,tJuuJ,tre,, varies from I 0 ksi to aboUL 31) k.--1. denePdmg
on the shape. Tllte higher value, are found in \\ tde Aanges with the thicke'r nan~e elemeob.
To understand the overall impact of the!-.e re!iiduaL stresses on l'Oiumn oeha\ ior. a
stub column can again be inve~ugmed. Figure 5.11 shows the stre ~-'tr"' n rd,i!ton for a
shan column. one thm ''ill
not budde but exhibit<> the influence of r.:, Jt.- 'rc:"e'. As the
column is loaded with an ax tal load. the member shortens and the \. OIT.:'r- 1'\dtng train and
stres are developed. a' if thic; were a perfectly elac;tic specimen. There,;:-- "'e of a perfecrly
e lastic col umn i!. ~hO\Hl by che dashed line in Figure .5.11. When the u.ppheJ -.tress is added
to a member" i1h re,tdual compressive stress. the stub colu mn ~= "' t ,honen at a greater
rate a'> the Lip~ o f the llange become <;tressed beyond the yield' '"C" Tim~. the stress-strain
cuf\e mo,·e:- off the straight line of a perfectly elastic. penc.-...t'· pJa, tic specimen that is
shO\\ n b) lhe dashed line and follows the solid line. Conunu "= 111 add load 10 the column
result\ in greater strain for a given stress and the column e\c-ntu.JII) reaches the yield stress
of the perfectly elastic material. Thus. the only difference bet\~ecn the behavior of the actual
column and the usual test specimen used to determine !Pe 'tre,o,-~train relationship is that
the real column behaves inelastically as those pomon' c· 11' ao"s section with compressive
rcl.tduul stresse::. reach the materi•ll yield stres~
If u new term. the tangent modulus, Er. i~ Jd1neJ a~ the slope of a tangent to the actual
strc~s-strain curve at any point and shown in Figure 5. 1I. an improved prediction of column
buckling strength can be obtained by modif) Ill£ the Euler buckling equation so thai
108 Chapter ) Compre,~wn J\•lernber~

Pen'..:" .;ulumn (initially straight )

Prr 1---...J:..--------

Figure 5. L2 lnlluence of
Lnitial Om-of-Struighllless
!h i
on Column Stn;ngth.

Thus. a the ~nlumn t~ loaded beyond lh ela~tic limit, Er reduces and the buckling strength
reduces. Thi' rartiully accounts for the inability of the Euler buckling equation tO accurately
predict column ..trcngth.
Another factor to significantly impact column strength is tbe column initial out-of-
strnightne'' Once again. the manufacturing process for steel shapes impacts the ability of
the colurr n t•1 ~arry Lhe predicted load. In this case. it is the fact that no structural steel
member l l me~ out of the production proce"'s perfectly straight. In fact. the AISC Code
of Sr J'dc. 'li Practice perrniLs an initial out-of--;traightness of 1/1000 of the length between
pomh \\ uh lateral support. Although lim appear<. to be a small variation from traightness.
11 rnp..t..h .. olumn strength.
Figure 5.12a shows a perfect!) ela~tic. pin-ended eolumn with an initial out-of-
'traJgbtne,c;., 8. A comparison of this column diagram with that uscu to derive the Euler
cc:mtmo. Figure 5.3. shows that the moment along the column length ''ill be greater for
thi' trutially crooked column in its buckled position than would have been for the initia11y
~trrught l'Oiumn. Thus, the solution to the differential equation would be different. Ln addi-
tion. be..:ac'e the applied load works at an eccentricity from the column along its length.
e'en bef0rc: bu-:kling. a moment is appHed to the column that has nm yet been accounted for.
Figme 5.12b -.how<, the load versus lateral displacement diagram for this initially crooked
column c0mrarc-d ro that of the initially straight column. This column not only exhibits
greater latera, di-placemem. it also has a lower maximum strength.
When the,.: l\\\' factors are combined, the Euler equation cannot properly describe
column beha\ ior on ih own. Thus. the development of curves to predict column behavior
has historically been a m<mer of curve fining tbe teM data with an auempt to present a simple
representation of column behavior.

5.3.5 AISC Pro' ision

The compression members dt,l'll'>,ed thu' far have either yielding or overall column buck-
ling as the controlling limit 'hUe. Figure 5.13 plots sample column test data compared to
1he Euler equation and the squa.,h load. The Structural Stability Research Council proposed
thre-e equations to predict column behavior. depending on the particular steel product used.
To o;implify column design. AISC ::.elected a ~ingle curve described using two equations as
thetr repre,emarion of column strength.
 5.3 Compression Member Strength 109

Squash

-- -

Figure 5.13 S-~i' c: Column

KL Test Data C--~ -~.3 •o
r Theoreuc.., Calc""" trenglh.

The desig n basis for ASD and LRFD were presented in Secuon I 6 and I 7. re-
spectively. Equations 1. 1 and 1.2 are repeated here in order to reinforce the rel:u.onship
bet\\ een the nominal strength. re(,i<,tJnce factor. and safety factor presenred througn ur the
Specifi cation.
For ASD. the allowable strength i-;

R,
R., -<Q- 1.1)

For LRFD. the design strength is

R ~d> R, fl. :!l

As indicated earlier. the Specihcauun prO\ ide the relationship 10 detenrune rl;minal
su·ength and the corresponding rc)ti:mmce factor and safety factor for each • mit ...tate to be
considered. The provisions for compression members with nol\slender element- are given
in Specification Section E3. The nominal column . trenglh for the ltmH ,tat~ or flexural
buckling of member1\ witb non)tlender elements is

and

<be = 0.9 (LRFD)

when: A ~ is the gross area of the section and Fer is the fle'l.ura huckling stress.
To capture column behavior when inelastic buckling domtnates column strength. that
is. "here residual !>tresses become important, the Spe-.:n~.. .1tion provides that when K Lfr ~
4.7 1, £/F, or F~ > OA4F,

~., = [o.6ssf- ]F 1E3-2) (5.10)

To capture behavior when inelastic buckling ''not u facror and initial crookedness is dom-
inant. that is when KL/r > 4. 71 J £/ F or F :::;: 0.4-tF,

F,., = 0.877 F,. (E3-3) (5.11 )

110 Chapter 5 Compression Members

250
KUr
.Figure 5.14 KL r \ersus Crilical Strength.

where Fe i ~ the ela tic buckling stress: the Euler buckling stress previously presented as
Equation 5.9 and restated here is

T he flexural buckling stresses for three d ifferent steels. A36, A992, and A514, versus the
slendemes~ ratio, KLjr, are shown in FigLtre 5.14. For very s lender columns, the buckling
::.tres~ is independent of the material yield. The division between elastic and inelastic be-
havior. EquatiOtlS 5.10 and 5.1 l, corresponds to KLjr of 134. 113. and 80.2 for steels wilh
a yield of 36, 50, and 100 ksi, respectively.
Previous editions of the Specification defined theexponenr ofEguation 5.10 in a slightly
different form that makes the presentation a bit simpler. If a new term is defined such that

'A2 = Fy
c Fr
= (KL)2
Trr
Fy
E
then the dividi ng point between elastic and inelastic behavior, where

-KL =4.71 -
r
{f;f'.,.
becomes

- KLA
Ac - - '
Trr E
- y - 4.71
- - - -- 1.5
Tr

The critical flexural buckling stress becomes

for Ar :::; 1. 5
(5.12)

a nd for Ac > 1.5

0.877
Fer = -?- F,, (5.13)
'A~ .
A plot of the ratio of critical flexural buckling stress to yield stress as a fw1ction of the
slenderness pm·ameler, Ac. is given in Figure 5.15. Thus, regardless of the steel yield stress.
 5.3 Compression Member Strength 11 J

Figure S.JS Lambda c versus Critical Stress.

the ratio of flexural buckling strt:'" to yield stress is the arne. Tuble 5.2 pro' ide ... the'-e
numerical values in a convenient. u:.able form.
Previous editions of the Spectllcatton indicated d1at there should be an upper I mtt on
the magnitude of the !.lendeme 'r.ttio at KUr = :wo. The mtenr with this limll 1' 11. " ta\e
the engineer recognize that for \ef") ,Jende r columns. the Hexural buckling -.tn:'' ·'.i.' '-O
low as to make the column very inefficient This limit has been removed in tht' edui '0 oi
lhc Specification because there are man~ factors that influence column u-ength thai \wuld
indicate that a very slender column mtght actually be acceptable. Section E2 ' JTpl~ mform,
the designer that column slenderne'' ...he uld preferably be kept to somerh.ing 'e,, ,_,.m2UO.
Table 5.3 gives the tlexural buckling ... rre ' for values of KUr from 0 10 200 I r ''ct' ~ \\ llh
three different tee! yield stre,se' .\lanu.J Table -t-22 provides an expanded \eN n of thi~
table for five different yield '>tre,,e.._ at a -.Jcmlcmess ratio increment oil i1.

EXAMPLE5.3 GOAL: Oetem1ine the a\ailable column strength.

Column Stre11gtlz by
GIVEN: A Wl.:!x-9 pm-endt:d column with u length of 10.0 ft. a,. ' h<r.a.n ~ F gure 5.16a. Usc
.-U SC Provisions
A992 steel.

SOLUTION Step 1: From :.tanual Table 1- 1. r, = 3.05 in. A= 23.2 in .~

Step 2: Detennine the effective s lcndemes~ ratio.
Beca u ~c the length is 10.0 fl and the column ha., ('Inn~ enJ,. KL = 10.0 nand

KL = IO.O(I:!t = j Q .3
,. .3.05
Step 3: Detem1inc which column strength equation to ux

~L =
24
Because 39.3 < 4.71/ f - = -1- - ,\ ;~~) = 11 3. use Equation 5. 10 (E3-2l.

Step 4: Detenninl! the Euler buckling stre~~-

105k.
F = ... "2<J000)
' = 0 'SI
( >9.31-
112 Chapter 5 Cornpre~'ion Member~

Step 5: Decennine the c.:ritical stress from Equation EJ-2.

Fer = 0.65S ' F = 0.658f~l"ll(50) = .W.7 ksi
Step 6: Determine the nominal c;treng.th.
P. = 4.J .7(23.2) = I040 kips

Step i: Detem1ine the design strength hlr LRFD.

<VP, = 0.11r IO.JO) = 936 kips

Step 7: Detennine tbe allowable strength lor ASD.

P, = 1040 = 623 kip~

Q 1.67

Table 5.2 R>~tinl,f Critjcal Stress-to- Yicl~ Stre-.. ...

1. .- F .,JF,. I, F riF, )., FaiF,
0.00 1.000 1.30 0.493 2.55 0.135
0.05 0.999 1.35 0.46(1 2.60 0. 130
0.10 0.996 lAO 0.440 .:!.65 0.125
0.1:' 0.991 lAS 0.41: 2.70 0.120
o.:c. 0.983 1.50 0.390 2.75 0.116
0.25 0.974 1.55 0.365 2.80 0.1 12
0..30 0.963 1.60 0.343 2.85 0. 108
0.35 0.950 1.65 0.322 2.90 0.10-+
O•..J.O 0.935 1.70 0.303 2.95 0.101
0.45 0.919 1.75 0.286 3.00 0.0974
0.50 0.90 1 1.80 0.271 3.05 0.0943
0.55 0.8HI 1.85 0.256 3.10 0.0913
0.60 ll:i60 1.90 0.243 .l15 0.0884
0.65 I.'SJ8 1.95 0.231 3 20 0.0856
0.70 ll .15 2.00 0.219 3.25 0.0830
0.75 0. - '}() 2.05 0.209 3.30 0.0805
0.80 o.- 65 2.10 0.199 :u s 0,0781
0.85 o.- 39 2. 15 0 190 3.40 0.0759
0.90 0.7 1::? 1.20 0.181 3.45 0.0737
0.95 0.685 2.25 0.173 3.50 0.07 16
1.00 0.658 2.30 0. 166 3.55 0.0696
I 05 0.630 2.35 0.159 3.60 0.0677
LIO 0.603 2.J O 0.152 3.65 0.0658
I 15 0.575 2.45 0.146 3 70 0.0641
1.20 0.547 2.50 0.140 3.75 0.0624
1.:25 0.520
 5.3 Compression Member Strength 113

Table 5.3 Critical Stress for Three Steels

F, = 36 ksi F, = 50ksi F.= LOOksi F, = 36k~i F, = SQ~,~ F,. = IOO ks1

Frr F., F.., F.., 1\, Fer
KL/r ksi ksi ksi KL/r ksi k~i ksi

0 36.0 50.0 100.0 88 23.9 28.4 32.4

2 36.0 50.0 99.9 90 23.5 27.7 3 1.0
4 36.0 49.9 99.8 92 23. 1 26.9 29.7
6 35.9 49.9 99.5 9-l 22.6 26.2 18.4
8 35.9 49.8 99.1 96 22.2 25.5 27.2
10 35.8 -19.6 98.5 98 21.7 24.& 26.1
12 35.7 49.5 97.9 100 2 1.3 2-1 I 15.1
14 35.6 49.3 97.2 102 20.8 }J.! 2-l.l
16 35.5 49. 1 96.3 104 20.4 ,.. - 2:c
18 35.4 48.!! 95.4 106 19.9 22.U ]2_~

20 35.2 48.6 94.3 108 19.5 21 ;

:!On
~ -'
12 35.1 ~.3 93.2 110 19.0
24 34.9 47.9 91.9 112 18.6 20.0 :<l 0
26 34.7 47.6 90.6 Il-l 18.2 19.3 !<~.3

18 34.5 -17.2 89.2 I 16 17.7 18.7 I' -

30 34.3 46.8 87.7 II· 17.3 18.0 1'0
32 34.1 46.4 86.1 120 11).9 17.4 1-.!
34 33.9 45.9 84.4 12 ~ 16.4 16.9 16Q
36 33.6 -15.5 82.7 J::.! 16.0 16.3 h3
38 33.-t 45.0 81.0 126 15.6 15.8 .,
-10 33.1 -14.5 79.1 12. 15.2 15.3 53
-12 32.8 43.9 77.3 130 14.8 14.9 _ Q

+1 32.5 43.4 75.3 )"l" 1-1.4 14.-1 1.! .l

-l6 32.2 42.8 73.4 J3.! 1-W 14 0 1-! .0
48 3 1.9 42.2 71.4 136 13.6 IJ.b 13.6
50 3 1.6 4 1.6 69...1 138 13.2 13.2 13.2
51 31.2 41.0 6- ' 1-10 12.8 t:?' 12.8
54 30.9 40.4 65.3 l..t2 12.4 t:: - 11.4
56 30.5 39.8 H1 1-14 12. 1 I: I 12.1
58 30.2 39.1 6 1.1 146 11.8 II 11.8
()() 29.8 38.4 59.1 148 11.5 11..5 11.5
6::! 29.4 37 7 57.0 ISO 11.2 11~ I 1.2
6-1 29.0 .<7 I 54.9 152 10.9 10.9 10.9
66 28.6 36.J 52.9 154 10.6 10.6 10.6
68 28.2 35 7 50.9 156 10.3 10.3 10.3
-o 27.8 34 y 48.8 158 10.1 10.1 10.1
-2 27.4 3-L! 46.9 160 9 l 9.81 9.81
74 27.0 ns 44.9 162 Q.)6 9.56 9.56
-6 26.6 J:!.8 13.0 164 ~ ?:t 9.33 9.33
26.1 32.0 41.1 166 t.,JJ 9.11 9.11
0 25.7 31.3 39.2 168 li 9 8.89 8.89
8::! 25.3 30.6 37.3 170 8.69 8.69 8.69
-..1 24.8 29.8 35.6 Jn SAS 8.48 8.-18
~6 24.4 29.1 33.9 17..! 8.29 8.29 8.29

rComuwed)
114 Chapter 5 Compre·sion Members

Table 5-' rCollfi11ued)

F = 36ksi F, = 50ksi F = IOOksi F,. = 36 ksi F, = 50ksi Fv = 100 ksi

Fer F,.r F,, Fer F" F,,
KL r ksi· ksi ksi KL r ksi ks i ksi
1~6 8.10 8.10 8. 10 190 6.95 6.95 6.95
1- , 7.92 7.92 7 .92 192 6.8 1 6.8 1 6.81
I r 7.75 7.75 7.75 19+ 6.67 6.67 6.67
' .. 7.58 7.58 7.58 196 6.53 6.53 6.53
l'.-1 7.41 7.41 7...1.1 198 6.40 6.40 6.40
1"6 7.26 7.26 7.'26 200 6.28 6.28 6.28
I 8 7. 10 7. 10 7.!0

EXAMPLE5.4 GOAL: Detenmne the avaiJable column -.trength.

Column Strength by
GIVEN: A\\ lfl ... -+9 column with a leng1h ot 20.0 fr. one end pinned and the other end fixed for
AJSC Provisions
the y-axis. :md both ends pinned for the x-a·m. as <;hown in Figure 5. 16b. Use A992 steel.

SOLUTION Step J: From ~lanual Table 1- 1. r, =+.35 in .. r = 1.54 in.• and A = 14.4 in. 2
Step 2: Derenn.ne the effective length tacwr' fwm Figure 5.6.
Companng the columns shown m Figure 5. 16b with those shown in Figure 5.6, the effective
length rac10rs are K,. 0.7 and K, = I.0. =
S rep 3: Derem1mc the x- and y-axis slendeme~~ ratios.
K L l.Or20.0)( 12) _
-- = =:>5.2
r, 4.35
K ,L = 0.7C2~)~0)(! 2 ) = _
66 1
1\ _.)of

r r
-.- -,-

L= 10ft \\ ~~ . - '.1 L =20 l't L= 10 ft

t L
I I H
ib )

F igure 5.16 Co lumns for Examples 5.3 and 5.4.

 5.5 L<!ngth Effect~ I 15

Step 4: Using the largest slendeme~s ratio. determine which column slrength equation to use.

KL
- = 66.1 < 4.71 -
E = 4.71 /29.000
- - =I 13. use Equauc-n 5.10 (E3-2)
/' \1 ,. , 50

Step 5: Detem1ine the Euler buckhn,!! 'm:s~.

1
(29.000)
F, = 71' (66.1 , = 65.::>- kst.
)-
Step 6: Detennine the critical stre~~ trom Equation EJ-2.
F., = 0.658'F, f,l F, = 0.6581jOJOj.5)(50) = 36.3 l,.
Step 7: Detetmine the nominal ~trength.
P,. = 36.3( 14.4) = 523 kips
S tep 8: Determine the design strength for LRFD.

<I>P, = 0.9(523) = 471 kip!>

Step 8: Determine the allowable strength for ASD.

p~ 523 .
- = - =313kips
Q 1.67

5.4 ADDITIONAL LIMIT STATES FOR COMPRESSIOK

1\vo limit states for compre'):-.ion members were discussed in Section 5 ~ :e dmg and
flexural buckling. The ·treng.tb equations provided in Specification Secti<..:n E3 .. karl) how
Lhat the upper limit for column strength. F,.Ag. is reached only forth~ rero length ~:olumn.
Thus. the provisions are pre\ented in the Specification as being for Lhe limit ,late of flex ural
buckling onl). e\en though they do consider yielding.
Singly symmetric, unsymmetric, and certain doubly symmetn... ...,embeL may also be
limited by ror~ional buckling or Oexurai-Lorsiona1 buckling. The 'treoglh provisions for
these limit tate" ure given in Section E4 of the Specification ..nd arc &.cussed later.
For ome column profi les. another limit s tate ma~ <u.:t!UII~ .:ontrol overall column
strength. The individual elements of a column c ross se:cuon ..._~ ouckle locally at a stress
below the stre!>s that would cause the overall colunm h.. budde. If lhis is the case. the
column is srud to be a column wirh slender e-lemenn. In •....er to mdude Lhe impact of these
. lender elements on colltnu1 strength, the Specification pronuc~ slender element reduction
faclOrs to be incorporated into the already defined fle\.ur.J. torsional, and flexural-torsional
buckli ne provis io ns. The additional provi sion~ for the-.e t) pes of me mbers are presented in
Section 5.6 and 5.7.

5.5 LENGTH EFFECTS

The effective lengths that have alread) been d1'cusscd were a ll related to fairly simple
columns with easily defined end condition' and braciJlg locations. Once a column is rec-
ognized as being a part of a real structure. derem1ining the effective lenglh becomes more
116 Chapter 5 Compres~ton :vtembers

TABLE C.C2.2
Approximate Values of Effective Length Factor, K
(f)

.' ' ' ' ..' '.

Buckled shape of column is (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
shown by dashed line.

·'~,I
~',.
,
•~-·,.1
I
14.',.
\ I
p
I
.,.
~-·
I
I
I
,
\ I
I
I

'
I
I
\
,
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
I '' I
I
I I I
, I
I

,
I f

,
I I I

,,I , f

,,
I I I f
I f

''
I

'
I I
,
I I
,

..,.
I
'' '' I I

.
I I

'
..t"' . t "t "'r
Theoretical Kvalue 0.5 0.7 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0
Recommended design
value when ideal conditions 0.65 0.80 1.2 1.0 2.10 2.0
are approximated
End condition code
T Rotation fixed and translation fixed

1.,. Rotation free and translation fixed

Rotation fixed and translation free
y Rotation free and translation free

Figure 5.1 i \'al ues of Effective Length Fac to r. K . Copyright © American Institute of Steel
C"""tru..-uon. lnc. Repri.nted wjth Permission. All rights reserved.

in,ol\ed. Moreover, for more complex stntctures. it might be simpler to determine the
bur:...ling mength of the structw·e through analysis. Using lhat analy i ·.the elastic buckling
stress 01 the individual columns. Fe , can be determined. This can then be used diTectly
in the column strength equations. However, for this book. column elastic buckling is de-
tennined through a calculation of effective length. This approach may incol"porate some
simplification'- that would not be made in an actual buckling analysis.
A fi rst attempt at incorporating some realistic aspects of strucrures is shown in Table
C-C2.2 of the Commentary and here as Figure 5.17. The columns shown in this figure are the
same as those "hO\\ n in Figure 5.6. and the same K-factors are shown again and identified
here a<; the theoretical K-values. What is new here is the presentation of recommended
design value \\ben ideal conditions are approximated. Most of the e recommended values
are based on the fact lhat perfect!y rigid connections are difficult to obtain. Thus. for example,
a fixed end column 1ca'e al would have a theoretical K = 0.5 but if the end connections
were to actually rorare. eYen ju<>t a small amount. the effective lenglh would increase. As the
end rotatio.n increases toward what would occur for a pin-end column. K would approach
1.0. Thus, the recommended \'alue of K i ~ 0.65. A similar asses menr of tbe other cases
-;hould lead to a similar under tanding of the idea behind these recommended values.
When a column i.e:; part of a frame, as shown in Figure 5.1 8, the stiffness of the members
framing into the column impact the rotation that could occur at the column ends. As wilh
the rigid supports discussed for lhe columns in Figure 5.17. these end conditions permit the
column end to rotate. This rotation is something berween the zero rotation of a fixed support
and the free rotation of a pjn support. W11en tbe column under consideration is patt of a frame
 5.5 Length Et'fects 117

- -,-

A
8

z ;-- --:-L-- 0. 7;-'7},:'l7

1- - - - ~ @ 24 t't - - - -
Figure 5.18 A Typical \ I em f:-:une.

\\here the ends of rhe column are 1101 permjned to displace laterall~ relaU\ e 10 ea~h orher.
the frame i!> called a braced jrt111'c a sidesway prel'ented.frann. or a 11d~·...- ... Ill• ,bired
frame. This is shown as cases a. 1:>. anJ d in Figure 5.1 7. For a c:olumn in a bra.. ~d :"mme.
the possible K -factors range from l ~ 10 1.0. ln frames of thil> I) pe. K is often t:u.:en :1' I 0.
a conservative e~pproximation that qmphfies design. When rhe column under con...tderation
is in a frame in which the end' are pennllted Lo move laterally. the frame is called .t mon:,m
frame. an unbraced frame. a .\Idem rr pt!m urred fmme, or a siclesway llllinhibiit·J frumt.
This is shown as cases c. e. and f tn Ft.;ure 5.l7. For the three cases shown here. the lm•e..t
value of K i:. 1.0. The other eAtreme c ...e. not shown in Figure 5 . 17. is a pin-ended column
in an unbraced frame. The e ffe~..uw ler~"th of this column would theoretical!~ '- 1"\iirute.
Thus, the range of K- val uc~ for column' in moment frames ranges from 1.0 to mfinn:.
The determination of reh._bk ett ~·u'e kng1h factors is a critical a' recr of ... 1bmn
design. Several approache, arc pre":ntec..l m the literature but the mo't ... mmc" ~ u~eu
approach is through the alignment ~·hart!. prescmed in the Commcntru: The de\t:,~.,pment
of these chans is ba\ed on a ' t't of a''umption~ that are often violated r~.::l ..tiUcrnres:
nevenheless. the alignment \.h,m, are u ~ed extensively and often mod.re m n.n ~mempt 10
account for variations from the..e assumptions.
These as-.umptton... a ... gt\·en in the Commentary, are:
I. Beha\ tor i" pure!) clastic.
2. All member, ha\ e a constant cross section.
J. .-\II JOint' arc ngid.
4. For column' in frames with sidesway inhibited. rotauon.. .u opposite ends of the
re,traaning beams are equal in magnirude and opp- ••re m darecrion, producing single
cun·ature bending.
5. For columns in frame' with ide way unmhibJtl!'d. .O."lt..tuons at opposite ends of the
restraining beams rue equal in magnitude anJdtrectit"ln. producing reverse curvature
bendi ng.
6. The ...tiffness param eter L J Pf£1 of al] .. , ' umn.. , ... equa l.
7. Joinl restraint i!. distributed to Ihe column Jbovc and below the joint in proportion
to EIIL for the two columns.
8. A ll column buckle simultaneuu... l~ .
9. No significant axial compres~tl)ll force exi ts in the girders.
118 Chupter • Compre--~10n Member-,

Using these ac:sumptions, the following equation can be obtained for columns 111
<;Jdesway inhibited frames.

G ,G s
- -(r.
I r.,, l~ - ( G 1 + G n ) ( 1 - TiIK )
+ 2 tan (Ti/ 2 K) - L= 0 (5. 14)
4 1 tan Cr./ K) (Tr/ K >
For l>idCl>Wtl) uninhibited framel>. the foJ11.1\\ ing equation is obrainecl.

GAG n('IT/ K )2 - 36 (Tr/K) = O

(5. 15)
6(G.-t + Gsl tru1 {-rr/ K)

Ln Equation' 5.1..1 and 5. 15. the temb G 1 ilnd G 8 relate to the relative stiffness of the
columns and beam" framing into the column at ends A Ulld B. rcl>pecti\'ely. as given by

G = 'LIEI/L)c (5. 16)

'L!El!L>'~

] f the beam' and c-olw1ms behave ela. ticall~ . <~'> noted in assumption l , this reduces LO

G = _'L_ci_L~l, (5. 17 )
Ee l L l~

Equation'' I~ .1nd 5. 15 arc transcendental equmions that do not have a closed forrn solution.
\\'ith 10da~ ·, ~omputer methods readil~ :.\\'ailable. iterative solutions are easily obtained.
Hm\t'\~f. tha· \\lb not always the ca'e and a graphical solution was developed in the
earl~ 1960-. thar has become a srandard approach for obtainiJlg solutions. These hrraphical
,, ..uon ... arc called nomogrt~phs or alignment charts. Figure 5.19 shows !he nomograph for
. . ;.:c...\l.u~ inhibited frames and Figure 5 .20 gi\'c!"- rhe chart for sidec;way uninhibited fr.tmes.

G~ K
,~
5l,= 1.0
10 o-i
~ s.:
3 .0-< 0.9
2.0

0.8
6:8
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

02

Figure 5.19 Alig nment Chan for a

0.1
Braced Frame (Sidesway [nhibited).
Copyright © American Institute of Steel
0.0 0.5 Construction. Inc. Reprinred with
Permission. All right$ reserved.
 55 Length EffectS 119

GA Gs
..
100.0
..,
100.0
50.0 50.0
30.0 30.0
20.0 20.0

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
7.0 7.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4 .0 4.0

3 .0 3.0

2.0 2.0

F ig u n : 5.2(1 Alignment Ch~""t 1 : :m

1.0 1.0
Unbrm:ed Frame cSide~".s
Uninhibited). Copynght .....~m~n- n
ln~Li!ULe of Steel Con~tru~uon t~

0.0 0.0 Reprinted with Permi~ion. All • ;ht'

reserved.

Approximate solutions to Equnuon~ 5.1 ~ nnd 5.15 have also been pre,ented ir Je,t;n
rules and the literature. The Fren~h ha\e u'ed the following equation in their Je:oigr rule.;,
since 1966.
For sideswn.y inhibited

K= .~G 1Gn + 1.4(Gt~ + Go)+ 0.64

(5.18)
3G. 1 Go + 2(GA +Go)+ 1.28

For sidesway uninhihited

1.6G ;\ G 8+ 4(G A + G8) T - 5

(5.19)
K=
GA +Go +7.5

These approximate equaLions are said to be accurate '' ith n 2 For design this should
cn.sily ~ield results as accurate as reading a value from !he .ll1g:nmem charts.
For !he special case where G A = G 8 , even simpl<!r equauon' can be expressed.
For sidesway inhibited

G -O.J
K= - - - (5.20)
G-0..

For sidesway uninhjbited

K = , O.SG ...,... 1.0 (5.21)

Equations 5.20 and 5.21 might be particular!) useful for preliminary design.
120 Chapter 5 Compr.:'''''" \llember'

EXA:\lPLE 5.5 GOAL: Detenmnc: rhe column cffecthe length using (I) the alignment chart and (2) Equation 5.19.
Column Effective
G 1\ E:\': The column AB in a moment frame i<. hown in Figure 5.21. Assume that the column ha
Length
'' \\eak uxt• 10 the pl01ne of the frame.

sou. T/0.\' P..1rt a:

'-tep J: Detenmne mcmberpropenie. from \lunual Table 1-1.
endA . \\' 16 x 36: l~~r = 448 in."'
W!O X 88; fa =53~in.
1

end B \\"16' 77: 111_, = IJ 10in.4

WJO x 88: /.._. = 534 in.1
Step 2: D.:r..::rmme tht' ,tiff'ness ratios at euch end

= 2.04

t"p J: ...e the alignment chan s hown in hgure .5.20 for a '>ide''' a~ uninhibited frame. Enter G 11
..md G 8 on the appropriate scaJcl. and con~truct 01 "traight hne bet\\ ec:n them. as shown in
ftgure 5.22. The intersection with rhe scale fnr K gi'e' the dfecll\e length factor. in this
ca-e.
K = 1.-l:!

lA 11'16>< 36
L= :..1 'I
--,-

8 7 @ 14ft
1\"101' ~

l
L = 14 II

--- "/ ~77; /,~ -7

8 11'16 )( -~
- - - - 4@2411 - - --
L=24 ft

Figure 5.21 Multistory Frame for Example 5.5.

 5.5 Length Effect~ 121

K Ga
co 00

100.0 100.0
50.0 50.0
30.0 30.0
20.0 20.0

10.0 10.0
8.0 8.0
7.0 7.0
6.0 6.0
5.0 5.0
4.0 4.0

3.0 3.0

2.0 2.0

1.0
Figure 5.21 Ahgnm.:nt C'l:~.n f, r
£\ample 5 .5. Copyright Z .A!Th!nc:m
In titutl! of Steel CoiNrulnun. Irr..
0.0 Reprinted with PermiJ.,IOn. All n;h•'
n::.erved.

Part b:
Step -1: Detem11ne K using the ,lUTnc,, I:.lllo, , G 1 and G s. determined m par. J v • ., .: :tnd
Equation 5. 19.

K 1.6! 2.0-1)(0.825) + 4(2.04 + 0.825) + 7:. - I .,.

= \ 2.0-H 0.825 + 7.5 - --

5.5.1 Effective Length for Inelastic Columns

The as umption of elastk behavior for all member<. of a fr;m,c t\ regularly violated. We
have alrea<.ly seen the role that residual stres cs pia: m d.::t::!TliT'tng column strength through
inela.,Lic behavior. Thus. it is useful to accommodate Lhh nela... tic behavior in the determi-
nation of K-factors. The assumption of elastic beha "'- ' mponant in the calculation of G
as the simplific:•tion is made to move from Equ;llt0n ' 16 to Equation 5.17. Rerurning to
Equation 5.16 and assuming lhat lhe modulu' o ~ ..-.uut} for all columns framing imo a
joint have the same value and are equal to the l.mJ;ent moJulus, Er. Lhe definition of G for
inelasLic behavior becomes

(5.22)
122 Chapter 5 Compre~~ton Me mbers

If G for clastic beha\ ior is taken a'i G rt,.,;,. then G ;,tda.1tlr can be formulated as

C illl•ltllllt = ( i) C eltllll<' (5.23)

Thu,. the impact ol tnduding inela:.tic column behavior simply re ults in a modification
vf C. Tht: rauo ol tangem modulu~ to elastic modulus is always less than one so the actual
impact of a~-..uming elastic behavior for thi.., application is a conservative one, as can be seen
b~ entering the nomograph with lower C-\ alues and determining a corresponding K-factor.
Beton! a -..rrai_ghtlor\\ard approach to include inelastic effects on effective length can be
pr'-•!Xhed. the re .lllnn,hip between the tangent modulus and the ela~lic modulu must be
e,tJ.bll'·hec..!.
The Ct1mmentJr~ provides the followmg two definitions for the inelastic stiffness
redU\.lJlnf..t... lOr.• = Er f E:
uP P s0.39

.." = 1.0
and if Pr: P > O..W

T 11 = -::!.724( Pn
P,
)In( p")
P,.
''here P I' 1Jle .:olumn nominal -..rrength and P is the yield strength. Because the column
etfect•\ c length I ' required to determine rhe nominal strength and T 11 is required to determine
the ettecme 1en,gth. determining the inel<t~ uc effective length becomes an ilerative process.
Til.~I.: ~ .! pr ''ides the inelastic sti ffne~ reduction factor based on the Commentary equation.
Thi-. J,... li.U to Manual Table ~-21 m '' h1ch the stiffness reduction factor is based on the
!l\';ul~o' -.trength of t11e column.
AnPther approach to determining the inelastic stiffness reduction factor is through lhe
<.:olcml" 'trength equations already discus ed. Elastic buckling strength is obtained through
E.qum 110 5.11. Ifthi:-.equation were to be u ed in the inela~tic buckling region ofrhecolumn
beh... Jr. the resulting c;rrength prediction would be correct if the column were behaving
ela-.n~. II~. thu . . using E in the inelastic region. The strength of the col umn in the inelastic

Table ~A ~ B..t<eJ nn Commentary Equation

P,IP, 1',

1.00 0.000
0.95 0.133
0.90 0.258
0.85 0.376
0.80 0.486
0.75 0.5~S
0.70 0.(>~()

0.65 0 "63
0.60 0 ...35
055 O.'iYn
0.50 0.9-+-l
U.-15 0.979
0..10 0.9YS
0.39 1.000
 5.5 Length Effcn~ 123

Table 5.5 • , Based on Critical Strc'' E:.quaLiom.

). T,,
Tu
'·
0.00 0.00 {) \0 0.558
0.05 0.00285 (J.i\5 0.609
0. 10 (),0 114 I) 90 0.658
0.15 0.0254 O.IJ:'i 0.705
0.:!0 0.0449 I.Oil 0.750
0.25 0.0(>94 I 05 0.792
0.30 0.0988 1.10 0.83 1
0.35 o.1:n 1.15 0.~67
0.-10 0.171 1.:0 0.899
0.45 0.212 I.::; 0.926
0.50 ().257 1 ;o 0.950
0.5:'i 0.304 I •' 0.1)69
0.60 0.353 I JO 0.984
0.65 0.404 1 ..5 0.99-1
0.70 0.455 1.5!1 !.()()()
0.75 0.507

re~ion. determined from Equation ~.10. b the l>trengtb that rcloul~ becau'~ f m~L,ti-.:
buckling. that i!\, buckling u~ing th" •..ngent modulus. Er. Thu~. the ratio ot Equ.:1UO& 5 10
to Equation 5.11 will yield E 1JE '" 1hat
Er (0.658FdF.,)F"
' " =E- = 0.877F..
The results of' thic, approach Jrt: pr"'emed 10 Table 5.5 all a fum.:ti~"" of lh. , ende!'l'e"
parameter. A.,.• The u!.e of either Table :5,..1. or 55 assumes that the column l ' d ...l.l to tt'
full availabhe strength. [fit i' not. there ic, le-.s nr a reduction in both the tntl~u;:- ,II finest'
reduction factor und lhe effeCII\e length.

EXAMPLES.6 GOAL: Determine the meJ.t,tiL cnlumn effective length using the .,IJ;nm:;::n -~ "'
Inelastic Column
GIVEN: Detenmne the inelastic effective length factor for the colt mn m E\:tmph: 5.5. Usc Equu-
Effective Length uon 5 llJ tf the \.:olumn hw. an LRfJ) required l>trcngth of P11 = 950 ~ and J.n A::.D n.:yuircd strength
nl P == 633 ktp• l 'e NJ92 steel.

SOLUTION Stt>p 1: From Munual Table 1-1. for a WI Ox88 A = ::!5 <J 1- d rr m I:..,ample 5.5. the elasttc
~ti f'f'n~~~ rutio~ are G 1 = 2.0-1 and G IJ = 0.8::!5.

Fur LRFD
Step 2: Deut:nnine the requtrcd ~tre~~ based on 1h, requtred 'treng.th.

P,. = 950 =36.-k-i

A 2:' '
Step 3: Dctennine the stiffness rcductwn TJ.:1 r Jrom \lanual Tabk 4-21. interpolating between
36 and 37 k.\t.
 Step .J: Determine the inelastic stiffncs~ ratio' by multiplying the elu~tic \tiffness ratios by the
stiiTnc'' reduction faclOr.
G, 1 = 0 +5::!!2 041 = 0.922
G,s = 0 ~5::!(().!<251 = 0.373
Step 5: Dctc:rmin.- ;.; fmm F.quatitm 5 IQ

_ / 1.6(0.9?.'2H0 .'73\ 1-4(0.922 + 0.373) - 7.S _

K \ - J._73
O.Y'Y.::! + 0.:\73 ..L 7.5

For \ SD
Step 2: Octcnnine th~:: required l.trel.~ b:tSt."J on the rcqutred strength.
6~3
P,,
- = ~- t
A _;:,,9
= 24.4 kst.
Step 3: lkternin... the sun·ncs-. reduction fullor from Manual Table 4-21. inrcrpolating between
~..: ru: :5 k--i.

' = 0..!54
"tep ": Detenr1ine the inclustic stiiTnes~ ratiu' hy multiplying the elastic stiffness ratios by the
'li:ln~ '~ reduction fuctor.

c.~ = o.-+5-1(2.04> = o.n6

G 111 = 0.454(tt825) = 0.375

...,lt:JJ :.: Detennine K fmm Equation 5. J9.

/ 1.6(0.9:!6)(0.375) + 4(0.926 + 0.375) + 7.5 23

K -\1 =1.
0.926 + 0.375 + 7.5

5.6 SLE'\D£R ELE~IENTS IN CO~lPRESSION

A<. mentioned m s~.:t on 5.-l the column.' di,cu<;sed thu<; far are controlled by overall
column buckling. For' 'IllC ,.hnpcs. another form of buckling may actually control column
~trength: local buckling PI tlw t:lements th<ll compose the column shttpc. Whether the shape
j, rolled or bu ilt-up. 11 ~an be tlwught of a~ being composed of a group of interconnected
plate<.. Depending on hO\\ the'c plate~ are '\Upported by each other. they could buckle at a
,tre" hdo\\ t.he critical bud 'mg ... tre'" ot the O\crall column. Thi is local buckling and is
de,~ribed through a platt: c.nth.•r nu~..klmg t::I.JUation similar lO the Euler buckling equation
IN .:ohtmn,. Tbe critical bu~..klin~ 'Lre!>' ior an ,1\ially loaded plate is

kTr~ L
F. ' = -,-21-l--j.J.-,-)(-~-,)--=-1
(5.24)
 5.6 Slender Elemen~ m Compression 125

Strain hardenmg

I
I
I
I
I
I
I I '
I

l bucklin~ I
lnei;Nl~

-------r·I--------4------:+---------~~
1
' F _ f<-1r2E
Fp
I I 1"',. .., - 12( I _ J.l 2) (!!)!
•
I I I ' ...
I

:I I
: I
:I
...........
,,
',,,t- p,.,,t·l:c:
: I ~ ' '.... ,f~t!-th
1 I I I -
: I I :

h;

Figure 5.23 Plate Strenglh in Compre"ion.

where k is a consmnt thar depend<. on the plate loading. edge LondtiiOn'>..md ::>"-=-th-to-
"idth ratio; J.1. is Poisson 's rauo: and hIr is the width perpendicular to the! o ....-e '-tOn
force/thickness ratio of the plate. Tht: width/thickness ratio ,.., caUed the pltu, sle ~ ~· ~ fS
<md functions similarly to the column ~lendemess.
As with overall column buclltng. an i11elastic transition exists between eta~t~ .. · uck-
Ling and element yielding. This tran,ttion is due to the existence of re idual ... tre:.'-e' :md
imperfections in tJ1e element ju-..t d' t \\as for overall column buckling. and re ... ult' m the
inelastic portion of tbe curve ,hO\\ n tn Figure 5.23. rn addjtion. for plare... " )V. ;, • rr
ratios, strain hardening plays a cnttcal rnle in their behavior and plates \\ tth J.rge b : ::ano.,
have significant postbuckling stren,;th
To insure that local buckling\\ til nor ~:ontrol column strength. the Cntll. .l) plare bucl..lmg
stress for local buckling should be ltmitcd to the critical buckling stre,.. I " f 0\ e;all column
buckling. This approach would re,ult in a different minimum plate slende~c:" \ alue ·or each
corresponding column :slendeme..;-, value. a situation thaL would undul~ .. ~ ~ ...,re column
design with little value added tn the process. Thus. Ll1e developmeru Oi t .. Specirlcatjon
provisions stam b) finiling J plate slcndemess that set the pi are bu. Um= ,tre~~.. equal to
the column yield :-.tres.... Equation 5.24 then becomes

"
-=
12( I - f.1..2)F,
Taking ..,. = 0.3. the standard value for steel. this plate .,Je'ldeme .., beL.omcs
~, = 0.95 yr
{kE
which i shown as point 0 in Figure 5.23. Thi' potr' j , ''ell above lhe inelastic buckling
curve. Ln order to obtain a b/r that would bnng rre tntla..tic buckling stress closer to the
)ield stress. a somewhat arbitrary s leodeme~' ' rnu ., raken as 0.7 times the Limit that
corresponds to the column yield stress. \\htch ~1'e'

h kE
- = 0665 -
r \' F,.
This is indicated as point D in Figure.- 23.
126 Chapter 5 Compre~sion Members

Table 5.6 Apparent Plate Buckling Coef1kient and Element Slenderness

Case k ),,

J Unifonn compression in flanges of blr 0.7 1 0.56J E/F,. [-ht'""'

rolled J-,haped sections. plates

I
projecting from rolled !-shaped
sections: outstanding legs of
pairs or angles in continuous
contact and flanges of chan neb

0.46
5 Uniform .:ompression in legs of
single angles, legs of double
bit 0.45 JEjF,
r-br
angle., \\ith separators, and all
other un riffened elementS ~r
8 L'ruform compression in srems dlr 1.27 0.75 .jliiF:

10
of Tee,

Cmfom1 compression in webs of hit... 5.0 1.49/lfiF;

lCJ
3E
doubl~ sy mmetric 1-shaped
:.ecrion~
_l ..

12 L' mform compression in flanges of bit 4.43 ~I

1.40J EjF,
rectangular box and hollow

u
strucwral sections of uniform
Lbickness subject to bending or
compression; ftangc cover plates
and diaphragm plates between
Ii nes of fasteners or welds

Table 5.6 shows the li miring width/Lhjckness ratios as A., for several clements i11 uniform
compres 100 taken f rom Table B4J of tbe Specification, and the apparent plate buckung
coefficient used to obtrun these values.
For W-,hape:- '' ith F_,.=50 ksi, the flange slenderness limit is ArJ = 13.5 and all shapes
have a flange .;Jendernes<; less than this limit. For webs, An,· = 35.9 and many available
shapes exceed thi!> limit and are classified as slender.
Design of slender element compression members follows the same requirements as
those for compression members without slender elements with one modification. To account
for slender e lement beh.l\ior. the yield stres$ Ln the column equations must be modified by
the sle1tder element reduction factor. Q. The provisions for slender eleme nt compression
members are given in Secuo n E7 of the Specificati.on. These provisions cover slender
stiffened (web) and un tiffened l ftange ) elements as well as members with both types of
"lender elements. To account for both rype'\ of elements. Q = Q 0 Q., . where Qa accountS
for stiffened elements and Q, accounts for unstiffened elements. Because all W-shapes have
non lender flanges, only the requirements for slender stiffened elemenrs are discussed here.
The reduction factor for slender stiffened dements is obtained from
Q - A ~J!
a - A
 5.6 Slender ElemenL~ to Compression 127

where
A = total cross- ectlon area
A rl/ =summation of the effective areas of the eros!> section ba ed on a reduced effecrive
width
For slender elemems of~ _,hapes. A .,JJ = bel with:

£ [ 0.34 {E
v., =l.92t\! 1-<b!n¥!
J~b(E1-I -, (5.25)

where f is taken as Fa calculated with Q = 1.0. A conservative apprro~h would be lo

take f =F). Manual Table. 4-1 and 6-1 already account for the redu~ uo.- 'l ~trengrh for
!>lender element so the need l<' mal..e lhis simplification is reduced 1 ~ -h.:pe .. .1' ailable in
the Manual tables.

EXAMPLE 5.7 GOAL: Derennine the availabl~ 'lrengtb of a compression member\\ tth a 'lt''lJcr we
Strength of Column
with Sl~nder Elements
GIVEN: Us-e a W 16x 26 as a ~.-olumn with KL, = 5.0 ft.
Note: This shape will be shO\\ n to h.• e a slender web. It is the mo~t 'knder "eb \\ --11:~pe \ 3.ilable
anu is not nom1ally used as a column
SOLUTION Step 1: From Manual Table 1-1.
A= - .6 m '-. hit~ = 56.8, '" = 0.250 in.•
and r, = l.l2 in.
Step 2: Determine the web ~lend~:m.:'~ It mit from Tuble 5.6, case I0 (Specific(ltJOn T;~b!e B.! II.

i ..., = I .!.9 \ £F = 1.49 ----so- = 35.9

/ 29.000

Step 3: Check the slcndeme'' ot the \\ eb.

),,., = 35.9 < -
"=
1.,
56.8

l1m1>. the ,hape ha~ a 'h:nder web. It ha.'i already been e~tabh~be.:i Uu: !ill \\ -... hapes have
non~lenuer flange,.

Step-': Determme rhe Euler budding stress. F,.. for KL = 5.0 ft.
F = -rr2(29,000) = 99.- J.,1
2
• (5(12))
T.l2
StepS: D<!termrne F,, with Q = 1.0.
Because F, = 99.7 ksi > 0.44F, = 0.44(50) = ~~ ' ,,_u,e Equation E3-2.
( II "'' )
f = F., = 0.658 ~ ((I 0 :'0) = 40.5 ksi
Step 6: Determine the effecuve width of the web.

b, = 1.92(0.250) V[i9.QOO
~ ~I -
r _
56 8
.3-l
40:5 ] = 1o.8 .tn .
y{19JSOO
Step 7: Determine the effective v.eb width.
The width of the web plate ts gth:n b~ h. However, a value of h b not specificall)
available tn rhe Manual so. \\ith h r = 56.8 and 1., = 0.250. h can be determined as
ft = 56.8(0.250) = 14.2 in.
128 Chapter 5 Compre" oo \lemb<:l'

.:iep 8: Determine the effective area.

Becauq• h < II. use b, to determine .-\,tt. To properly account for the fillets mthe web-
flange jundllln. the area of the inefk.:U1c web is deducted from the gro~s area of the ~hape.
lhll'
.-\ = f\ - (/1- b,Jf, = ""'.68- ( 1-1.2- 10.8)(0.250) = 6.!\3 in.~

~ tep 9: Det<!mline the ,(,:nder element rcJu~·t•''n fac tor.

"' 6.S3
Q = -4- = 7.68 = 0.889
tep 9: Determine.' the .:ontrolling column equuuon using QF,. in place ofF .
1
F = ;; (29 ,000)
, = 9~
- •
!..'1 > Cl..J4Q/·, =0.44(0.889)(5(ll = h.61..st
11 •

5(12))-
( T.IT
EJU..UOO El-2 i~ to be used.
Step 10: lA ennme \.1e ..:nticnl su-ess u~ing Equation E3-2.

F.r = 0.6:\S ....:._,...._ )110.889)50) = 36.9 kst

:\oto:: Th;_, ..:nucal srre:.s is 10\'ver than the -:nt••·ul ~trc~s determined with Q = 1.0. showing
thatth~ ~lenJer element does impaLt th~ cornprl!~'l''e Mrength.

Step I J: Detc:·rmm~ .he nominal column 'trl!ngth.

Pn = 36.41 - 6, I = 283 kip~

for LRfD
~~~p 1::!: Determine the de ign strength for lht' 'knder \\eb column'' ith Kl = 5.0 rt

<II P, == 0.912!>3t = 255 k1p~

ForASD
Step 12: Determine the dc~1gn strength for this slender web column with f.. L = :'.0 ft

P,, 283 .
-
Q
=-
1.67
= 169k1pS

5.7 COLL')l~ DE IGN TABLES

A review or lhe column equation'. E.'-:! and E3-3. shows that the onl~ factor other than
<,hape geometry and mnt~n al ~trength Ill tnftuence the detem1ination o f column strength
j-, 1he effective slendernc:.~. Therefor\!. tt h convenient to tabulate column strength as a
funcuon of ~lendemess. Pan 4 of the \ lanual contain<. tables for W-. HP-. and HSS--;hapes
and ,e,eral ingly symmeuic ~hape-.. Figure 5.2-1 ">hows a sample of Manual Table +I
for o;e1eral W 1-+ sections. As with all of the a' ail able -.trcngth tab lee; in the Manual. both
al1owable c;trcngth. ASD. and design ~lrength . LRFD. values are given.
 5.7 Column D~sign Table~ 129

Table 4-1 (continued)

Available Strength in
FY ;; 50 ksi
Axial Compression, kips.
W14 W Shapes

Shape W14x
Wt/ft 82 74 68 61 53 .;a 43'
P/0, OcPn P/f.lc. ''cl n Pn/Qc o,Pn P/ilc 41cPn P/Q, C!!,Pn P,.~•• ;?. P.ln,l Q,Pn
Design
ASD LRFD ASD JL ... ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASO Lkh. ASD F..~ ASD LRFD
0
6
720 10130 652 I 1598 899 536 806 467
--
.:2" ''"" --
-~.
- 2
677 1'1' 613 562 e~. 504 421 381 ~ 511
........
c:
£l
!!!
7
8
9
662 gos
645 970
627 94.. 568
:j 549
535
520
B2•
804
7 81
492
480
465
1\.
7(1
700
406
389
371
- 368
352
335
-
3T-
3-3
2S3-
4;J
.:-o
""'
= 10 607 2 549 503 75• 450 bT 351 n 31r .. w
0 11 585 880 530 I- 485 728 434 651
·-. 2E.:! -
2'- -
331 299
"'
.2
-=...."' 12
13
563 B-\6 510
539 10 488 '
466
.:~6
700
67
417
399
62
3
.
310
288
279
260 -·23~
1i)
"'
.!!
14
15
515 7il 466
490 -36 444 1
. ~25
~
63~
608
380
362 'i4
267
246 6~
240
221
2".
195
.9
g 16
17
465 I
439
"'
421 383
362
57b
5<11
342
323
I
.:,. 225
205 10
!a 202
184 .• liS
16i
.-
Q.

e 18 413 621 374 398 1 3-!!J 51< 304 457 185 71:1 166 1.!5
-= 19 388 'l81 351 319 480 285 -128 166 ?SO 149 1~~
i 20 363 41'\ 329 .3! 298 ~ 266 !)
,.....
150 ?:!fi 135 .,8 -
g
~
22
24
314 ('I

268 IOJ 243

285
- 258
219
230
195
34
29J 1lJ,
1u
157
111
93.5 ..- ~-2
g,-
s-=
26 228
_, 88.8 79.6
)~
(
207 187 ~ 166 1 63~

j
28 197 !m 178 161 143
, 76.6 ss - 50.0 :
30 172 58 155 ... 1140 125 8' 66.7 llo l sa_s l•. sz.s -;;r
"'
>
t; 32 151 z- m 123 pt: 110 lb 58.6 ' 11 I I
34 134 - 109 I 97.1
..."'
:1:
36 119 I
l 1121
108 l - 97.4 •'h 86.6
llll
)\I

38 107 96.8 l lf 87.4 m 77.7 117

40 965
l
5 87.4 1 789 j 70.2 105 I
Properties
PwolklpS\ 1123 I 11 · 103 1;i;J 90.7 116 77.3 11G n· ,.-. 6i2 57.0 a5.5
p)l. (kipSiiO 17.0 2 15.0 13.8 21)
~

12.5 p 12_3 11..3 10.2 15..;

P.,0 tklpsJ 201
20R
.. 138
£
.!l 108
173 97.0 146
79.9 7tH
~ 596 43.0 b4fi
52.6 7 9.0
P1n (kiPSl 1 137

8.76
115
8.76 8.69
77.8 !i.~
86..'i
• 166.2
a;-:. 6.75
" 6.68
Lf! tltl
L Itt I 331 31.0 29.3 27 5 222 211 20.0
A9 un ZJ 24.0 21.8 20.0 , - :t ·s s 141 12.6
I, (tn. 4l 881 795 722 &!(I 541 484 428
1 (In ~I
1
148 134 121 ·o- 5i.7 51 .4 45.2
~ (ln.l 2.48 2.48 2.46 : !5 1.92 1.91 189
~aho r I~ 2.44 2.44 2.44 --
?" 3.07 3.06 3.08
P,,(KL1)tfo4 (k·ln 21 25200 22800 20700 '8300 15500 13900 12300
P""(KLZ)/10' (k-ln.2) 4240 3840 3460 ~.&) 1650 1470 1290
ASD LRFD 1Shapo as slender for~ v. ·n F. so ksl.
Note: Heavy line 101hta:e5 • eqca 10 or grea1er than 200.
n,= 1.67 ~ = 0 911

F igure 5.24 Available Strength 111 t\>.wl Compre,,Hln Copyright © American Institute o l Steel
Con\truction, Inc. Reprinlt:d with Pem11''100 •.l,IJ nl!hl~ re~crved.
 The valuec; in thl:,~ r:olumn tahle" are ha.,cd on the assumption that the column will
bud,\1.! about it' ''eaJ.. ax b. For all W-sllupc~. thi~ i ~ the y-axi'> so the values in the table!.
..ll'l! given in tenn' PI the effecti\ e length with rr.:!spect to the least radius of gyration. r 1.•
Thetr u-,e i~ quite ,tr.ti~ht forward when the l. nucal buckling length jc; about this axis. An
appma~h that pemm ... the of these table' ''hen the -;rroog a.x.i control.; will be addressed
foliO\\ ing the ex.ample.

£XA \lPLE 5.8a

C..O \L: Dctenw ne tlw lea~t weight \ccn~m tn curry the load~ given using tht: limited selection
Column Desigu avad<thh: in hgure ~ :'.!
h_; LRFD
G J\ E!\: The ~olumn '' sho" n in Figur<: "~:"a . It mu~t resist the foliO\\ 111g loads in the appro-
[lri.tte comhmauon- I'D - 'i(1 J..tp:.. Pt = ,-~ J...tp' and P11 = I I0 kips. U!>e A992 steeL Assume
the ll\'e load ~·om~• from a dtstrthuted IMd 1.:-,, than I00 psf ~o that the LRFD load factor on live
loud 111<1) l:lc: talicr. .!~ n :; for load combinalll•n -1.

S OLUTI ON Step I: D~t.:nrun.: he: mnximum reqmr.:J •Lr<:'n~th u~i ng the LRFD load combination~ from
Sccuon 2...!
=
I . J.!P = I ·1!561 78A J...iD,
2. I =
:p - I 6rL 1.:!!561- 1.6( 17:! = 34:! kips
~. I :p -0.5?1 +I 6P11 = 1.:(561- 0 :iti71J + 1.6( II OJ= 329 kips
6. 09P ..... I 6P11 =
0.9<561- l ,hl II01 :!:!6 kips =
'"the, 1lumn must..:arry P,. = 3-l.:! kit"·
"-t~p ~: Tht ~ umn has the same effcCU\(' length Jbout the x- and .r·axcs so enter the table in
ft.; ·.: '\.24 \\ ith I<.L = 18ft. Scanmng .u:nM the table aL KL = 18 ft and checking the
LRFD ,aJues. ,cJcctthc le!bt we1g_ht 'hap~:; tn th" portion of the t<.~ble that can support
thb loatl.

Sclct'l a Wl-+x6 1 with a Jl!'l£11 comprc"ion , trength

tbP = 457 kips

-,- -
-,- Ill II

I
IN ft flirt J(Jft

l- ==:J c=:
10 II

-'-- _,_

1.11
Figure 5.25 Column~ for
11:11 Ex:~mples 5.8 and 5 .9.
 5.7 Column De~ign Table~ 131

EXAMPLE 5.8b
Columu Design GOAL: Detennjne Lhe least weight :-ection to carry the loads given using the limited selection
available through Figure 5.24.
byASD
GIVEN: The column is shown in Figure 5.25a. h must rcsi.!>lthe follo,,mg l.,..d~ in lhe appro-
priare combmations: P0 = 56 kips. PL = 172 kips. and P~ = II 0 kips. lise A-19:! steel.

Step 1: Dctennine Lhe maximum required strength using the ASD load ...crrbinations from
Section 2.4:
I. Po =56 kips
2. Po+ Pt =56+ 172 = 228 kips
5. P0 + P"'=56-1 10= 166kips
7. Po+0.75PL+0.75P, =56+ 0.75(172) +0.75( 110) = 20 E1.p5

So the column must CUlT) P., = 268 kips.

Step 2: The column has the same effective length about the x- and \·-a.'\c:-. ..o entct the ...Wie in
Figure 5.24 with KL = II> ft Scanning across the table at KL = ISh and che.:...m2 the
ASD vaJues. select the least \\eight shape in thls ponion or lhl! tahle trust {'21! -.uppon
this load.

Select a \\ I~ • 61 with an aJiowable compression strength

Pn/ n = 304 "Ips
l

Lf the largest slcnderne rauo ll'r .J particular column happens to be for l-.1 1... bcd.lmg. the
tables may not be entered direct I) '' ith thcx-ax.is effective length becau''- e mb!e etfecrive
length is inte nded to be used in conjunct.ion with the least radiu of g~ r~ 1 Ho,\e,·er. iris
pOSSible 10 d etermine 3 nlOOlheJ effective [engtb tbat. when USI!d in me ulble. \\ill re_u)t in
Lhe correct column strength being determined.
When the .\·-a·ds controls column strength. the s lenderne" r>..ao u-cJ 10 the column
equation is ( KLI r . To use the column tables, an cffecth·e ~len..ei"T1.."· tKLiefl · must be
detem1ined that "'h~n combined with ~'r • gives the same ,)enJeTT~~' Sl,

( KL)~ff (KL ),

Soh ing this equation for (KL),'ff yields

(KL
(KL), ,. = - -
(r r I

With this modified effective length.the table, can be entered and a suitable coiumn e lected.
There is one difficulty with this proce''· ho'' e,·er. Cntil a column section is known. the value
for r, I r,. cannot be determined. To account tor that. u quick scan of the column mbles should
be made to estimate r, 1r,.. Then.'' hen iJ ,ection is selected. the assumption can be verified
and an adjus tme nt made if neces-.ar)
132 Chapter 5 Compre-.,lt'IO \1cmbe~

EXA \IPL £ 5.9 COAL: Detenmne the least weight <.ccunn to carry the force g1ven u... ing the limited selection
Column Design .nailnblc through Figure 5 :!4. De..,ign b} L RFD and ASD
GIYE!'I: The column I\ \hO\\ n in Figure 5 5b. u~e the loading from Example 5.8.

SOLi. TIO.V tep l: Detenrune me el fcctivc length lvr e.1~·h uxi~.

Bracrng • the r-nxi!. sho\\ n an F·i~urc 5..25b yu~lth KL, = I 0.0 ft The unbraced .r-a\i'
ha., KL = ~O.Oit
tep 2: Detenurne 1KL 1 for the x-a>.i,,
Sele.:t .. represcnuuivc r, 1 r trom Figure 5.24. There are t\\0 general poss1hiliues.
A:...,ume th.u the larger shape' nu)!ht be needed to carry the loud and try r,jr, :!.44. =
Thu:..

_ ~ _ 10.0 _ ., ., r
<Kll ~ - 2.44 - 1-·-' l
tr r l

Step 3: Detenmne the controlling effecti\c h.•ngth.

Be:~-~ 1KL), 11 IS greater th 1n K/.} = 10.0 h. enter the table with KL = 12.3 fl and
imapo!rue netween 12 f1 and I' It

for t.RrD

~tep ~ : The ,"<"~lumn mu t have a de,tgn 'tl'l!ngth greater than P, = 3421-.lp\. Tl) a Wl4x 43.
~ .. .:h happens to be the <>mulle't Cl'lumn 3\ailahlc "1th the hmited !>election a'ailable
1 Ftgure 5.24. Th1s column h<t' ,·,f r, = \01\.

30.0
(KL),11 = -
3.08
= 9.74 ft

Step 6: Determine the new controlling effective length.

Because ( KL>,, is less thnn KL , = 10.0 ft. cntl!r the table w11h 10.0 ft and see that the
\\' 1.! • -13 hall a design sttength of 423 kip~. which b greater than the required ~trength
ol 3.!2 kip<. from Example 5.8.

Wl4 X 43

Note: The \\ I.!" .! ~ t-. idcntihcd m the table through 3 footnote 3, one that IS ~lender
for F, =50 k...1. Thi' I ' n~•t un l''uc for our de,1gn hecau~e the impact of an} ~lender
element has alread~ heen tal..cn Into account an the table.
Using the full complement l)f t<Jbb availnblc in the Manual ~ults in a maller
Wl2 section havmg the abtht) to carr} the giwn lnad.
 5.8 Tun.ionaJ Buckling and FlexuraJ-Tor-ional Buckling 133

For ASD
Step 4: The column must have an allowable strength grearerthan Pa = 2681Jp!). Try a WJ4x48.
This column has r, I r, = 3.06.
Step 5: Determine the (KL),1, \\ ith Lhrs new r r/ r )'' Thus,
30.0
f KL),ff = . = 9.80 ft
3 06
Step 6: Determine the new controlling effective length.
Because (KL),11 i$IC" than KL) = I 0.0 ft, enter the table with , 0.0 ft and see that the
W 14:<.43 has a design ~mmgth of 28 Lkips. which is greater than the -..'q'..l! -ed trength of
268 kips from Example 5.8 Because the ru.!iumption of r,Jr. = 3 1.. -.onservative.
no additional calculation needs to be carried out
Step 7: Conclusion, use

Wl4x43

Note: The Wl4 x43 i~ 11.kntified in the table through a footnote ru. one tl.mr .. , Older
=
for F, 50 ksi. This '' not an issue for our design because the impact ol an) .. f'Th1er
element has already been tal..en into account in the table.
Using the fu ll complement of tables available! in the Manual results in a !>ID.tl1er\\ 11
section not having the .:tbthf) to carry the given load.

5.8 TORSIONAL BUCKLING AND

FLEXURAL-TORSIONAL BUCKLING
Up to thjs point. the di~cu ...,.on h.t... addr~~~ed the limit state of ftexur.:1' oo !Jmg. T\\o addi-
tionallimi t !'tates for column beha\ tor must be addre!; ed: torsional t-..~... ~Jmg ~"d flexural-
torsional buckling. Doubl~ ,~mmetric shapes normally fail throug': t1~xura· tauckling, as
discussed earlier 10 tht' .:hapt~r. or through torsional buckling. Sw.;l~ ...~ etnc and non-
symmetric shape-.\. an fail through flexural. torsional, or flexural-tl :- .... o Jdd ing. Because
the shapes nonnall) used for steel members arc not well uited ~.> •~'~'-t tor-.ion, except for
clo ed HSS ... hape,. it b usually most desirable to avoid an) 1 r...ional limit states through
or
proper brae. in~ the column.
If erther ol the torsional limit states mus t be e\alu:!.ted. t ;e Specification provisions
are found 1 n Section E4, except for single angles. '' hJ.:II o.r~ und in Section E5. For all
member:. except single angles. an elastic buckling,,~., .... f . ll> determined, which is then
used in Equations E3-2 and E3-3 to detenuine the' ' mr ..riucal stress, F, ,.
The provisio ns for single angles take a ctifferel"' ..pproach. By limiting the way that
load is applied to the ends of a single angle compre,... lin member, an effecrive s lendeme'is
is establis hed, which is then used in Equation~ E~ ~ and EJ-3 to determine the column
critical stress. Fa.
The limit slates of torsional buckling and dc\Ut'al torsional buckling arc not normally
conside red in the designofW-shape c~llumm. They generally do not govern and when they
do. the critical load diJ'fers very linle fmm the ~trength delennined from flexural buckling.
For other member types, such as WT or d0uble angle compression elements in trusses, these
limit states are quite important. Bl!c...tu'c they are so importan l, the Commentary provides
134 Chapter 5 Compre "wn .\lcmbcn.

Table C-E4.1. giving the limiting proportions that. ir satisfied, permit these members 10 be
de,igned through the llcxurul buckling equations or Section E3. Por built-up or rolled Tees.
the limits require Lhat the Oange widl11 be greater than or equal to the depth of the member.
The flange thiclnes" for built-up Tee~ mu,t be equal to or greater than 1.25 times the stem
th~~:knes and for rolled Tees. equaJ to or greater than L I times the "tcm thickneso:;.
An nddiuooal factor in determjning 'trength based on these hmit ~tates is the detennina-
tion of the tO~JonaJ effective length. K:. The Commentary recommend'> that conservatively.
1\ = 1.0 and prO\ ide~ several other pos,ibilities if greater accurac> b desired.

5.9 SINGLE-ANGLE CO~ lPR ESSIO~ MEMBERS

Smgle-.mgk ... ompres,JlJO members would be designed according to the pro,·isions in Spec-
ificallon ect.on E.l e....ccpt for the exclusion that pem1its a somewhat different approach to
be taken. tudte~ 'bO\\ that the compressivt: ~treng.l h of single angles can be reasonably pre-
dicted u-.mg the column equations of Specification Section E3 if a modified effective length
is used and the member satisfies the following limiting criteria as found in Specification
Section E5

1. Member., .JTe loaded at their ends through the same leg.

2. Member\ are altachcd by either welding or a connection containing a minimum of
l \\ 0 hl.llb
3. There are no imermecliate transvero;;e load~.

T\\ O ca...e, ~eghen for these provision ... : 1I ) :1ngles thal are individual member~ or web
member, planar trusses. and (1) angle!> that are \\Cb member-. m ~ox or o:;pace tru<><>CS.
01
Thi, dt,lln~ !ton i intended to reflect the d1fferem:e in re~trrum pro' 1ded b} the elements to
" htch •hc:. compression member:. are attached.
The lirst et of equations is for angle~ that:

I. ),rc inJh idual members or web members or planar trusses.

2. Are equal-kg or unequal-leg connected through the longer leg.
3. Ha' e >.~JJ..t~t:m web members attached to the same side of a gus-.ct plate or truss chord.

In this case. budding j., assumed to occur about the x-axis where the ·'-axb i~ the geometric
axis parallciLo th~ atta~hcd leg.

lfO<~ <f
-I , -

KL L
- = 72+0.75 - (ES-1) (5.26)
r 1\

and if~ > 80

KL L
-
r
= ;2 - 1.2:" - < 200
,. -
CES-2) (5.27)

Theo;e effective lengllu; must be modified ifll1e unequal-leg angles are uttached through the
shorter leg~. The provisions of Specification Section E5 should be reviewed for these angles
as well a' ~un i lar angles in box or space trussc~.
 5.9 Single-Angle Compre'"ton Member; 135

EXAMPLE 5.10 GOAL: Determine the available 'trength of a I0.0-ft single-angle compr<!<.,ton member using A36
Stre11gtlt of Sirzgle-Angle steel.
Compression Member
GlVEN: A -+x4x 1h angle is a ''.:b mi.!mbcr inn planar truss. It is aua~ hed h> two bolts at each
end through the same leg.
SOLUTION Step 1: From Manual Table 1-7. A = 3.75 in.~ and r, = 1.21.
Step 2: Determine the slendeme~- r.stio.

!::.. = 10.0( 12) = 99.2

r, 1.21
Step 3: Determine '' hich C<IUation ''til give the effective slenderness rau B...;ru.,-e

!::.. = 99.2 > 80

r,
u~c Equmion ES-2.
Step-': Determine 1he effective ,J.:nJerness nuio from Equation 5.~-

AL = 32 + 1.25(99.2) = 156 < 200

r
Step 5: Determine which column -tn:ngth equation to use.

_!Q.OOO
Because rKL = 156 > ..t - I\ - - = 13-1 usc Equalton
· :::J.
- II ( E"_, _3 l.
16

Step 6: Determine the Euler bud...lm~ , c'"'·

2
. _ - .E _ 1i (29.000) _ I I S k .·
I - --, - ' - . Sl
H)' ( 156)-
(-
Step 7: Det~nnine ll1e critical ,u·t:" Irom Equau0n E3-3.

F = 0.1\i-;' F. = 0.8770 1.8) = 10.3 bt

Step 8: Determine Lhe nommal ,tfl!ngth
P. = F,i\ = 10.3(3.75)=38.6ktp,
for LRFO
Step 9: Detennine the design strl!ngth.

I <t>P. = 0.9(38.6) = 3.1 - tip. j

for .\SO
Step 9: Determine the allowable strenglh.

-P,Q = --
)S.b
1.67
.
=23. 1 ktpS
136 Chapter.· Compre.'->-IOn ~1embers

5.10 BCILT-UP ME:\1BERS

:-.!embers composed of more than one shape nrc called built-up members. Several of these
\~ere illustrated in Figure 5.2h through n. Built-up members are covered in Specification
Section E6. Compre-....ive 'ilrength is addre .... ed by estab!jsh.ing the slenderness ratio and
referring to Specification Sections E3. E-1-. or E7.
If a built-up secuon buckle so that the fa,tencr. between the . hapes are not stressed in
shear but simply go ..along for the ride:· the on ly requirement is that the c;lendemess ratio
of the shape bet\\een fa~tencrs be no gremer than 0.75 times the controlling slenderness
ratio of the built-up 'hape. If overall bucl-.ling would put the fasteners into shear, then the
controlling lendeme'' ratio will be some,~.-hat grcarer rhan the .slenderness ratio of the
built-up shape. Th1-.. '110\.lified slendeme -~ ratio i., a funcrion of the type of connectors u. ed
and their :.paci11g
For intem1edt.ne conm.:ctors that are .,nug-tight bolted. the modified slenderness ratio
is speci ned ac;

And 1f the int~rmediate connectors are '' eltled or pretensioned bolted, the modified c;len-
deme,, raun I ' ...pecified as

( KL) =
( KL) :: O ., a2 (.!!...)
r "' r + ·8-(I J..a~) r,11

where
KL = column slenderness of the buill-up member acting as a unit
( ,-)
a = J1.,1ance between connectors
r1 = L.inimum radius of gyration of the individual component
r1~-o = raJi •.~-.. of gyration if the individual component relath c to its centroidal axis
parallel to the member buckling axis
o: = -;epMauon ratio. II j2r;h
h = d1 tan... e bemeen the centroids of individual componcnL~ perpendicular to the
membe-r .1\i' of buckling

The remaining pro' ''iun' in Specification Section E6 address dimen!>ions and detailing
requirements. These pro\ hiOih arc based on judgment and experience a11d a1·e provided to
Lnsure that the built-up member behaves in a wuy consistent with the trength provisions
already discussed. The end' nf built-up compre. sion members must be either welded or
pretensioned bolted. Along the length of buill-up members. the longitudinal spacing of
connectors must be sufficient ll' pro,·ide for transfer of the required shear force in the
buckled member. The spacing uf connector\ that satisfy the previously memioned% of the
member 'llendcmess will not neces arily ati,fy thi<. strength require ment.
The Manual provides tables of propenie~ for double angles. double channels. and 1-
. hape., with cap channels in Part I and table~ or compressive trength for double angle
compre:.sion members in Pan 4.
 5 II Problems 137

5.11 PROBLEMS
1. Dctcm1inc the theoretical buckling strength. the Euler Buck- 9. If the stmcture described in Problem han unbraced frame.
ling Load. fora W8 x 35. A992 column with nn effective length of Jetermine the effective lengths and cornpre"tve strength as re-
20 fl. Will the theoretical column buckle or yield at Lhis length? que,ted in Problem 8.
2. rl)ra W 12 x40. A992column. detcrmincthccFfcctivelength JO. A Wl2x 170 column is shown \\H.b end conditions that
m which the theoretical buckling strength will equal the yield approximate ideal conditions. Using then. rrunended approx-
!.trcngth. rma.te value..~ from Commentary Table C-C.2 .:. detennine the
3. A W l4x 68 column has an eff~cth·e length for )'-a>. is buck- etfective length for the y-axis and the --~ Which effective
ling equal to 24ft. Determine the etTcctiH: length for the .\-axis length will control the column strength
that will provide lhe same theoretical buckling MJ'ength.
.t. A Wl4x 109. A992 column ha~ .10 effective length of36 ft
about hath uxes. Detemtine the a\atlable compressive strength '
for the column. Determine the (a) de\Jgn wcngth by LRFD and
(b) allowable strength by ASD. 1~ this nn elastic or inelastic
t8 ft
buckling condition'?
5. Dctcnnine the available compressive strength for a
Wl4x 120. A992 column with an effecti ve lengU1 about bmh
axes of 40 ft. Detennine the (al de1.1gn strength by LRFD and
(b) allowable !-trengt.h b) ASD. Js this an clastic or inelastic I H P5. 10
buckling conditiOn'?
6. Determine the availabl~ compres..<,ive strength for n
II . l, \V 12 x 96 column is shown with end condtU• n< C.'U..l ~
W 12 x45. A992 column when the elfecuve length 1s 20 fl about
the y-axb. und 40 ft about the .r-axis. Determine the (a) design rn ' mate ideal conditions. u~ing the recommended ~o\1-
strength by LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD. Is this an m.ue Jluel> from Commentary Table C-C2."1. Jete!"T'fl ue ·~-: e'-
tc.:U\e tength forthe y-axis and thex-axis. \\'hKh erte.. • e cngth
cla~tic or inelastic bu~.:kling condition? Dc~cribc a common con-
dition where the effective length is different aboulthe different "ill ( ·'lin>I the column strength'?
axe~.

7. A w~ X 24. A992 column has an effective length or 11.5 tl

about the 1·-axis and 28 ft about the x-axil;. Determine the a1 aiJ.
able compresstve strength and indicme whether if thi t.s due to
clastic or inelastic buckling. Determine the (a) design srreo~tb
by LRFD and (b) allowable srrength by ASD.
8. A W8x40 is used as a 12-ft column in a braceJ frame wnh
W 16x26 beams at the top and bottom as ~hO\\ n belm1 The
columns above und below are also 12ft, WSx-tO-, The be:~ms
provide moment restraim at each column end Determine the ef-
fective length using me alignment chan aoJ tho: LJ\atlable com- H
l /

pressive strength. and the (a) design <.trength h~ LRFD and (b) I P.3.11
allowable strength b) ASD. A<:sume that the column~ are ori- 12. A WIOx60 column 'lltth :m etltdtle length of 30ft is
emed for {i) buckling about the weak U:\1!' anJ 111) budding about called upon to cat~J a CM".;T<!"'-1\ _ dead load of J 23 kips and a
the l>lrong axis. All steel is A992 compressive live loaJ ·: l-a '.1'"'' Determine whether the col-
umn will suppon t~ a.... ... J LRFD and (b) ASD. Evaluate
\\ lb.o~: ~tt Wlb)('Zb
_L_-ltt the strength for 11 F = ~ ""I and (ii) F, = 70 ksi.
I
13. A W I.J x ~- .\'1'-1:. ,, u'ecl as a column in a building with
if
an eliecttve kn~L" lb ft. Determine whether the column will
11 If catTy a compre,, \c dead load of 800 kips and a compressive
"
~
live lond oi OCt "iD'- b} (a) LRFD and by (b) ASD.
\\ .,,~;:fl II \\'1nx ~fl 14. A\\ 'X-!' -\9()2 is used in a structure to support a dead
1!11 load t'i I'll _IP' and a live load of I 00 kips. The column has
an cll~.:ti\e length of 20 ft. Detem1ine whether the column will
~~ h :'.CII '
PS.8 'upp. nth~ lllad b} Cal LRFD and (b) ASD.
 15. A \\ 16 ~.,. A992 i· u'ed as a column in a building tO 20. ~ W 12x50 column is an interior column with strong axis
'upport J ....:a..J ll1tld of !30 kip' and a live load of 200 kip~. The buckling 10 the plune of the frame in an unbraced multistory
column er.e~ll\1! length is ::!0 ft for they-axis and 30ft for the frame. The column. above and below ure also W 12 x 50. The
r-aw· Detenmne whether the ~:olumn will support Lhe load by beam$ framing in at the mp are W 16 x 31 and those at the bot-
t tl LRFD a.'1d tb) ASD. tom are \A. 111 '< 36. The columns are 12 ft and lhe beam span i
I6. ,.\ \\ :J x 131. A992 1s u'ed <h a column in a building to 2:! ft. The column carries a dead load of 75 kips and a hve load
' ppon ., dead load of 245 kip' und a live load of 500 l-ips. The of 150 k•p' Determine the inela~tic eftecuve length for this con-
~ J..'TI'" h.!!> an effective length about the y-axis of 18 ft and an dition and the corre~pondiog compre~'>ivc strength by (a) LRFD
~lte-zt \c length about the x-axt!- of 36 ft. Determine whether the
and 1bl -\SO ·\II steel is A992.
....,, "ill support the load b) tal LRPD and (b) ASD. 2 1. Select the least weight W 12. A992 column to carry o live
1-. ~n HSS8 x8x hA500Gr. B i'> Ul>Cd as a column to~upport
1 load of IJO ktp~ and a dead load of I 00 kips with an e ffeclivc
.'1 <..<!..J load
of 175 kips and a ll\c load of I 00 kipl>. The column length ubout both axe5 of 14ft by (u) LRFD and (b) ASD.
ru- .!fl effective length of I 0 fl. Determine whether the column 22. A c~o,lumn "1th pin ends for both a"~:e~ must be selected to
I 3upport the lo:td by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. Carl)a comprc,sive dead load of 95 kips and a compressive live
l. FonheW I Ox 33colum n ,wi thbracingandend~onditions
load of 2115 1-..ip~. The column is 16 ft long and is in a braced
-hown below, determine the theoretical effective length for each frame. Seh tthc lightest weight W 12 to suppott this Load by (a)
.tXIS and idemjfy the axis that will limit the column 'trength. LRFD aml !b) ASD.
/ / /1' 23. II the column in Problem 22 had an eiTecLive length of32 ft.
elect the hghtel>t weight W 12 to support tl1is load by (a) LRFD
and !b -\ D
!Uti 24. .-\ \\I-I .-\992 column must suppon a dead load of 80

--: kips and a h\c load of 300 kips. The column is 22 ft long and
has end mnditions that approximate the ideal conditions of a
n 10 fixed ~upport at one end and a pin support at the otl1er. Select
__, the lightest \\eight WI-I to suppon this load by (a) LRF'D and
--'-
1
• (bl ASD.

I It
10 fl 25. Select the lea-t wetght \\'8 A99:! column to suppon a dead
load of 170 ktp~ \\ith an effectt\·e length of 16ft by (a) LRFD

/
' and (bJ ASD.
26. A column with an effective length of 2 1 ft must support a
H I dead load of 110 kips. a live load of 175 1-..tp\. and a wind load
P3.18 of 84 kips. SelcctLhe lightest W 14 A99~ member to support tl1e
load by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
1'1. :\ \\ 10x45 column with end ... '1dtllt '"' and brac1ng is 27. An A36 :.ingle-angle compres~ton web member of a tru s
\1."0. Detem1ine the least theoretica hr.tcif'l; ..u1J it>. location is I 0 ft long and allached to gusset plate~ through the same leg at
- ~ \ -J\h, in order that the y-axt' nut .:-omrolthe ~trength
each end with u mini mum of two bolt!.. The member must carry
~- uno a dead load of 8 kips and a live load of 10 ~ips. Select the least
weight equal leg angle to carry thi ~ load b~ (a) LRFD and (b)
ASD.
28. If the compression web member of Problem 27 were loaded
concentrically. determine the least \\eight ~ingle angle to carry
the load by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
29. A W 16x3 1. A992 compression member has a slender web
20 n when used in uniform compression. Detennine the available
--.-' \t.rength by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD ''hen the effective length
1'1tl6 ft and (ii) 12ft.
- <I
30. The\\ 14x-13 i<> the only A992 column shown in the Man-
ual cofumn table that has a slender web. Determine the avni table
strength t'or thi~ column if the effective length is 5 ft and show
\\ hether the ~l ender web impacts that strcngrh by (a) LRPD and
H
/': /
I P5.19 <b) ASD.
Chapter 6

Seattle Central Library. Seaule.

Photo counes) l\·lil.:haet Dickterl \f,Jgnu•"'n i... =·•·
As~odme!..

Bending Members

6.1 BENDING MEMBERS IN STRUCTURES

A bellding member carrie-. load applied normal ro its longitudinal :l..\1'' anJ transfers it LO
its support poim-. rhrougb bending moments and shears. Tn buildm; ..~ r; .. uucnon. the most
common applicauon of bending members i~ to provide suppor for tl x r .. nr roofs. These
beams can be either 'tmple span or conLinuou~ span and nurm:UJ: 1 an,fer their load to
other structural members such as columns. girders. or \\'alb. -\ thm.._;h the terms beams and
girder.'\ are often used interchangeably, because both are ~'lJ "=
members. the term beam
normal!) refer:, to a bending member directly suppomn= .m .~nplwd load whereas gi.rder
usual!) refers to a bending member that suppm1!\ a bear. 111e dhru1crion is not important
ror c.le-.ign because the same criteria apply to all bendm; 'Tlember).
The most commonly used shapes for bending mem~r, are the !-shaped cross-section~
and. of these. the W -shape is dominant. HoweYer. there ,Lfe numerous situations where other
shape~ are used as bending members. L-share" are ... nmmnnl) used as lintels over openings.
T-shapes are found as chords o f trusses th.tt m.~~ be \.'ailed upon to resist bencling along
with axial Forces. and C-shapes may coexist \\ Hh \\--.hopes in floor sy!>tems.
In addition to the use of the stamlnrd ~hare,. engineers o ften find iL necessary to develop
their own shapes by combining shapes and/~1r p!ares. Several examples of these built-up

J39
1-'0 Chap1er t Bending \l~!mbel"\

I I
I,\) \Vcltlt!d W-shapc 1h 1 Sangl} ~ymme1ric 11.1 \\ 'hapc with channel cap (d) Box shape
1-,hapc
Fi~ure 6. 1 Built-Lp Beam'

~hape~ arc ~ho" n in Figure 6. 1. Allhough the Ul.C of these built-up shapes is pennittcd by
the Specification. the~ may not be economiCal because of the labor costs associated with
fab1i t:ation. The ~:omplcxity that result-, from the wide vruiety of possible shapes is the
reason for '>ll man~ ...cpa rate provision!<. in Chapter F of the Speci lic;uion.
The most common and economical bcnc.ling members are those that can allain the
full material ~ ield -.trength without being limned by buckling of any of the cross-sectional
elements. The"e membe" are referred to a... compact members and are addressed first.
Table (). 1 li~t-. the ..ection\ of the Specllication and parts of the Manual discussed in
thi' chapter

6.2 STRENGTH OF BEA \L

A-.. applied to a bending member re ... uhing in a bending moment, stresses arc de-
ta J'-
c; I ·~dIll
the cross c;ection. For loado; at or helm\ the nominal load... the load magnitude
e'tll~lhheJ 10 the building code. it is reasonable 10 expect the entire beam cross section to

ltlbl~.: «'1.1 Sections of Spccificataon and Parts of Manual Found in This Chapter
Specification
83 Dec;ign Ba"~
B4 C!a,~\lfication
of Section!> for Local Buckling
Fl General Provistons
F2 Douhly Syrnmetnc Compact 1-Shnped Members and Channels Bent about their
Majur AO\iS
Douhly S) mmctric 1-Shaped \1cmbers with Compact \\'cb:. and Noncompact or
Slender Fhtnges Bem abou1 thdr Major A xi~
F6 1-Shapcd ~ !ember-. and Channel\ Bent about their Minor Axis
F9 Tees and Double Angles Loaded in the Plane of Syrnmetr)
FlO S111glc Anglcc;
ChapterG Dc\ign ol Members For Shear
Ill Douhl) and Singly Symmctri<: Members Subject to Rcxure and Axial Force
J I() Rnngc' .tnd Web" with Concentrated Forces
Chapter L Design for Scrnccabtlit)
o\ppcndix I lnelastu: Anal~ ''sand De:;ign
Manual
Part I Dimension-, and Propenie~
Part 3 De~ign of Flcxuml Member'
Part 6 De,ign of Members Subject to Combined Loading
 6.2 Strength of Beamlo 141

Str:Un d1~tribunon

/~

Stre's distribution
(bl (c) hll

Fieun: 6.2 Croli~·Sectional Bending Stre~~cs and Stl'ains: a) elastic: b) yield: c) p~lrLinl pln~t~~: .
u pi..J''"·

~ha\e elastically. The stresses and strains are ui~tribured as shown in Figure 6.2a. Thi
ela'tl\. behavior occurs whenever the material is behaving along the initial srraight line
puruon of the strel\s-srmin curve of Figure 3.2.
From the basic principles ol' ...trength of materials. the relationship between the applied
moment and resulting stresses is gi' en b) the familiar Aexure formu la:
. My
J,=- (6. 1)
1
"here
\J = any applied moment that stres!>es the section in the elastic range
' = distance from the neutral axis to the point where the stre..,, ~:> to be determined
I = Moment of lnertia
f = resulting bending stress at location. y
.\t1m1ally the . tres!. at the extreme 11bcr, that is. the fiber mo ... t distant from the neutral
a\J,, '' of interest because the largest stress occurs at thh pmnt. The distance from the
neutml axis to the extreme fiber may be taken as c and the Aexure formula becomes
Me
J,, =I = s\1 (6.2)

"here
S = section modulus
.li. = extreme fiber bending stress
TIH! momem that causes the extreme tiber to reach the yield stress, F,., is called the
yield momem. M ,.. The corresponding l.tre...s and strain diagrams are shown in Figure 6.2b.
If the load i~ increac;ed beyond the yield moment. the strain in the ex[reme fiber increase-.
but the '>tres!. remains at F1, because the:.c fibers are behaving as depicted by the plateau on
142 Chapter 6 Bending Members

F1

I I

P'IA P.NA - - - - 1 - - - - - -

l I
Stres~ distribuuoo Cross section
(a) Cbl
Figure 6.3 Equilibnum in a Doubly Symmcmcul Wide-Range Shape.

the stress/strain diagram, shown previously in Figures 3.2 and 3.3. The stress at some points
on the cross section closer to t.he neutral axic; also reacb the y ield stress whereas those even
closer remain ela!>tic as shown in Figure 6.2c.
As the moment cominues to increa e. th~ ponion of the cross section experienc ing
the yield stress cominuec; to increase until the entire section experiences the yield stress as
shown in Figure 6.2d. Equilibrium of the cro s '>ection requires. at all times. that the total
internal tension force be equal to the total intemal compre. sion force. The basic princ iples
of strength of materials arc addressed in numerous texts, such as Mechanics of Materials, 1
For the doubly ymmetric wide flan ge shape shown in Figure 6.3, equilibrium occurs
when the ponion of the shape above the clastic neutral axis is stressed to the yield stress in
compre~sion while the portion below the e lastic neutral axis is stressed to tbe yield stre sin
ten!.ion. For a nonsymmctric shape. the area above the elastic neutral axis is not equal to the
areo below Lhe elastic neutrnl. Thus, a new axis. which divides the tension and compression
zone imo equal areas, must be defined. This new axis is the plastic neutral axis (PNA),
the axis that divides lhe section into two equal areas. For symmetric shapes. tbe elastic and
plastic neutral axes coincide, as was the case for the wide flange. Por nonsymmetric shapes
the. e neutral axes are at di fferem location~.
Because equilibrium means that the ten ion and compression forces are equal and
oppo itc. they form a force couple. Although moments can be taken about any reference
point for this case, it is common practice to take moments about the PNA The moment that
con-es ponds ro this fully yie lded stress distribution is called the plastic momem. M 1,. and is
g iven as
M 1, = F,(A,.y, )+ F,(A,y,) (6.3)

where A, and Ac are lhe equal tension and compression areas. respectively, and Yr and y1
arc the distances from the centroid of the area to the PNA for the te nsion and compression
areas, respectively. Equation 6.3 may be simp.lified to

M 1, = F1{~ )<.vt.+ y,) (6.4)

The two terms multiplied by the yield stress are functions o f only the geometry of the
<."ross section and are normally combined and called the plastic section modulus. z. Tiws.
the plastic moment is given as
M,= F,.z (6.5)
The plastic secrion modulus is tabulated for all available shapes in Part I of the Manual.

1
Pyrel and Kiusala.~. Medrmrh') n/Materinls. BrookvCole. 2003.
 6.2 Strength of Beams 143

Chapter F of the Specifica.Lion contains the provisions for design of fle'<ural member:.
due to bending. For a given beam to attain its full plastic moment strength. it must satisf)
a number of criteria as established in Section F2. If these criteria are not met, the strength
is defined a ... '>Omething Less than M,. The criteria to be satisfied are defined by two limit
Slates in addition to yielding: local buckling and lateral torsional buckling. Each of these
limit sr:ne-. anu their impact on beam strength are discussed in Section 6A and 6.5.

EXAMPLE6.1 GOAL: Determine the plastic moment \trengrh of a W-shape usjng the maud otthree rectangular
Plastic Moment Strength plate'-.
fora Symm etric Shape GI\ E\': -\ W2~x l92 i modeled. a' ,hown in Figure 6.4. Assume F, = 501..'1
SOLUTION tep 1: DetemlJne the location of the pl:tStic neutral axis.
Becuusc the shape is symmetric. rile plastic neutral axis is located on the 3.\h ot ~~ mmeuy
trp 2: Determine the plastic section modulus ns the sum of the moment ot e:~cn Jrea about the
plastic neutral axis.

A
Z = -(1•,
2 . + -1·1) =2 ( A1-v1 + -
A. r.. )
1 .

z-- ?_[ I 3_0( 1.46) (::!2.58 + 1.46) + 22.58(0.810) (22.58)]- -60

4
- :> m.•
2 2 2
~ tep 3: Determine the plastic moment ~trength as the plastic section modulu times the yjeld ~r.res;.
M,. = F 7. = 50(560) = 28.000 in.-kips
or

28.000 .
M,. =~= 2330 ft-kips

tep ~: Compare the calculated plasuc ~cction modulus value with that from ~ lanual Table 1-1.
From the table. Z, = 559 in.3

13.<) in.--j~n.

P:-JA-- 22.58 in.

- U '\10 in.

IA6tn. Figure6.4 W24x l92Model forExamplc6.L

144 Chapter 6 Bending Members

EXAMPLE 6.2 GOAL: Locate the plastic ne utra l axis and determine the plastic section modulus for a WT.
Plastic Section Modulus
for a Nonsymmetric GTVEN: A WT12 x 51 .5 modeled as two plates is shown in Figure 6.5. Assume that F, =50 ksi.
Shape
SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the area of the T shape.

Ajlang~ = 9.00(0.980} = 8.82 in.2

As1.-111 = 0.550( 12.3 - 0.980) = 6.23 in.~
Awol = 8.82 + 6.23 = 15.1 in.2

Step 2: D etermine o ne- half of the area. because one-half of the area must be above tJ1e plastic
neutral axis and one-hal f must be below.
15. 1 _• . l
TA rma/ = -2- = 7.))to .
Step 3: Determine whethe r the plastic neutral axis is in the flange or stem. Because half of the area
is less tha n the area of the Aange. the plastic neutral axis is in the Aange and
7.55
Yr =
90
_ = 0.839 .tn.
with the plastic neutral ax is measured from lhe top of the Aange.
Step 4: Dete rmine the plastic section modulu as the s um of the moment of each area abo ut the
plastic neutral axis.

z = 7.55 ( 0.839)
~ + (8.82 - 7.75) (0.980-
2 0.839) + 6.23 ( 0.980-0.839 + -2-
ll.3)

Z = 3.17 + 0.0754 + 36. 1 = 39.3 in.3

Step 5: Compare the~e values with the values in Manual Table 1.8.

Yp =0.84 1 in. and Z = 39.2 in.3

This shows the impact of the simplification in using rectangular plates and ignoring the
fillers at the flange web junction.

0.98J in. r- 9.0 in.-!

PNA - - 12.3 in.

=l F ig ure 6.5 T-Beam Model for Example 6.2.

 6.3 Dc~ign of Compact Laterally Suppm'ted Wide Flange Beams 145

6.3 DESIGN OF COMPACT LATERALLY SUPPORTED WIDE

FLANGE BEAMS
Section 6.::! "bowed thattbe nominal '-lrcngth of a compact member\\ ith fuiJ lateral support
is determined by the limit state of~ ielding. For thi~ limit state. Specitk.nion Section F1
pro' ide" that
JH, = .\11, = F,Z (6.6)

Sp.;octlkation Section F I aJso IOdJl'ate.> that for ;Ill ncxurallimit state). Jeo,ign strength
and ;:tllm' able strength arc to be detennined U'>tng
<!> = 0.90 cLRFDJ Q = 1.67 <ASD)
The design basis from Section' 83.2 and 83.-1-. ns di:.-cuss\!d in Chapter I. are repeated
hen:.
Ft'r ASD. the allowable strength i.-,

t I. I )

l-or LRFD. the design strength •~

R, ~ <bRII I 2)

EXAMPLE 6.3a
GO \I.: Select the least-weight wide flange member t\1r the conditions g.i\'cn.
Beam Design by LRFD
Gl\£\: r\n A992 beam, simpl~ .;upporud at both cmh. -,pan... 20 fl and il> loaded at mJa,pan
\\ uh .t Jeud load of 8.0 kips and u hw load nt :!4.0 ktp~. a.' :.hown in Figure 6.<>. .-\.,~urne lull
lateral 'uppon and a compact ,ecnon.

SOLUTION Stet> 1: Determine rhe requireu .;rrength w.ing th~: LRI D load c<Jmbimmon' lr••n ~.! .. uon :!A.

DL =1!.0 kip~
Ll =- 2-+.0 kip'l

l
-10 n---·jj.·--10
------"'011
n-1
Fi~ure 6.fi Beam u~ed in E:utmple 6.3.
146 Chapter 6 Bending \ll!mbel'>

Step 2: Determine the required plaMi~: 'ietlion modulus. for a compact. fully braced section
M" =Mp = F,Z
Thus. bccau~c Spccilicmion Sc.:tion B3.3 provides thut thc requireu moment be less than
the available moment. M., .5 cbi\Jn = qJF, Z. and

-
L, 1 -
.Iff( --
- ..,...,0 .m. ~
240(1 2) -- "'
cbF 0.90(50)
Slcp 3: Using the required pla\tic ~~Xtion modulul>. select the minimum \\eight W-shupc from
the plasm: ~ecuon modulu' economy table. Manual Table 3-2. Start at the bottom of the
Z column and mo'e up unul a -hape in bold with at lea'>l z, =64.0 in. 3 is found.

Select\\ 18x35. IZ = 66.5 inh

Th1.., 1~ the most ecunomical \\ . ..,hapc. based on section weight that provides the required
pla-.tic ..ecuon modulus.
Step 4 : An ahema.te approach. u~ing tht.' ~:.tme Manual Table. would be to enter the table with
tht.' rc.'quired moment M. = 140ft-kips. and proceed up the d>M, column of the table.
The ..arne :.ectit)n will be 'elected '' ith this approach.

EXAMPLE 6.3b
GOA L: Select the le:.lst-wcight wide flange member for the conditions given.
Beam Design by ASD
G n EN: An A992 beam. simply supported at both ends. ~pan~ 20ft and is loaded at midspan
\\lt.h a dead load of !tO kips and a ll\t! Load of 1~.0 kiP'·"' ~ho'>'n in Figure 6.6. Assume full
l.ltcnal ~upport and a compact \CCtion.

SOLUTION Step l : Determine the required strength using the ASD load combinations from Section 2.4.
P,, = P0 + PL = (8.0) + (24.0) = 32.0 l ips
_ P11 L _ 32.0(20) _ f ki
1\II" - 4 - 4
- 160 t - ps

Step 2: Detem1ine the required plastic !>Cellon modulus. Por a compacl, fully braced section

Mn = M p = F, Z
Thus. bee au'-<! Spccitic~ninn SectiOn B3A provides that the required momem be less than
the available: moment. M., ~ Mn Q = F, Z / Q. anu
M,. 160{12) 160( 12) .
/,,, = FJQ = (50/ 1.67) = --:w-- = 64·0 tn.- 3

Step 3: Using the required pln:.tk -.cctmn modulus, select the minimum weight W-shnpe from
the plastic section mouulus economy table. Manual Table 3-2. Stan at the bottom of the
Z, column and move ur umil a shape in bold with at lea~• Z, = 64.0 in.3 ill found.

Select Wl8x 35. (Z = 66.5 in.3 )

 6.3 Design of Compact Laterally Supported Wide Flange Beams 147

This is the most economical W -shape. based on section weight that provides the required
plastic section modulus.
Sh~l> 4: An alternate approach, using the same Manual Table. would be to emer the table with
the required moment, Ma = 160ft-kips, and proceed up the M,j Q column of the table.
The same section will be selected with this approach.

EXAMPLE 6.4a
COAL: Design a W-shape fl oor beam for the intermediate beam marked A on the floor plan
Beam Design by LRFD shown in Figure 6.7.

GI\'EN: The beam L~ loaded un iformly from the fl oor with a Li ve load of60 pound~ per-;quare
foot (psf) and a dead load in addition to the beam self-weigh t of 80 psf. The beam'' .11 ha'e full
lateral su pport provided by the floor Jed. and a compact section wi U be selected. L\e .-\ 9':12 steel.

SOLUTION S te p I: Dcte1 mim; tilt: re4ui rc:u load and mlJ I I J~u!.

II', = (l.2wn + !.611 LlLrrlb = ( 1.2(60) + 1.6(80))( 10) = 2000 lb fl

2
u , L2 2.0(26) f ,.
/11 ,, = - s-= s = I 69 hops

Step 2: Determine the required plasuc ... ection modulus.

For a compact, fully braced beam. /vi, = M r = F,.z . Section B3.3 of the Speciiicnuon
requires that

T he refore
Z . =~ = ( 169)( 12) = 45.1 in.,
_, ,, <~F, 0.90(50)

Step 3: Using rhe plastic l>eCLion modulus economy tab le, Manual Table J-:!. -..elect the mos t
economical W-shape based on least weight.

W L4x30. (Z = 47.3 in. 3 )

·''

A
1 26 t't

I f igure 6.7 Framing Plan for

Example 6.4.
1~8 C"~;:-:r-r b Bendtr,~ Members

Step 4: Determine the additional required strenglh based on the actual weight of the cho;;en
beam. The beam weighs 30 lbfl't. whtch gives an additional moment of

0.030(26)~)
Mu( •rff-,..•··~hll = 1.2 ( S = 1.2(2.54) = 3.04 ft-kips

Step 5: Combine thi~ moment wilh the momenl due 10 uperimposed load to determjne lhe new
required ~trength.

M 11 = 169+3.04= 172ft-kips

Ste[> 6: Determine the new required plastic section modulus.

Jl., ( 172)(12) - . 3
Zrr~ = --
cbF,
=
0.90(50)
= 4.).9 111.

Step 7: Make the final selection. This required plastic section modulus is less than that provided
by theW l4x30 already chosen. Therefore. select the

Wl4x30

Step 8: .-\s shown in Example 6.3, an alternate approach is to use the required moment,
\/, = 172ft-kips. and enter the cbM, column to determine the same W-shape.

EXAMPLE 6.4b
GOAL: Design a W-shape floor beam for the imerrnedhue beam marked A on the floor plan
Be.am Design by ASD shown in Figure 6.7.

GIVEN: The beam is loaded unifonnly from Lhe floor witll a live load of 60 pounds per square
foot \psf) and a dead load in addition to lhc beam self-weight of 80 psf. The beam will have full
lateral support provided by the floor deck and a compact section will be selected. Usc A992 steel.

SOLUTJON Step 1: Determine the required load and moment.

11'11 = (ll'l) + 11'L)L -fb = (60+ 80)(10) = 1400 lbjfl

11

11'11 L 2 I .40(26)2
M" = -
8
- = 8
=118ft-kips

Step 2: Detennine the required plastic section modulus.

For a compact fully braced beam, M, = M, = F 1 Z. Section 83.4 of the Specification
requires that

M < M, _ F,.z
"- Q- Q

Therefore
M11 ( J 18)(12) . "\
Zn·q = F).j Q = )Q = 47.2m.·
 6.4 Design of Compact Laterally Unsupported Wide Flange Beams 149

Step 3: Using the plastic section modulus economy table. Manual Table 3-2. select the most
economical W-shapc based on least weight.

I Wl4x30. (Z=47.3 in. 3) I

Step 4: Determine the additional t-equired strength based on the actual weight of the chosen
beam. The beam weighs 30 tb/fl, which gives an additional moment of
0.030(26) 2 •
Mu(~rft·•"''K/Jtl = l:) = 2.54 ft-ktpS
Step 5: Combine ttris moment with the moment due to superimposed load 10 determine the new
required strength.

M., = 118 + 2.54 =1 21ft-kips

Step 6: Determine the new required plastic section modulu .
M., ( 12 1)(12) . ~
z...q = - -=
F)/Q 30
= 48.4 an:
tep 7: Make the final selection. This req uired plastic section modulus is more than that provided
by theW L4x30. Therefore. select the

WJ6x31

tep 8: As shown in Example 6.3. an alternate approach is to use the required moment.
M 11 = 121 ft-k:ips. and enter the ,\1,,/ Q co!unm to determine the same W-sbape.

6.4 DESIGN OF CO.\IPACT LATERALLY UNSUPPORTED WIDE

FLANGE BEAMS
6.4.1 Lateral Torsional Buckling
The compression region of a bending member e ros~ section ha~ a tendency to buckle
similar!) to how a p1.1re compre:~sion member buckle:.. The mttjor difference is that the
bending tension region helps to resist that buckling. The upper half of the wide flange
member in bending acts as a T in pure compression. Tht-. T is fuJiy braced about its
hori1onwl axis by the web so it will not buckle in that uirectiun but it can be unbraced for
somr! di::,tance for buckling about its vertical axis. Thu:-.. it will tend to try to buckle lateral ly.
Becau'e the tension region tends LO restrain the lateral buckling. the shape actually buckles
in a combined lareral and tor!.ional mode. The beam midspan deflectc; in the plane down
and buckles laterally. causing it to twist. as shown in figure 6.8. The beam appears to have
a tendenc) to fall over on its weak axis. In order to resist rhis tendency. the Specilication
requires that all bending members are re~trained at their support points against rotation
about their longitudinal axis. If the beam h~L« suJficicnt lateral and/or corsional support
along jts length. the cross sectio n can develop the yield stress before buckling. If it tends
150 Chapter 6 Bending \Jcmbcr<.

--..-------.-- ..\

Cal (0)

Fi~ure 6.8 The Three Po~tti~m~ of a Beam Crt," Section Undergoing Lateral-Torsional Buclding.

to buckle before the yield stress is reached. the nominal moment strength is less than the
plastic momem.
To insure that a beam cross section cJn develop its full plastic moment strength without
lateral torsional buckling. Specification Se~:tion F2.2. Equation F2-5. limits the slendcrne ·!>
to

r,
ff
-Lo :::s 1.76 -
F,.
(6.7)

'~here

L 11 = unbraced length of tbe compre<i,ion flange

r = radius of gyration for the shape about they-axis

The practical application or this limitarion is to use the Ltnbraced length alone, rather than
in combination with the radius of gyration. m form a slenderness rario. This results in the
requirement for attaining. the full plastic moment strength that

Lb ~ L" = 1.76r, yF:

{£ (6.8)

Thus. L r i:. tbe maximum unbraced length that would permit the shape to reach its plru.tic
moment strength. This value i:-. tabulated for each shape and can be round in Manual Table
3-2 and 'iC\'Cral others.
When the unbracc<.l length of a beam ex~.:eeds L p. its <;trength is reduced due to the
tendency of the member to buckle Laterolly at a load level below \\hat would cause lhe
plastic moment lo be reached.
The elastic lateral tor:.ional buckling. (LTB) '>lrength of a W-!>hape is given in Specifi-
cation Section F2.2 as
(6.9)
where
2
I + 0.078 ___{:__ (
S.xho
Lb)
r,~
(6. 10)

A beam buckles ela. tically if the actual l>tress in the member does not exceed F, nt any
point. Because all hot rolled shapes have built-in residual stresses as discussed for columns
 6A De!-ign of Compact Laterally Un,upponed Wide Range Beam!. 15 J

~.. 111pI - - # - - - -.....

Mn = ( h [ \lp-IMp-Mrl( ~:= ~:)] !> M 1,

.J I
c:: I
'J
E I
~
I
I
] M, --- ---~- ----------
E I
o I
Z I
I
I

L,
Unbm'~ knetb. L.h

Figure 6.9 Lateral-Tor~ional Buckling

in Section 5.3.4. there i~ a practicalltmit to the usefulness ofthi' ela,tl~o. LTB e-qu:nwo. The
Speci fica lion seu. the level o r the re,tJual :-tress at 0.3 F_, so that on I~ () .., F I' ~ :ill:lh.e 10 re-
sist a bending moment e lasti call~. Tlw.. limit results in an elastic moment. .\I , = 0.- F S,.
This permits the determination of <1 hminng unbraced length. L . beyonJ "h11.h lh~ m.:"'ltx'r
buckles elastically. The limit a~ prm tdeJ in Specification Secuon F2 i~

Lr = 1.95r,0 .7£-
F
·, Rf' -S l +
II \
0.7F, Sxh11)~
1+6.76 ( - - · -
E Jc
0.11)

Between the unbraced lengths L 1, anJ L . the beam behaves ineJasticall). In th•' r.,.1ge.
the nominal moment. M,. is reasonabl~ \\ell predicted by a straight line ~quathm. The
Specification equation for the nominal momem strength. modified to use !v/,.1 rB· anJ tdk.ing
C11 =
I. which i:, discu,sed later. j,

Mn = [ \1 - lAI,, - .\lr~.rn> (Li>-

L, _ L
L ")]
, C6. 12)

Although the determination tlf F, and Lr from Equations 6. 10 and 6.11 rna~ lnok ...omcwhat
daunting. the Manual ha~o, e'\ten'i'e table~ that permit their determination '' ith liule effort.
The nominal moment 'trength of a benm as a l'unction of unbraccJ length is presented
in Figure 6.9 \\here the cur\'c 'egments arc labeled according to £he lppropriare <;trength
cquntions.. Cur\'C' ..;imilar to these arc available in Manual Table 3- I 0 lnr euch W-shape and
Table 3-1 I for C- and \IC-shapes. An example of these CUIYe~ ., gi,c:n in Figure 6.10.
When \1 i' to be determined through a calculation. an audillonal simplification
can be apphed to the straight line ponion of the curve. From Equation 6. 12. the ratio
Mr - M'118 - ) 1•'\ a constant for cacI1 bcam shape. Th1' . con-.tanL .IS tabu Imed as B F m
.
( --=---·
L - Lr
Manual Table 3-2. although it is actLtally given a a de,1gn 'alue or an allowable value.
Thu .... for nominal strength. Equation 6.12 can be re\\ rtllen a~

M, = M 1, - BF(L,- L 1,l (6.1 3a)

and for LRFD a~
(6. 13b)
and for ASD as
M, Mr
-Q = -
Q - BF(L,) - L ,. ) (6. 13c)
152 Ch:tpter 6 Bending Memberb

~ - 50ksl
c;. : 1
Table 3-10 (continued)
Mtn W Shapes
klp·ft klp·ft
ASD LRFD Available Moment vs. Unbraced Length
3000 4500

2900 4350

2800 4200

w
... 2700
E .S050
....
"'
u
.s
;;:
a.
:.;:
0
!:2. 2600 3900
:e."'
....
"5
c
"'eE 2500 3750
u
.!:
;;:a.
:;:
Cl
~ 2400 3600
a
i'
c:
"'
E
0
:E 2300 3450
"'
:a
.!!!
·a;
>
<
2200 3300

2100 3150

2000 3000
6 10 14 18 22 26 30
Unbraced Length (1-ft Increments)
Figure 6.10 W Shapes: A\'U1lable ~loment versus Unbraced Length. Copyright © American
Institute of Steel Con,truction, Lnc. Reprinted with Permi~sion . All rights re~erved.
 6.4 Dc~ign of ((lmpuct Lmentlly Unsupported Wide Aunge Ben m~ 153

6.4.2 Moment Gradient

The nominal o;rrength of a beam ao; uefinccJ in Equations 6.9. 6.12 or 6.13 assumeii that the
momemrs umform across Lhe enure length of the beam as '>bown in Fig n. 6.1 1a. For lateral
torsional buckling. lhi' is the nw•a ...evcre loading ca...e po:-.~ible. be'-.1u'e it would srres~
the cutin! lcngtb or the beam to II'- max imum. just as f'o r a column. F,,r any other loadiJlg
pattern. and resulting rnomenr dragram. the compre ...sJve force in the t>eam \\OUid vary with
1hc mornem diagram. Thus. 1hc reduced stresses along lhe member 1.: ; tl "ould result in
a reduced tendency for LTB anu ;Jn i ncrease in strength. The vari<llll m 'lloment over a
particular unbraced o,egment of the beam is called the mome111 gmd. 1 h11..h describc!-
ho\\ the moment varies along a -.pec:ific length.
For the normal case of Joaurng th::tt produces a moment diagram that 1 noi L ,n.,tant. the
nominal moment strength cal<.:ulareJ through Equations 6.9, 6. 12. or t- ~ m~~ 'I-.e rnc:reased
to account for the moment graJ1e nt .;uch thot Equmion 6.9 become'

!6. 14)

nnd Equat1on 6.12 becomes

.l o( , -- t / ~\lo
t --- --------- --------- ,- t
Loading

1__~~~~~~~~~
T-11111111111\1111111111111111' hrllhllllllllllllll Momen1 d ~- rll!D

(.11

--- - •
,.., --------- ...........

~
) !VIn

~c
0
\1 ( , ' - ----- I ~·.uling

I
_j__
f --------r----------- ,
~fu ml III II !I II Ill II 11111111 II 111111111 I I l\lumcnt d•agrum

f (t'l

figu:re 6.11 Resi~1::mcc IOthe Ma\imum .:-t<lment CnJcr Three Different Loading Condi1ions.
154 Chapter 6 Bending _\1embers

The lateral-torsional buckling modification factor. CIJ. accounts for nonuniform moment
diagrams over the unsLrpported length. It i~ a function of the moment gradient and provided
in Specification Section F I as
I 2.5Mmax
Ch = R111 < 3.0 (6.16)
'2.5Mma~ +3 M 1 +4Ms +3Mc -
where
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment i1J the unbraced segment
M 11 = absolute value of momem at quarter point of the unbraced segment
M8 = absolute value of moment at centerline of U1e unbraced segment
Me = absolute value of moment at tbree-guarter point of U1e uobraced segment
R, = l.O for a doubly symmetric member
C, = 1.0 for a uniform moment and can be conservatively taken as I .0 for other cases. In
doi11g so, however. the designer may be sacrifici ng significam economy. Figure 6. J 2 provides
examples of loading conditions. bracing locations. and the coiTesponding Cb values.
The effect of the momem gradient factor, C1,, is to alter the norninal momem-unbraced
length relationship by a constanl. as shown in Figure 6. I 3. The shaded area shows the
increase in moment capacity as a result of the use of Cb. Regardless of how sma]J the
unbraced length might be. the nominal moment strength of U,e member can never exceed
the plaslic moment strength. Thus. the upper !POrtion of the curve in Figure 6.13 is terminated
at J\11 1, .

EXAMPLE 6.5a
GOAL: Determine whelher the Wl.fx3-t beum shown in Figure 6.14 will carry the given load.
Beam Strength and
Design by LRFD
Consider Lhe moment gradienL (a) C1, =
I .0. (b) Ch from Equation 6.16 and, (c) determine the
least weight ~cction to carry the load using the correct C1, .
Considering Moment
Gradient GIVEN: Figure 6. 14 ~hows a beam that is fixed at one support and pinned at the other. The
beam has a concentrated dead load of 8 kips and a concentn1tcd live load of 24 kips at midspan.
A~sume a lateral brace at bolh the supports and the load point.

SOLUTION Step 1: Detem1ine the required strength. For Lhc load combination of 1.2D + I .6L
P,, = I .2(8.0) + I .6(24.0) = 48.0 kips
S tep 2: Determine the maximum moment fwm an elastic analysis at the fixed end. This is given
in Figure 6. 14 as
M., = 180 fr-kips

Step 3: Derem1ine rhe oet:ded values from Manual Table 3-2 in order to use Equation 6. 13b.
W14x34. Z = 54.6 in. 3 . L 1, = 5.40 ft. L, = 15.6 ft. <j>M1, =205ft-kips. and BF =
7.59kips
Part (a) C1, = 1.0
Step 4: Determine the design moment strength for lateral bracing of 1he compression flange at
Lhe support~ and the load. L& = l 0 fL
Because L 11 = 10 fl > Lp
<j>M, = (<j>M"- BF(Lh- L p))
<!>M, = (205- 7.59(10.0- 5.40)) = 170 ft-k.ips < 180ft-kips
 6--+ Design of Compact LateraJiy Un!>upported Wide Flange Beams 155

Table 3-1
Values for Cb for Simply Supported Beams
Lateral Bracing i
Load Along Span cb
I
lp None I
I lt:Ja.d .al JT\ldpoiol 1 I 12
I I
' t At load point
! I 6i
I 157
I

l
rr 1
I
None
L.OJI!Hi 31 ~f'lwd po.nts

At load points
I
I ,.. l

I •.ro I
l I
Load5 : ~ 1""'!1"!\•ln.caJiy p~ceiJ
1 Cl Jlft
l

rr
I
' I l !
p
None ~ H

I lo-.3» 11 ll-'tlrlar 90 rus I

l
' I At load points
LentO$ a; Quarter Detlnts 1'57
! I I. €71
111 ' II

None
lI 1" t

w
At midpoint
II • '0
I
, ~I)
t

F9 At third points

At quarter
points
i
f
.• 1!L
I
t.t:

I 1 1
I

rk
1 01

I '(16
Uf

. 52 1
I

At fifth points f lli 11? I 0. • I?

1
l t; I
'-'o1e: Lateral bracing m.JSl always be provided a! pomls or support per AISC Spectficatlon Chapter F

Figure 6. L2 Va l ue~ for C~t for Simply Supported Beams. Copyright <£: Amen~:an lnstin.1te of
SLeel Cmmruction. Inc. Reprinted with Permission. All rights reserveu.

\fp

''
~~ ''
' 'I
E
~
E I
'' ' ' I
-------~----------~I'
0
E M,
I
0 I I '
.<:: I I ',
§ I I '-
z 1 I ' -...
I I ' -. - .
I I

L1, Lr
Unl,mced I~Hgth. L 11

Figut"e 6.13 Effect of Moment Gradient.

156 Chapter 6 Bendin~ ,\ lemben.

DL =X Cll.i("
LL =~-tO l.ip'

.l-1
I
IB ct
1--- - 10 t t - - t - 1 1 1 It - -

1 - - - - - - - - 2 0 fl-- - - - -
1150

11!0
For LRrO. 1.20 + Lfll.

'(()()

For -\SO. D + L
Figure 6.14 Beam L~ed in E\ample 6. 'i

As nn alternute upproad1. Munuul l'nbh: ~- 1 0 can be cnlcrcd "'ith an unbraced le ngth o f

10ft and the design \lrengt h tll'thc Wl4x3-l determined to be 170ft-kips.
Therefnrc.

the beam \\ill IIUI wurJ.. If(~ = 1.0

Part (b ) U~ me calcul<ttcd ,aJul.' 11f Cb

Step 5: Determine the correct cb f~lr thl! (\HI unhrucc..J \Cgmcnh uf the beam.
For the unbr.tccJ ,c~ment BC. Figure 6.12 ~an be u,ed to obtain Cb = 1.67. Thi'
C correspond' to the ma\tmum moment of ISO h-J..ip' at pomt B on the beam. The
WHx34 can re'1'1 lhi-. OlllltlC'Ill \\lllwulwn"denng C. a' \hown in Part (a) above.
For the unbr..tced ~~mcnt AB. Cb mu't be l"ah:ulated. U'tng Equation 6.16 and the
moment \-aJUC<; £1\CO in figure 6.13,

_ 12.5( I !I())
C
I - 2.51(llfl) + "\(l'7
' 'i) ~ 4(15.(1)+3(67.5) =
2 24
·
 6.4 Design of Compact Latemlly Unsupponed Wide Range Beams )57

Step 6: Determine the design morm:nt strength using the caJcuJated value of Cb and the dcsagn
momelll ~lrength detemlined trom Pan (a). Equation 6.13b amplified by C1, and limited
to <h.Wr.

d>MII = 2 :!41 170) = 381 ft-kip~ > M" = 205 ft-!.. ip-.
Therefore. the limiting w~ngth of the beam i!'
dJ.I/11 = 205 ft-kip• > 180 kip-fl. and

the \\' I.Jx3-l U. adequate for bending

Part lei Considenng thm C~t = 2.24. J ~ma i ler section can be tried.
Step 7: Assuming <IJM11 = <I>M1.. Lr) a Wl6x31. Derermine the ncecJec.l value~ tr"m \lanual
Table 3-l.
<f>,\111 = 203 ft-1-ip~. L, = -1.13 ft. L, = I J.9 rt. BF = I 0.2 lap"

Step 8: Becauhe L~t = 10ft > L 1, = -1.13 fL use Equation 6.J3b with C1,.
cbMn = Cn(<!IM, - BF(Lb- L 1,))

IbM = 1.2-1(203 - 10.~(1 0.0 - 4. 13)) = 2.24( 143) =320ft-kip'

where !j>M11 = 320 fl-kips > <I>Al r =203ft-k i p~

Thu~

•1>.\/. = 103 kip-ft > I RO fl-kip~

so thcW I6 x3 1 will al so work

EXAMPLE 6.Sb
GOAL: Detem1ine '' hether theW l-lx34 beam shown in Figure 6.1-t "Ill carry the given load.
Beam Strength and C.IO,Ilkr the moment gmdient. (a) c,.
= 1.0. (b) c~- from Equation (l 16 and. (c) determine the
Design by ASD lea't ,,.eight section to carry the load u:.ing the correct C1,.
Considering Moment
Gradient
G J\ EN: Figure 6. 14 shows a beam that is fix.ed at one support and pinned at tbe other. The
beam IM... a concentrmecl dead load of 8 kips and a concemrnted live load of 24 kips at midspan.
A-.~ume J latt!Ial broce :at both the :.uppons and the load point.

OLUTION Step I: Detemllnc: the required strength. For the lor.td combination of D + L

P, = C8.0) _._ (N.Ol = 32 kips

158 Chapter 6 Bendin!! ~1cmbers

Step 2: Detem1ine the maximum moment from nn elastic analysis at the fixed end. This is given
in Figure 6.1 ~as
M., = 120 ft-l,ips
Step 3: Determine the needed values fnnn ~l;mual Table 3-2 in order to use Equation 6.13c.

Wl.+x34, Z=5-l-6in.3 , L1,=5.40ft, L,=l5.6ft.

Mp/ Q = 136 ft-klP'· und BF = 5.05 kips
Part {a) Cb = 1.0

Step 4: Detennine the allowable moment ~trength for later~ll bracing of the compression flange
at the supports and the load, L~ = 10 1'1.
Because L 11 = 10ft > L 1,

~· = ( ci'- BF(Lh- Lp))

M.,/ Q = 136 - 5.05( I0.0 - 5.40) = I 13 ft-kips < 120 kip-ft

A1> an alternate approach. Manual Table 3-10 can be entered with an unbraced length of
I0 ft and the allowable strength of the W 14x 34 determined to be 113ft-kips.
Therefore.

the beam will not work if C1, = 1.0

Part I b) {j e the calculated \-alue of C,

Step 5: Determine the correct C,. for thl' two unbmced segment!> of the beam.
For the unbmced segment BC. Figure 6.12 can be used to obtain Cb l.67. This =
C11 corresponds to the maxmmm moment of 100 rt-kips at point B on lbe beam. The
W14 x 34 can re!>ist rhis moment "ilhout con 'idcring C1,. as shown in Part (a) above.
For the unbrnced segment AB. C~o mu~t be calculated. Using Equation 6.16 and the
moment values given in Figure 6.14.
c 1.2.5( 120)
2 24
2.5( 120) + 3(65.0) + 4( I0.0) + 3{45.0)
11
= = ·
Step 6: Determine the allowaible moment strength using the calculated value of Cb and the
al lowable moment strcngtJ1 determined from Part {a), Equation 6.13c amplified by Cb
and limited to Mp/rl.

M.n = C,'(M
- - - BF L1 - L
n 'P- n
M,
1, ( ))
< -

M 1./Q = 2.24{113) =253ft-kips > M1,/S'l = L36ft-lcips

Therefore. the limiung strength of the beam is

Mp/S'l = 136 ft-kips> I:!Okip-ft. and

the W 14x 34 i~ adequate for bending

Part (c) Considering thatCh = 2.24. a smaller section can be tried.

 6.5 De:.ign of Noncompact Beams 159

Step 7: A~\umingM,/Q = Mr,fQ, try a W l6xJI. Detcm\ine the needed values from Manual
Table J-2.
W,/Q = 13Hip-ft. L,=4.13ft. L,= 11.9ft. BF=6 . 76kip~
Ste p 8: Because Lb = I 0 n > L ,, = ~. 13 ft. use Equation 6.13c \\ itb C11 •

M, { rl = 2.2-l( 135 - 6.76UO.O- 4.13)) = 2.24(95.3) = 211tt-kip~

\\h.:re M,./9. = 113fi-.kap-.. ..,. Mp{ O. = 135ft-kips

Thus
AI,.! Q = 135 kip-ft > 120 rt-klp~

so theW 16x31 will abo work

6.5 DESIGN OF NO'\"CO.\IPACT BEAMS

6.5.1 Local Buckling
L ~ budJmg occurs when a compre-,~ton element of a cross section buckles und~r load
be: ·rc it rcachec; the yield stres~. Becau-.e this buckling occur at a tress IO\\ er than the
~ tt d ... trC'..,.. Lhe hape i-. not capable nl reaching Lhe pl<~li~o: IUOint:nt Thu!i>. the :.uen~th of
the member ill something less than t\11,. Buckling of the nange nnd web element'>. anJ lateral
ION• nal buc.:kl ing of' the section. do not O<.'CUf in isolation M1 it is difficult [Q iiJU"tnlle them
mdi• tJually. Figure 6.15 primarily illw.tralC'i local buckling of the compre~'IOn nange of
':t ' ' 10e rlange beam during loading in an experimental test. The~e failure<, \'~'-ur "hen the
fi..,r ~e or\\ eb are slender and can be predicted through the ul.e of the plate buc.kltng equation
Ji .... ~...~ed in Chapter 5. The projecting flange of a wide flange member h con-.tdered an
Ul .. tffened elemcn· because me web -.upports only one edge \\ herea~ the other edge is
ur-.upportetl and free to rotare. The wide flange web is connected at b01h its cuds to the
11.1";e~ ~o it is considered a "stiffened" clumenl.
Tahle 8~.1 of the Specification provides the limiting slenderness value!\, Ap. for the
ll:m,;e .md \\eb in order to in~ure that the fuJI plastic momem .. trcnglh can be reached. When
both the ~angc and web meet these criteria. the shapes are called compact shapes. lf t:ilher
element J ,:oe, not meet the criteria. the <:hape cannot be called compact and the nominal
... tren:;th mu.;r he reduced. These o:hapcs are discussed here.
f or the ll.tnge of a W-shape LObe compact, Case 1 tn Table B4. 1, its witlth-thick.ness
ratio mu' t '..tthf) the fo llowing limit:
,--

A1 = ~ ~ i•pt = 0.38 ~ : (6.17)

For the web to be compact. Case 9 in Table 8-U. the limiting ratio is

).,. II
=-~A 1m=3.76
r.,
If
-
F,
(6.18)
160 Chapter 6 Bending J\lcmbcrs

Fi.gurt' 6.15 E\ample of Flange Lot:al Budd mg.

Phot< Cnun.,, o,m.lld W. Whit.:

L·~tng th~ .:ommon A992 Meet with F = 50 J..'i. the!-c limits become:
for .t t:ompact Aange

aml ft>r u compact web

h
- :5. A.p,. = 90.6
1,.
Acompan..:on 11fth1!se limits with the datu given in Manual Table 1-1 -.hows that the majority
of the W --.hape' have compact tlanges anell all have compact web~.
Figure 6.16 til u'trates these dimensions for !;everal common I> u..ed !;ections along with
the slcndeme:., ltmih ~ found in Specilh:ation Table 84.1. Other \hapes can be found in
Table 84. 1 of the Sre~:thcuuon

6.5.2 Flange Local Buckling

The full range of nominal moment ~trcngth, t'vl,, of a cross section can be expressed as a
function of flange '\lcndernc.,,. i 1 • and that relationship is shown in Figure 6. 17. The U1ree
region-; in the figure identif) three types or behavior. The liN regton represents plastic
behavmr. in which the shape '' capable of anaining its full plastic moment strength. T his
stre ngth wa!) di~cussed in Section 6.2. Shapes that faJI into t11i~ region are called compacr.
The bl!havior exhibited in the middle region is inelastic and shapes that fit this category
are called noncompact. Shapes that fall into the last region exhibit elaslic buckling and
are called slender silapes. The provisions for these la\t two fonns of behavior are given in
Specification Section F3.
 6.5 Design of Noncompact Beam:; 161

(!)
Limiting Width-
Ill Width Thickness Ratios
«<
(.)
Thick-
Description of ness )..P )..,
Element Ratio (compact) (noncompact) Example
1 Flexure in flanges of
rolled t-shaped
sections and
channels
b{t 0.38j E/ Fy 1.0JE/ Fy

=r. ~
~
~
-bll

,,,,,~
~

2 Flexure in flanges of bft 0.38jE/ Fy 0.95)kcEf Ft (a].(bJ -b;-J

doubly and singly Z2ZUi22JtU+
symmetric !-shaped 3! I
bu1l1-up section s ~
~..:
i'!
~
"'""""ib•. ,.
7 Flexure In flanges of
:ees

9 Flexure 111 webs of

bj t

hf lw
0.36j E{ Fy

3.76 j E/Fy
1.0.../EJ Fy

5.70)E/ Fy
=r· =
~
doubly symmetric
!-shaped sections
ard channels
-lw

L '

13 Flexure In webs of
·ectangular HSS
hf t 2 42" E/ Fy 5.70./E/ Fy

rrt
la,,tz?j
'
~

fi~ure 6. 16 Definition of Element Slenderness from Specification Table B-+.1 . Copyrighl@

-\'flencan lnslitmc of Steel Consrruction. Inc. Reprinted with Permission. All rights reserved.

M,=F.,,z A.-A.

/
M., =Mp- (M1,-M,l~
I/ 1-- - - ' - - - . A, -1\p
-.< ~ I
~ I
I
I
I
I

------,---------------
1
I

I
I I
I I
1PhhtJ,"I 1 (lnelaslic:) 1
Compact 1 Noncompac.:t 1

i~(p }'fr

Flan!!e slenderness. i, =!:.

' I

Figut·c 6.17 Fla.ng~ Local Buckling Srrcng_th.

162 Chapter 6 Bending ~rembers

For J-shaped sections. the dividing line between a compact and noncompact flange
wa~ given in Equation 6.!7. The divi~ion between noncompact anu slender flange section~
is a function of the residual stresse!> that exist in the hot rolled member. As was the case
with lateral torsional buckling, the Specification assumes that ela!'>tic behavior continue
up to the point where the elastic moment Mr,.'-B = 0.7F1 S;r.. This corresponds to a flange
slenderness, as found in Specification Table 84.1. or

i.,, = 1.0 {£ (6.19)

yF":
The strength at the junction of compact and noncom pact behavior is
M, = \fr = F,Z
whereas at the junction of the noncompact und slender behavior. the moment is defined as
M ,FLn = 0.1F, S,
The strength for noncompact :.hapes i~ repre<;ented by a straight line between these point;;.
Thu!..

i\1/, = [ Mp - (M,,- M rFI.R ) ( A.- )., '.1 . ) ]

1
(6.20)
)...,1- Apj
For A991 'teel with F~ =50 k~i. Equation 6.19 provides an upper limit to the non-
compact flange or

Att = 1.0 /£ = 24.1

{F.
Are\ iew of Manual Table 1-1 forb 1 j2r1 shows thar there arc noW-shapes witl1 flanges
that exceed this limit. Thus, all wide flanges ha\'e either compact or noncompact Ranges. A
further review of tile table~ shows that only I 0 W-~hapes have noncom pact flanges.

6.5.3 Web Local Buckling

A comparil>on of the slenderness criteria for web local buckling given in Equation 6.18
with the data available in Manual Table 1-1 for h /111 indicates that all wide flange shapes
have compnct webs. Thu:., the consideration of noncompact W-shape5 i~ a conl>ideration of
only nange local buckling and there i-; no need to address slender elementS for W-shapes.
Slender \\Cbs. however. are addressed for built-up members in Chapter 7 al> plate girders.

EX,\.\IPLE 6.6 GOAL : For a W6x t5. detem1ine the (aJ nommal moment Mrength. (bJ design moment Mrength
Bending Strength of (LRFD). and (C) al!owabh: moment strength (ASD).
Noncompact Beam
G IVEN: A simpl) supported W6x 15 ~pans 10 ft. It ts bmccd at the end~ and at the midspan
(L11= 5 ft). The steel is A992.

SOLUTION Part (a) Detcm1ine lh<! nominal ~trcngth.

Step L: Check the hmit~ for flange local buckling.

For Lhe flange. from Manual Table l-1.

-b, = II.:>- > 1.. 1,1

2t 1
= 0.38
\
(f.
- = 9.15
F,
 6.5 Design of Noncompact Beams 163

Therefore. the flange is nor compncr. Checking for a slender flange, even though our previous
re,·iew of the Manual data indicated that no W-shapes exceeded this requirement

-?.brl = I 1.5 <

1
Arf
·
= I .0 If
-
F,
= 24. I
Bec:tuse ),1if < /)1/ 2r1 < ),,1 • the shape has a noncompact fla nge.
Step 2: Cheri-. the limit states for web local buckling.
For the web, from Manual Table 1- 1

,
-
1,.
= 11.6 < f.1m = 3. 76 If.
-
F,.
= 90.6

So Lhe web is compact. as e:-.pected from our earlier evaluation.

Step 3: Because the shape is noncompact (flange) . detem1i ne the nominal momem ,;trength by
Equation 6.20 with

M 1, = F Z, = 50( 10.8 ) = 540 in.-kips

M,pu1 = 0.7 F, S, = 0.7(50)9.72 = 3-1-0 in.-kips

Thus.

M, =
11.5 - 9. 15 ) ] = 509 .uJ.-ktps
.
[ 540 - (5.,10- 340) ( 24.1-9. 15
And. for flange local buckling
509 in.-k.i p . .
1\lf, = = 42.4 lt-ktps
12 in/ ft
~ tep .,1; Check for the limit srate of lateral-wrsional buckling.
For this shape.

L l, = 1.76,-,. v[£
F: = 1. 76( 1 .4.~)
- ;29,000
----so = -.
6 1.=> m.

Thus. 1..1, = 5.13 ft. which is greater than L1> = 5.0 ft. so the beam i-. aJequmely braced to
resist the plastic moment. For lateral wrsionul buckling

!V/11 = M p = F , Z = 540 in.-kips

or
M 11 = 540/ 12 = 45.0 ft-ki p~

Step 5: Because ~he mo ment based on flange local buckling. -l2.4 1'1-ki ps, is less than the moment
based on l ate raJ-tor~ iona l buckling. +5.0 fL-kips. local bucl-.ling controls and

M 11 = 42.4 i't-kips

Pa rt Cb l For LRFD.
Step 6: Derem1ine the design moment

<J>M, = 0.9(42.4) = 38.2 k ip-li.

164 Chapter 6 Bending :-. !embers

Part (c) For ASD.

Step 7: Detennine the allowable mom~::nt.

42.4
M11
-
Q
= -
1.67
= 25.4 ft·. ktpS
.

6.6 DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR WEAK AXIS BENDING

Up to this point. J-,haped beams have been assumed to be bending about an axis paralle l
to their flanges. called the x-axis. A quick scan of the shape property tables in the Manual
shows that the ection modulus and plastic sectio n modtllus about the .r-tt.x..is arc larger than
the corresponding values about the other otthogonal axis, they-axis. Thus, bending about
the x-axis b called ~Jrong a:o:is bendillf!. whereas bending about they-axis i~ called weak
uxis or minor axiJ bending. Although beams are not nom)alJy oriented for bending about
this weak a xi~. a c;ituation may a ri e \\hen il is necessary to determine !be s tre ngth of a
beam in thi<. orientation.
Design of !-shaped beams for weal-. axis bending is relatively easy. Section F6 of the
Specification applies to !-shaped member and channels bent about their minor axis. Two
limit state' are identified: yielding and flange local buckling. The flange and web referred
to here are the same clemems as when the shape is bending about its major axis. Thus. the
limits on flange sle nderness arc the sttmc as discussed earlier. For those few W -:,hapes with
noncompact flange!.. an equation similar to that used previously for noncomp.act Ranges is
required.
For the linrit state of yielding

M,. = M, = F,.Z1. :S 1.6F,S,

An I-~haped member bending about its weak axis has propcnies close to those o f a rectangle.
For the rectangle. the ratio o ft he plastic moment to the elastic yield moment. caJied the shape
factor. equals I.5. The addition of the web alters the ela.<aic section modulus and plastic
section modulus so that the shape factor for these weak axis bending members exceeds
1.5. To in!ture an appropriate level of ro tational capacity at the plas tic limit state, the shape
factor ror weak axis bending i'> limited to 1.6. All but four W-shapes meet this limitation.
Although !-shaped me mbers are not often called upon to cany moment about the
y-axis a'i pure bending members, tl1ey are called upon to pat1icipate in combined bending
as discussed in Section 6. 12 and combined with axial load as discus. ed in Chapter 8.

6.7 DESIGN OF BEAMS FOR SHEAR

Chapter G of the Speci ficmion e. tablishes the requirements for beam shear. AI though shear
fail ure. are uncommon with rolled sections . a beam can fail by shear yicldjng or shear
buckling. Beam webs also need to be checked for shear ruplure on the net area of the web
when bolt holes are pre!;ent. Shear rupture is addressed in the discu sion of connection in
Chapter 10.
The no minal shear yielding strength is based o n the von Mises criterion, which states
that for an unreinforccd beam web that is stocky enough not lo fail by buckling. the shear
 6.8 Continuous Beams 165

=
strength can be taken as Frf ,J3 0.58 F, . The specification rounds thi. stress to 0.6F, and
provides. in Specification. Section G2. the shear trength as ·

(6.21)

where A,. b the area of the web, tah.en as the total depth times the web thickness.
The web shear coefficient. C,.. is used to account for shear web buckling. Thus, if
the web i" capable of reaching yield. C,. = 1.0. To insure that the beam web is capable of
reaching~ ie ld before buckling, the Specification sets the limit on web slenderness of

where k, = 5 for unstiffened webs with h/ /11• < 260. All current ASTM A6 rolled 1- haped
=
member; have webs that meet the criteria for k,. 5. and all A992 \\'-:-.hape!' meet the
criteria for web yielding.
Thu . the nominal shear strength of a rolled W- hapc can be taken a.

(6.22)

Determining the shear design strength or allowable strength is complicated b) a ' a ri-
auon tn resistance and safety factors. To keep the beam shear strength provisions the arne
in the 2005 Specification as in earlier allowable stress specifications, the resistance and
,afet~ factors for a particular set of rolled r- hape was liberalized. Thus. for web of rolled
[-,hapes \\ith h/ fu· S 2.24J Ej F,

<!> = 1.0 (LRFD) S1 = 1.5 (ASD)

For all other shapes,

<!> = 0.9 (LRFD) Q = 1.67 (ASD)

Because shear rarely controls the design of rolled beams, it may be more convenient,
\\hen not using tables from the Manual, to simply usc the more conservati,·e factors for all
,hear checks.

6.8 CONTINUOUS BEA~ lS

B~am, that span over more than two support!\ are called continuous bean1s. Unlike simple
beam~ . cominuous beams are indeterminate and must be anal) zed by applying more than
the three basic equations of equilibrium. Although indeterminate analysis is not within the
-.cope of thi' book, a few topics should be addressed, even if only briefly.
The \lanual includes shears. moments. and deflection for several continuous beams
"ith ,·:uiou<. uniform load panems in Table 3-23. These re ults come from an elastic in-
determinate analysis and can be u ed for the design of any beam that fit the suppon and
load ing condition .
It ha' long been known that material ductility permits teel members to redistribute
load. When one section of a member becomes overloaded. it can redistribute a portion of
its load to a le' highly loaded section. This redistribution can be accounted for through
an analysis method called Plastic Analysi or a number of more modem methods capable
of modeling the real behavior of the members. These methods may collectively be called
Adva11ced Analysis and used in structural steel design by the provisions of Appendix I. This
166 Chapter 6 Bending Members

appenctix also provides a simplified approach to account for some of this ductility through
Appendix 1.3.
Design of beams and girders thm are compact and have sufficiently braced compression
flanges may take advantage of this 'implified redistri bution approach. The compact criteria
are those already discussed. whereas the unbraced length criteria are a bit more restrictive
To use the simplified redistribmion. the unbraced length of the compression flange. L,,
must be less than that given in Appendix Sectio n I .7 a

(6.23)

When these criteria are satisfied. the beam can be proportioned for0.9times lhe negative
moments at point~ of upport. This redistribution is pem1irted only for gravity-loading
cases and momems determined through an elastic analysis. When this reduction in negative
moment is used. the po itivc moment mu't be increased to maintain equilibrium. This can
be accomplished ~imply by aclding to the maximum positive momenL 0.1 times the average
original negative moments.

EXAMPLE 6.7a GOAL: Select a compact fully brnced ":ction for usc as a continuous beam.
Continuous Beam
Design by LRFD GlVEN: The beam must be continuou' over three spans of 30 ft each. It must suppon a live
load of :!.5 kip/ft and a dead load of 1.8 ldp/ft. Ose A992 steel.

SOLUTION Step l: Determme the requ1red strength.

The design load i~ w. = 1.2( 1.8) + 1.6(2.5) = 6. 16 kip/ ft
From the beam shear. moment. and deflection diagrams in ~ lanual Table 3-23, Case
39. the negative moment i!>
-MB.~ = O.I0011P =0.100(6.16){30)z = 554 ft-ktp

and the positive moment is

+ M£1..1 == 0.080011'1~ = 0.0800(6.16)(30) 2 = 4-l-l ft-kips
Step 2: Consider redi~trib~ttion of moments according to Specification Appendix I .
A design could be carried out for a maximum moment of 55~ ft-k.ips but with
redistribution. this moment may be reduced tO
MilA = 0 .9(554) = 499 ft-kips
provided that the positive moment is increased by the average negative moment reduc-
tion. Thus.
0 + 0.1(554) .
MAB = 4+1 + = 472 ft-ktps
2
Step 3: Detetmine the required plastic secrion modulu,.
Even with the increase in positive moment, the negative moment is still the maximum
moment so. for a moment of 499 ft-kips,

z,..,= -499(12)
09 =
. (50)
133m.
. '

Step 4: Select the lea~t-weight W-shape from Manual Table 3-2.

Select u W24x55. with Z = 134 in:\

 6.9 Pla~tic Analysis and Design of Conrinuou~ Beams 167

EXAMPLE 6.7b
GOAL: Select a compacl. fully brJced section for use a~ a continuous beam.
Continuous Beam
Design by ASD GJ\'E\: The beam must be conunucms over three spans of 30ft each. It mu~t suppon a live
load of 2.5 kip!ft and a dead load of 1.8 kip/ft. Use A992 steel.

SOLUTION Step 1: Detennine the requil'ed strength.

The design load i~ 11'., = ( 1.8) + (2.5) = 4.3 kip/ft
From the beam shear. moment. and deflection diagrams in Manu.d Table 3-23,
Case 39, the negative moment is
-M111 = U.IOOw/~ = 0.100(4.3)(30)2 = 387 ft-ki~
and the positive moment I!>
+M~~,1 = U.0800w/2 = 0.0800(4.3)(30)2 = 310 It-kip'
"tep 2: Consider redistribution of moments according to Specification Appenun; 1
A design could be earned out for a maximum moment of 387 ft-lap- but with
redistribution, th.is mom~nt may be reduced to
MBA = 0.9(387) =348ft-kip>
provided that the positive moment is increased by the average negative moment rl!duc-
tion.
Thus,
0+0.1(387) .
M,-t11 = 310 + =329ft-kips
2
tcp 3: Detennine the required pla~ttc section modulus.
Even with this increase in the posit.ive moment. the negative moment 1\ stili tht:
maximum moment so. for a moment of 348 ft-kip:.
348( 12) . 3
Z"q = (50/1.67) = 139m.
_ tcp ~: Select the le.1St-weight W-shape from Manual fable 3-2.

I Select a W21 x61. with Z = 144 in.' I

6.9 PLASTIC ANALY I AND DESIGN OF CONTINUOUS BEAMS

L r 11 thh point. it has been as. umed that the plastic moment qrength of a bending member
could be compared to the maximum elastic moment on a beam to satisfy the strength
requ.rements of the Specification. This is accurate for detem1inate member!> in which the
occurrence of the plastic moment at the single poim of maximum moment results in the
de' elopmcm of a single plastic hinge. which would ledJ to member faHurc. However, for
inde1em1inate structures. such as continuou!; beanh. more than one plastic hinge must form
before the t>eam would actually collapse and thi" prO\' ide~ some additional capacity that the
ela"tic an,ll~ :o.i'- cannot capture. The formati on of plastic hinges in the appropriate locations
cau'e' a co !lap-.~: and the geometry of this collapse is called afailure or collapse mechanism.
Thi' is the approach referred to as Plastic Analysis that is permitted by Appendix 1 of the
Speci licution for use "ith LRFD only.
The formation of a beam faiJurc mechanism may best be understood by following
the load history of a fi'(ed-endecl beam with a uniformly distributed load. The beam and
168 Chapter 6 Bending \)ember-.

II' c 1111111111111111111111111 'ii

~
IIIIIIIJIIII!IIIIIIIIII!~ )
L - - ---i
"'

Tv~1tl~~2
11L-
8
-+
I,
I
_j__
w (a l __L

MJI
C''I "• !)
)JJjjji j] JI]]j]jjjjjj]j]j]Jjj]jjjj]j) j]]jj]]jj]j]jj ~ 11,

''•( lllllllllllll!!llll!ll~l!llilillll!llllll!l~ ) "·

~Jp

.}~1'·
_j__
-t,l' (C I _L.

Figure 6.11! Beam UIIU Moment Oiagnuns for the Development ol u Plastil' vl~l:hanasm.

moment diagram\ thnt result from an elastic indeterminate analysi!'. arc given in Figure
6.18a. The largest moment-. occur at the fixed end:. and are given b~ H'L'!112. If the load on
the beam 1\ increa'>ed, t11e beam beha\C!'. ela-,ticall) untilihe moments on the ends equal the
pia~ lie moment strength oltht! membl!r. as 'hown in Figure 6. 1Xb. Becau~c the application of
additional load cauo;c:-. the member to rotate <ll its ends" hile maintaining the pi<bllC mosm:m.
thC\C poilll!> behave a., pim•. These ptns are called plastic hinf!e.\. Jn this case. the load ;.,
designated as n·1. The member can continue to accept lo<1ll beyond thb ll't· functioning
a.-. a simple beam, until a third phhtic hinge f'onn.' at the beam centerline. The furmation
<.)f this lh1rd hinge makl!~ the beam unsra.ble. thus forming the collap~>C mechanism. The
mechanism and corresponding moment diagram are given in Figure 6.18c.
For the collapse mechani<.mju~t described. equ11ibrium requires that the 'imple be<tm
moment 11 "L ~ / 'cl. equal twice the pl:mic momcnr. thu.,

l6..2..J.)
 6.9 Pl~tic Ano.lysis and Des.ign of Continuous Beam!. 169

Had thi-; beam been designed ba.'>ed on an elaJ>llc anaJy~is. it would have required a
moment capacity greater than or equal to 11'11 L 1 I 12. Using a plastic analysis, a smaller
plastic moment r.trength. equal to 11 11 L 2116, must be pro' ided for in the dc~ign. Thu~. in
this ca..\e of an indetem1inate beam. pla-.tic analysis has the potential to rc,ull in a smaller
member being required to carry this o;;ame load.
An additional advantage to the use or plastic analysis for indeterminJte beams is the
simplicll} of the analysis. By observauon. regardless of the overall geomctr: 11f the contin-
uou~ bt!am. each segment between suppons can be evaluated independent!~ of each other
segment. Thil. mean:. !hat any beam segment. continuous at each end and kladed with a
uniform!) dt..,tributed load, exhibit, the same collapse mechanism. Thu'. the relation be-
t,,een the applied load and !he pla,tic moment will be as given in Equaut n ft.24. Plastic
anal>,., rr.!<iults f'or additional lontling and beam configurations are gl\ r.!n tn Figure 6.19.
AddHional examples. as well as the development of these relations through .tpplil:ation of
energ~ principles, can be found in \1!\craJ textbooks including Appft('d Pic '"t Desig11 in
Sted:
Tn in~ure that a gjven beam cro~'> ection can undergo the nece... ~ar~ l'lll3ll~'n at eacb
pi:J...,tK hinge, the Specificationrequirl!s thatlh\.: section be compact anti that the l.:l'111pre ion
flange be braced such that the unbral'ell length in the area ofLhe hinge ill lc~~ than that alread)
gi\eO J' L,~, in Equation 6.23. rr thi' limit is not satisfied. !he member tlc~ign mu~ot be based
on dJ1 ela,tic anaJysis.

EXAMPLE6.8
GO.\ L: Design a beam using pla..ti~. unalysi~ nnd A992 steel. Plastic anulysis is applicable
Beam Design with
ml~ wr LRFD load combinations.
Plastic A nalysis
tLRFDonly)
GJYE:'ol: A beam i~ simply supponed at (\II~' end and lixed at the other. similar to that ~hown
m Figure 6. 14 for Example 6-5. It span.. :!0 It .uld is loaded at its centerline with u ut:tld load of
It-o J...1p' and u live load or 48.0 J...1p&. Ldt~r.tl 'uppClrt i:. pmvided at the l!nd<> and at ~a~h 1/~ pomt
Ctt the 'fl"n. II is as~umed the final section\\ 1!1 he compact and adequately braced

SOLUTION 5tep I: Determine the required strength.

P,, = 1.2( 16.0) + 1.6{-18.0) = 96.0 kip\

u~ing the plastic analysi~ result~ from Figure 6.19c

P£ti1 96.0(1 0.0)( 10.0) , C. ,.

<.j..M1 -
"'.'1 -
-
(a+ 2b) - ( 10.0 + 1( 10.0)1
= --
,, l lt-"1p~

tt:p 2: Select the required W-shape from Munual Table 3-::!.

W21 x 4-t. <bMp = 3581t-J..tp~

Step 3: C.1kulnte the maximum penniued unbrnced length through Equation 6.23
Fr•'m Ivlanual Table 1-1. r, = 1.26 in.

= [0.12 +0.076( 0)] (29.000) (1.26) = 87.7tn..

1:!0 ~

~ Disque. R. Q.~\pplu·cl Doil{ll ill Stet'l New York· V;m "Jo,tmnd Reinhold Compan), t971.
170 Chapter 6 Bendmg \!ember~

\f11 • U.OS5!S "L!

//o'/, , • 0..11-1 L
I

Ia)

~ I ~~ MP I'L
X
~
I· /J' .I IP..--

II,

tbl

~j H •
"
..f!.!.!L
n• 2h

< 1 - --

I: L

(CI

Figure 6.19 Loading and Beam Conhgurution-. R~sultmg from Pta-.tic \naly~i~.

I Step -': Ched. the initial a~-.umpuom on cnrnp:u.:tnc~-. and latcrnl bracmg.
Because the pn1' ided unbr.u:cd length equal-. 5 It or 60 in.. and this is less than
the ma..'\tmum permined unl'raccd length of 87.7 in .. the bracmg of this W21 x 44 •~
acceptable for pla,tic: dc'i~n. A c.: heck of the compact tlange and "eb criteria show that
this ~hape ts compact
Th~.

~'eu W21~
 6.10 Provisions I or Doub!e-Ang!e and Tee Member.. 171

6. 10 PROVISIONS FOR DOUBLE-ANGLE AND TEE MEMBERS

Provi ions for beams formed by combining a pair of angles to form a T. and beams made
from a T th:u has been Cut from an 1- hape. arc found in Section F9 or the Specification.
These pro'L ions are specifically for these singly symmetric member loaded in the plane
of symmt:Lr) wi th the stem either in Lens.iuu or compression. Three limit states musr be
considered tn the design of these T- haped members: yielding. lateral-toro;IOnal buckling,
and Range local buckling. The stem has no local buckling provisi.ons becau e. when the
tem j, in compression. tbe ection i:. Iimjted to an ela tic sLress distribuuon.

6.10.1 Yielding
For the limit ~ tate of yielding
1Hn = Mp = FyZt
and \/ 1 limited. depending on the orientation of the ection. For the rem in ten,ron
M, ~ l.6My = 1.6F,. S.~

and tor the tcm in compressjon

.\11, ~ My= F,.Sl

The e limits are necessary to in ~ure that the member is capable of rotating. ufficientl)
to auam the plastic mo ment strength without the extreme fibers of the shape reaching the
,t:fain-hardening region.

6.1 0.2 Lateral·Torsional Buckling

L.lteraJ-tor iooal buckling also must account for the orientation of the shape. The nominal
'trength i given by

(6.25)

"here

B =±2.3 L~o ( d) V]
{/;
The plu sign forB applies when the stem is in tension. the more table orientation for
lnteraltor,ionaJ buckling. The negative sign forB is to be used if any portion of the stem is
in compres!Oion along the span.

6.10.3 Flange-Local Buckling

The limit \tate of flange-local buckling for the e hapes rel~ects the same behavior as for
the 1-shape' already con idered. ln fact, the limiting width/thickness ratios are the same
a discus ed earlier. For compact flanges. the limit state of flange local buckling does not
llpply. For noncompact nanges, Ap < ). ~ A.,

M, bf )V£
= FyStc (1. 19 -0.50(211 rr:) (6.26)
172 Chapter 6 Den ding Members

and for slender flanges Ar < )..

0.69ES_,('
Mu = 2 (6.27)

(~~)
where Sw: is the section modulus referred to the compression flange. If the stem is in
compression, this limit state does not apply.

EXAMPLE6.9 GOAL: De tennine the no.minal moment ~trength for the given WT member if the stem i in (a)
Bending Strength of tension (Figure 6.~0a l and (b) compression (Figure 6.20b).
WT-shape
GJVEN: A WT9 x 17.5 is used as a beam and has lateral support provided at 5-ft intervals.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the section properties for the WT-shapes from Manual Table 1-8.

Z , = 11.2 in. 3 , S, = 6.21 in.3 . d = 8.85 in.. l, = 7.67 in:'. J = 0.252 in.~
Part (a) Determme the nominal moment !>trength for the stem in tension. The WT is oriented as shown
in f igure 6.20a.
Step 2: Determine the nominal moment strength for the limit state of yielding.

M 1, = F, Z, = 50( 11 .2) = 560 in.-kips

and

M_,. = F, S, = 50(6.21) = 311 in.-kips

but the strength is limited by

M" 5 1.6M, = 1.6(311) = 498 in.-kips

Thus.

M,, = 498 in.- kips fortbe limit state of yielding

Step 2: Detennine the nominal moment strength for the limit state of lateral-torsional buckling.
Detem1ine B from Equation F9-5.

8 = ±2.3 -
L,, ( d)!§- · = 2.3 (8.85)/lll;
J
-
60.0
--67
- = ± 1.87
0.252

8 is taken as positive for the stem in tension so th•1t Equation 6.25 becomes

M, = M,, = 7r j29,000(7 .67)( 11.200)(0.252) [

GO.O 1.87 + j I + 1.87-
~J - . .
= .'l240 1n.-kips

(a) (b)

Figure 6.20 T-Beam Orientation for Exam ple 6.9.

 6.11 Single-Angle Bending Memhcr!> 173

and
5240 .
M, = 1"2 = 437 ft-k•ps

Step 3: Con-:ider the limit state of nunge local buckling.

The limit Slate of nangc local bud..Jing does not apply lO the \\19 v 17.5 because the
tl.111ge is compact. so the num111al moment strength or thi!> WT is the ..mallcr trength given
b} the limit ~tates of yieldrng and latcrul-torsional buckling. Thus.

I M,. = .J-37 ft-kip~ I

Pan I bt Oeterminc the nomtnaJ momem strength for the stem in comprc"ivn The \\T 1' orientetl
.1.' shm\ n in Figure 6.20b.

tep .J.: DetemJine the nominal moment strength for the limit state of yteldtng.
Mp b limited toM, ~o that. from above
M, = M, = 311 in.-J..ip~

."tep 5: Determine the nominal moment strength for the limit stote of lateral-torsional bud. .!mg.
8 is taken as negative ~o that

II, =M,,=
rr J29.000( 7.671111.200)(0.252) [ -1.1)7 -r JI+ (-1.87)"'] =329m-~p>
60.0
Step 6: Determine the controlling limu ~tate Mn.mgth for the WT with the stem in c:ompre,"on.
311
\J = - = 25.9 ft-~ips
12
1\ote: This example shows that u-.rng a WT-shape with the !.!em in comprc,,son ~•gnif­
icantly penali.~cli the 1>lrength of the member. Even so. beams witll this onent.ttton are
often easier to construct. ~uch 3l> lintel' 111 ma~onry walls where \\T, are u•cJ 111 this
onemation.

6.11 SINGLE-ANGLE BE~DING MEMBERS

\\hen ~tngle angles arc used as bending members. they can be bendrng about one of the
geometrk axis. parallel to the legs, or about the principal axe-.. The) are often used as
limeh O\er opening. in masonry walls where they are bending about the geometric axes.
L"nit 'rtunately, this most useful orientation of the single-angle bentli ng member is also the
m0~t complex orientation for Lhe determination of strength. Figure 6.21 a shows a single
angle \)ricmed for bending about the geometric axis whereao; Figure 6.2 1b shows the angle
onenteJ for bending about the principal a.xis.

--ff==?-
-- L- u
!;tJ Ge-t~m.:rrk a.\1~ bt!ndinJ! fbl Prinnpal axis bend1ng.
Figure 6.21 Single-Angle Bending About Geometric: Axis (lmJ Principal Axis.
174 Chaptc..'r6 B<..'nding \krnber;

Specification Section FlO gi,·e~ the prcwi'>ions l't1rsingle-ongle bending members. The
limit state'> to be checkeJ fnr these member-. arc y•elding,lmeraltor~ional bucklmg, and lt.!g
local buekling. For the treatment here. onl.> fully braced angh!!> benuing about u geomctrit'
:.tXI\ arc dbcu.ssed.

6.11.1 Yielding
TI1c ratio (lithe pl<l'-lic secuon modulu' to the dastic \ection mollulu-. f\1r angle~ can ea\il)
exceed 1.5. Thus. 1n order to be '>Ure that the angle i-. nm strained inwthe <;train hardening
region. the nominnl moment for lht: limit state of yielding ill taken as
1'.>1, = l 5.\1 = 1.5F, S
\\.hereS b taken a-. the lea ..t section modulu-. about the axb or bending.

6.11.2 Leg Local Buckling

Leg:-. of angles 111 compre~"ion han: the ..ame tendency to buckle a'- mher .:ompres11ion
element.-.. SpecJhc;llton Table 84-1 dchne' the ~lenderne~!> us b/t. in Ca,e 6. a'

nnll

i., = O.lJ I fE
{~
The -.trength of noncompnct and ~lender angles ts shO\\ n in Figure 6.22. In the re-
gion 0! noncompact bella\ iur. t.he stra.ight-line tran~ition i-. given 111 the Specilicallon a'
Equauon FI0-7

anti the cla,tic buckling -.trcngtll is given a'>

M _0
_._7_1£-:S:-,
~~- (~r
where S, i' the elastic section modulus to the toe in compres~inn. rdntive to the axi~ Clf
bending.

E
;" I
I
= O.R6 II,
c
---- - -~--------- -
§
z.

Fi~re 6.22 Strength m a Smgle Angle 1n a Func11on of Leg Slenderness.

 6.13 Seniceability Criterin for Beam~ 175

6.11.3 Lateral-Torsional Buckling

The limit <;tate of lateral torsional buckling depend)\ on whether the toe of the angle is in
temion or compression. It is also a function of the axes of bending. The Specification gives
the '>trcngth provi!>ions for four different bending orientation-;. You are encouraged to study
these prm ision!-. and 10 work lO\\ard orienting the sectiQns and providing l<tteral restraint
so that the angle can cany it~ greatest bending moment.

6.12 MEMBERS IN BIA:\.'IAL BENDING

BenJmg members are often calh:~d upon to resist forces that result in bending about two
orthogonal axes. Examples or thb member type are crane girder<> and root purhns in indus-
trial build ing:.. Regardless of the actual orientation or an applied moment. 11 j, possible to
brake the moment into componem-, about the two principal axes. a'> shu"n tn Figure 6.23.
Once tht' 1::. accomplished. the abtlit) of the section to resist lhe combined moment' can be
deter:':ntneJ through the interaction equation.
The Specilicarion. Chapter H. addresses the interaction of force-.. For tht' <.:ombination
0f moments. a :-;imple linear interactton e4uation is used. as shown in Figure 6.2~ This is
taken from the equation provided in Specification Seclio n HI for combined axial load <mu
moment. \Vhen the ax iul loud 1::. tero. Equation H 1-1 b reduce~ to
M, Mn·
- + - · :::: 1.0
\1 M,.,.

\\here the moment terms relate to the x- andy-axes. the numerator is the re<juired strength.
and tht: denominator is the available "trength. dele1mincd as though the member wa, bending
••c-,~ut nnl) one axis at a time. Thm. if the required x-uxis moment is 799c of the \'-axis
'tren~'1h. only 21 o/r of they-axis "itrength j.., available to resist moment. More auemion i:.
gt .. n ll) the use of interaction equauon' ""hen axiaJ load is combined \\ith the bending
moment in Chapter 8.

fi.13 SERVICEABILITI CRITERIA FOR BEAMS

There .u-e ~even1l serviceability con!'.itler:uion::. that the des.igner mu~l address. A general
-.cl o l prm i~ions are found in Specification Chapter L Although fat lure tO satisfy these
~.:riteri. rna) not impact the strength or Lhe member or overall <;trucrure. it may lead to the

(al Actual upph.:d luutl tb l Orthogunal cnmpllO~Ilh

uf applied lnau
Figure 6.23 Biaxial Rencllllg of !-Shaped Beam.
J 76 Chapter 6 B~nding Members

figure 6.24 Simple Linear Interaction Diagram

lor Biaxial Bending.

first signs of difficulty for succe~:.ful completi011 of a project. Tbe specific criteria should be
discussed in detail \\ ith the designer·s client l>O the quality of the final product is con istent
with the expectations of the owner. Experience may indicate that a certain amount of floor
vibration ma) be annoying at first but occ.::uptlllts become used to it with time. The diem
may be ""'' illing to deal with thi!> period of dissatisfaction and insist that the system be
de!>igned ~o !hat there are no vibration complaints. This must be known at the beginning
of a project. not after the occupants mon.· in tmli find the floor response objectionable. The
engineer mu"t be sure to identify these con~iderations for the owner so that the decisions
made arc appropriate to meet the expected outcome.
Beam-. generally have three serviceabilit) i sue<, to be addressed:

6.13.1 Deflection
Deflection i.s the nonual response of a beam toils imposed load. It tl> impossible to erect a
beam with zero deflection under load but the designer will be able lo limit that deflection
with proper attention to this li mit state. Deflections must be addre.,~;;ed for a variety of
loading ca,es. Dellection under dead load i!> critical because it im pact~ the conslruction
proce''· including the amount of concrete fill needed to form a flal and le\'el floor. Live load
deflection h. critknl because it impacts the finishes of elements attached to the floor. such as
ceilings and wall<;. and may be visible 10 the occupants. Experience ha-, demonstrated that
Live load deflection '' nm a problem iJ it i<~ limited to 1ht-~.l of tbe span. Dead load deflection
Limitations are a tum:uon of the panicular Mructural element and loading. De~;ign Guide
3-SerPiceabiliry o, li!!ll Con1iderarions for Steel Buildings from the American Institute
of Steel Consu·uction cover!> Jenection ami other serviceability de~i gn criteria.

6.13.2 Vibration
Although vibration of Boor S)''\lem. is not a safely consideration. it can be a very annoying
response and very difficult to correct after the buildjng is erected. The most common problem
is with wide-open !>paces with \ery little damping. such as the jewelry depanment in a
depanmcnt store. To reduce the risk of annoyance, a generul rule is to space the beams or
joists sufficiently far apan so Lhat the slab thickness is large enough to provide the needed
stiffness aod damping. Design Guide I 1-Fioor Vibrarions Due w Human Acti~>ity from the
American Jnstirute of Steel Construction covers the design of steel-framed noor system
for human comfort.
 6. J3 Serviceability Criteria for Beam!> 177

6.13.3 Drift
Under lateral loading, a building "ill way sideways. Tills laleral ilisplacement is called
drift. As wirh deflection and vibration. drift is usually not a safety con!>idermion but it can be
annoying and have a negative impact on noostructural elements. causing cracks in finjshes.
Beams and girders arc important in ri!Jucing lhe drift and their final size m1ght actually be
detennined by drift consideration:;. However, the impact of drift consider:lllon:; on beams
cannot be determined for the beam:. alone without also looking at the other pans of the
lateral load resisting system. Tbh ~en iceability limit state is u·eated in Chapter 8. Drift is
a lso discussed in Design Guide 3.
B ec~ltl se beam deflection is a ... en iceability consideration , calculation' are carried out
using the specific loads under whic h the serviceability consideration h are r be checked.
Thi<. can be ljve load. deal load. or-;ome combination of loads, bur normal!~ c~ not include
an~ load facron.. Thus. regardless o l \\ hether a design is completed u.;mg LRFD or ASD.
sen iceabili ty considerations are checked for tbc same loads. Numerou~ ela.'tll. analysis
techniques are available to determine Lhe maximum deflection of a g1\en beam 1nd lo:1ding.
Some common loading conilition" \\ 1th their corresponding maximum deftecuon are , howo
in Figure 6.25. These and many other-. are given in Manual Table 3-23.

l llllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllllll . lllll
I· L -- ---:
Ia I

r
J);
I- U2
_j -
7b-
w_.!
I hi

r r ~
W--.!·1-·-u3
-J
(C)

~
r r r
l-u4-l-U4 -l--U4-l-U4{d)

Figure 6.25 Some Common Loading Ctlnditions with their Corre ponding Maximum Deflection:-..
178 Chapt~r 6 Bending Members

EXAJVIPLE 6.10 GOAL: Check the live load deflection of a previously designed beam.
Live Load Deflection
GIVEN: Use rhe information from Example 6.3 where a Wl8 x35 was selected. Limit the live
load deflection for an acceptable design to 1/.;&,1 of the spatl.

SOLUTION Step 1: Collect the required information from Example 6.3.

For the W 18x35, I =
510 in.~ . The live load is 24 kips applied at the center of a 20-ft
span.
Step 2: Determine the live load deeection. Using the deflection equation found i11 Figure 6.25 for
case (b).
PL3 24(20.0) 3 ( 12)3 •
67
1'1. = 48£/ = 48(29,000)(510) = 0.4 Ill.
Step 3: Compare the calculated defiection ro the given Limit.
The deflection limit is
20.0( 12) .
1'1."'"' = 360 = 0.667 10.
Because
f.. = 0.-167 in. < L'>max = 0.667 in.
the deflection satisfies the set criteria

EXAMPLE 6.11 GOAL: Select a W-shape to satisfy a live load def1ection limit.
Beam Design through
Deflection Limit GIVEN: Use the data from Example 6. 10 except that the deflection limit is ser to a more severe
level of 1/ 1000 of the span. ff the selected member does not meet the established criteria. select a
W-shape that satisfies the limitation.

SOLUTION Step 1: Check the new deflection limit.

20.0(12) .
1'1.max = IOOO = 0.240111.
From EJtample 6.10 we know already that the given beam deflects too much.
Step 2: Determine the minimum acceptable moment of inenia, l min• to insure that the deflection
does not exceed the given limit.
Rearranging the maximum deflection equation to solve for lonin
3 3
PL3 24(20.0) ( 12)
/ · ---- = 99J .I11.4
--,-__:......,....:--=-..:._..:.__
nun - 48£ ~'>n1ux 48(29. 000)(0. 240)
Step 3: Select a beam with 1 ::: 993 in. 4 and, from Example 6.3. one that satisfies the strength li mit.
Z::: 64.0in. 3 •
From the moment of inertia tables. M anual Table 3-3, select a

I W2Jx55. with 1 = 1140 in.~ and Z = 126 in.3

Thi.s is the lightest-weight W-shape that will satisfy the required moment of inertia.
 6.15 Problems 179

6.14 CONCENTRATED FORCES ON BEAMS

Before a beam can be called upon to carry a given load, that load must be rransferred to the
beam through some type of connection. l n a similar manner. the beam reactions must be
carried to its suppor1 ing srructure through some type of connection. Although the majority
of beam' are loaded through connecrions to their webs. some may be loaded by applying a
concemrated force to the top flange and some will have their reaction~ re... h ted by bearing
on a upponing element. In these ca...es. a check must be made to esrablbh that the beam
web hu-. -,ufhcient strength to resist the applied forces.
Four hmit states determine the load carrying srrength of the web to re''' t the~c concen-
trated force ...: web local yielding. web crippling, web side way buckling. and flange local
bendmg. The:.e limit stares are all de~cribed in Section .II 0 of the Specificanon Although it
i~ po''lble to select a beam with a sufficiently rhick web ~o that these limi1 ... tate-. do not con-
trol. 11 " normally more economical to add bearing stiffeners under the conc.entrated loads
to pro' tde the necessary strength. The de~ign of these stiffeners i co,ered tn Se..:Lion 7.4
of tht' book under the discussion ot plate girders, because rhey are much more commonly
found in that application.

6.15 PROBLEMS
1. Derennine the pl astil ..,e~ uonm,ldulu' for a W44x335 mad- the geomcrric axis. for n L4 x 4 x 1/z modeled a~ two rectan-
d ed as three rectangles. fonnt"1g th-~ rl..lllge;; and the web. Com- gle, . Compare the calculated values 10 1hose given 111 the
oare the calculmed value tC" th.:t gro,en 10 1he Manual. Manual.
2. Determine the plastic 't'&;t'Ol'l modulus for a W36x 800 mod- 1{1. A s1mply supported beam spans 20 ft and cnJTies a un1,
eled as three rectang les lumun= the tlJnge~ and the web. Com- fo rm!~ dt.m i buted dead load of 0.8 kip/ ft includmg the beam
"are the calculated value to th ...: ; •.::n ·r. the Manual. ~elf-\\clght and a live load of2.3 kip/ft. Detennine the msmmum

3. Determine the plastic ...e, on moJulu' for a W33 x 11 8 mod- required pla..,tic section modulus and :.elect the ltghtest,\\ eight
.:led as three rectangle formmf the! ibnges and the web. Com- W-:.hape to carry the momenl. Assume full lateral 'upport and
oarc the calculated value to th..1t gt\.:>n in the Manual. N>92 ~tccl. Design by (a) LRFD and (b ) ASD.
-4. Determine the plao;uc ' .:U1on modulu!. for a W2 1x +t mod- H. Conl>idering only b..:nding. determine tbe hghte,t-weighl
~led as three rectangles fomun,; <h.! thngc~ and the web. Com- W--.hape to carl') a uniform dead load of 1.:! l..tp·lt rnduding the
narc the calculated value w that .;t\ en m the Manual. beam self-weight and a live load of 3.2 kiplft on a ... imple span
of 24 fl. Al>~ume full lateral support anll A992 :.ted. Design by
~. Determine the plastic -.<!.... uon modulu~ for a Wl8 x 50 mod-
(a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
.:kd as three rectangles formmg ;he rlange~ and the web. Com-
12. A beam i~ required to C:liT)' a uniform dead load of 0.85
narc the calculated value 10 th.st ,.:'en m the Manual.
kip/fr includi ng its self-weight and a ~nnn•ntrnted live load of
6. Detem1ine the clastic neut ro~ JXI, , el<Nic secti011 modulus. 12 kips at the center of a 30- fr span. Con~idering only bending.
nJastic neutral axis, and pla"il.: -.r•.-'r.)n mod ulus for a WTI5 x66 determine the least-weight W-shape •~~ ca111 the load. Assume
-nodeled as two recrangle:. formm; me tlange and the stem. Com- full laterJI support and A992 :.tee!. De ign by (a) LRFD and
""Jrl! the calculated values to tho-e gt\~1 1n the Manual. (b) ASD.
-. Determine the plastic secuon mooulus ror an HSS8x4x 1h 13. Considering both 5hcar ami bending. delermine the
nodeled as four rectangles formmg the !lange" and webs. Re- lightest-weight W-shape to C>Ul) the following loads: a uniform
!Tiember to u ·e the design wall th~~:kne" lor the plme thickness dead load of0.6 kip/ft plu-. ..elr-\\eight. a concentrated dead load
nd ignore the comer radius. Compare th.: -.alculated value to of 2.1 kips. and a concentrated live loau of 6.4 J...ips, located at
lhtll given in the Manual. the cenrer of a 16-fr lipan. A:>sume fu lllmcml supp011 and A99:!
\, Determine the elastic neur ml a\i~. eJa.;;uc '<ecuon modulus. steel. Design by tal LRFD and (b) ASD.
nfa.., tic neutral axis. and plaMic secuon modu!u_;; tor a Cl5 x 50 J~. Con:.id~:ring both ..hear and bending. determine the light-
"Tlodeled as three rectangles fonmng the flange' and the web. ~st W-shape to caiT) a uniform dead load of 4 .0 kip/ft plus the
ompare the culculated V<tlucs 10 those g1ven mthe \Iammi. self-weight und a uniform live load of 2.::1 kip/ft on :s simple span
9. Detem1ine the e lastic neutral ax il.. cl~tic ' ection modu- of I 0.0 fl. A..~ume fu ll lateral support and A992 l>lcel. Design
~ '· plastic neutral axis. and plastic section modulu,, all about by (a) LRFD nnd <b>ASD.
180 Chapter 6 Bending \!embers

IS. \ 24-ft simple ~pan lat~:rally ~upported beam b requ tred 22. A 36-ft simple span beam carries a uniformly distributed
to cafl) '' tntal uniform!) dt,tnhuted \ervice load of 8.0 klft. <.lead lllaU of 3A k.ipll'l plus it'> ~elf-weight and a uniform!)
Dctenmne the lightest. A99:! \\ -\hape to cam thi<; load if it is di•.tritauted live load of 2.4 kip/ft. Detcm1ioe the least-weight
broken down :l.<; follow..,: L.;e LRFD. \V-,hapc to carry the lond while hmitmg the live lo~d deflec-
a. li\e load= 1.0 klft. Jc:;ad load= 7.0 k/ft uon to •• of the span. U~e A992 \tccl and a.~sume full lateral
'upport. De-;agn by (a) LRFD and CbJ ASD.
b. =
Live load = 3.0 IJfl: dead load 5.0 k/ft
c. Ltve load = 5.0 IJft. de;~d load = 3.0 k/ft 23. .-\ 'tmple span beam with a umformly distributed dead load
oll.l k ·n. including the ;,elf-weight and concentrated dead load'
d. Live load= 7.0 J../ft: <.lead load= 1.0 IJft.
of 3.4 J..tp' and live loud~ or 6.0 kip~ m the third points of a 24-ft
Ui. Repeat the designs specified in Problem 15 U'..ing ASD. spun. 1~ to he designed with lateral supports at the third point~
17. A 30-ft simply supported beam is loatled at the third points and li'e \oa<.l deflection limited 10 'hoo of the span. Be sure to
vt the span with concentrated dead loads of 1:!.0 kip' and li"e c;hecJ... 'hc;ar. Detem1inc the lea~t-wcight W-shape to catTy the
load~ of 18.0 kips. Lateral suppom are provided ar the loud points
load' L~~ -\992 steel. Design by (a) LRFD and {b) ASD.
i.nd the ">Upports. The 'elf-weight of the beam can be ignored. 2~. -\ lhed-ended beam on a 28-ft !>pan is required to CHIT)
Determine the least \\eight W-\hapc 10 call) the loatl. U~c A99:? a tot;tl uhamate uniformly dbtributed load of 32.0 kips. Using
=
\!eel and assume c, 1.0. Dcstgn b) (a) LRFD anti <b) ASD. pl<NtL .mal~~is and A992 \tccl. determine the design momem
18. An 18-ft simple 'pan beam i~ loaded \dth ,, unifoml dead and ,eJect the lightest W-shapc. As\ume {a) full lateral support
load of 1.4 J..ip/ft. including the beam 'elf-\!.etg.ht und a uniform and 1b J lateral support at the ends and center line.
live load of 2.3 kip/ft. The lmeral ~upport"> are located at 6.0-ft 25. A beam is fixe<.l at one support and simply supported ill
intervuls. Determine the lc<hl weight W·shape w carry the load. the other. A concentrated ultimate load of 32.0 kips is applied
U~e A992 Meel. De~ign by (<J) LRFD anti (bl -\SD. Il l the center of the 40-ft span. U~ing plastic analysis and A992

19. An A992 W 18 x 60 i~ U\e<.l on n 36-ft 'tmple span to can-y ~tcel. c.Jetcrmine the Lightest W-:.hnpe to carry the load when
a uniformly disuibuted load. Dctcrmtne the location~ of lateral the nnmmal depth (lf the beam i~ limited to 18 in. Assume
~upports in order to pro, ide ju<.t cnougli 'trength ro carry {a)" lal full lateral suppon and (b) lateral supports at the ends and the
de~ign momem of 435 h-J..1p' ;an<.llht an allow;able moment of load.
:!90 ft-ktp<,. 26. ..\ lned-ended beam on a ..JO-ft. span is required to call)
20. A girder that carrie> a untlorml~ Jt,lributed dead load of '' total ulumatc uniform!) <.li,tributed load of 72.5 kips. Using
1.7 IJft plu~ its self-weight anJ thn:e 15-kip concentrmed live pla,ti~: analysil> and A99:! ">tee!. <.lctemune the lightest-weight

loads at the quarter poims of the ~n-ft ~pan i~ to be ;,ize<.l. U!>ing W-,hape tO carry the load A-,l>ume full lateral ~upport.
A992 steel. determine the lightc't W-,hape to carry the load with 27. A 3-span continuous beam is to be "elected to carry a uni-
lnteral supports provided at the '-llpporh and load point'>. Limit fOLmly distributed dead load of 4.7 kip/ft. including its self-
dcflct.:tion to tht>-1 of~pan . Design b) fat LRFD and (bJ ASD weight and a uniformly distributed live load of 10.5 kip/ft.
21. A 32-ft ~imple span beam came' a unifonn dead load of Be sure to check the shear strength or this beam. Use A992
~ \ k/ft plus its self-weight and a umt 1rrn Ji, e load of 3.1 klft. l>tccl and assume full lateral suppon. Des.gn by (a) LRFD and
The beam il> laterally :..upported at the 'upp11rt~ only. Deterrnme {b) ASD.
the nurumum weight W-shap.: 10 can: the load u'ing A99::! \tee!. 28. Detcm1ine the available bending l>trength of a WT8 x25.
Lunu h' e load deAection to 1/ltJ.1 of span and check shear strength. A992 :.tee!. ifrhe stem ts tncompre~ston. Detem1ine by(a) LRFD
De'i~n h~ Cal LRFD and (b) ASD. and (b) ASD.
Chapter 7

United States Courthouse. Seattle.

Photo courte~y Michael Dickter/Magnusson Klcmencic
A;sociates.

Plate Girders

7.1 BACKGROUND
.-\plate girder is a bending member composed of individual steel plate'>. Allhough they are
nonnJII~ the member of choice for situations where the available rolled shapes are not large
en.,u;h to carry the intended load. there is no requirement that they will always be at tbe
large end of the spectrum of member sites. Beams fabricated from individual steel plates
to meet .t :.pecilic requirement are generally identified in the fie ld as plate girders.
P' ..tte girders are used in building structures for special situations such as very long spans
or 'e0 l <~rge loads. Perhaps their most common application i~ a s a transfer girder, a bending
member that :.up ports a structure above and permits the column spacing to be changed below.
The~ are aho ve ry common in industrial structures for use as crane girders and as support
for large piece, of equipment. In commercial buildings, they are often used to span large
open area~ to meet particular architectural requirements and. because of their normally
greater depth and resulting stiffness, they tend to deflect less than other potential long span
solutions. An example of a building application of the plate girder is shown in Figure 7.1.
The cro\s <;ection of a typical plate girder is shown in Figure 7 .2. Although it is possible
to combine ~tee! plates into numerous geometries. the plate girders addressed here are those
formed from three plates, one for the web and two for the flanges. Because the web and
flange~ o f the plate girder are fabricated from individual plates. they can be designed wilh

181
182 Chapter 7 Plale Girders

Figure 7.1 Applicmion of a Plate Girder.

web and flanges from the same grade of steel (a homogeneous p late girder) or from different
grades of steel (a hybrid plate girder). For hybrid girders, the flanges are usually fabricated
with a higher grade of steel than that used in the web. This takes advantage of the higher
stresses that can be developed in the flanges, which are located a greater distance from the
neutral axis than the web, resulting in a higher moment strength contribution. Hybrid girders
are relatively common in bridge construction, though they are rare!) used in buildings. In
the past. hybrid girders have been included in the AISC Specification but they are not
specifically addressed in this edition. Thus. they are not discussed in thi~ book.
Another type of plate girder is the ingly symmetric girder. one with flanges that are
not of the same s ize, as seen in Figure 7.3. Ahhough singly symmetric plate girders are
addressed in the AJSC Specification. they are not particularly common in buildings and
are not spec ifically addressed here. However, the principles for all of these plate girders
are the same and the careful application of the Specification provision will .lead to an
economical and safe design for each of them.
Built-up plate girders with compact webs are designed according to the a me provtstons
as rolled 1-shaped members presented in Specification Sections F2 and F3 and discussed
in Chapter 6 in this book. The discussion of plate girders in this chapter addresses these
built-up !-shapes with noncompact or slender webs.
Table 7.1 lists the sections of the Speci_fication and parts of the Manual discussed in
this chapter.

Web--....__

I
Bottom nange 'J Figure 7.2 Typical Plate Girder Definitions.
 7.2 Homogeneous Plate Girders in Bending 183

rl._ -----...--..------'J I 1
r,.p

l -- -~ ..
Figure 7.3 Singly Symmetric Plate Girder.

7.2 HOMOGENEOUS PLATE GIRDERS IN BENDING

The behavior of plate girders can best be understood by considering fte.\ure and shear
separately. ln flexure, a plate girder is considered in this book as either noncompact or
slender accordi.ng to the proportions of the web. Flanges can be compact. noncompact.
or :-lender and the moment strength for these limit states is the same as that discus ed in
Chapter 6. Thus, it is possible, for example, for a noncompact web plate girder to have a
~lender Range, potentially controlling the capacity of the member. The design rules for each
t) pe of girder are considered separately.
With our discussion limited to doubly symmetric plate girders, the lirllit states that must
be considered are compression flange yielding, compression flange local buckling. web local
buckling . and lateral torsional buckling. These are the same limit states considered for the
rolled [-shapes in Chapter6 with the addition of web local buckling. The additional limit state
of ten~ion flange yielding can be ignored because the compression flange always controls
o,·er the tension !'lange in these doubly symmetric members. Plate girders with noncompact
\\eb~ are addressed in Specification Section F4 and those with slender webs in Section FS.
The nomi nal strength of plate girders. for all limit states, can be described through the use
of Figure 7.4. As with the rolled !-shaped members discussed in Chapter 6. the behavior
i~ plastic. inelastic, or elastic. Figure 7.4 shows that the plastic behavior corresponds to an
area of the figure described as compact. Inelastic behavior corresponds to the area identified
a~ noncompact and elastic behavior corresponds to the area identified as slender.
Applying the same figure to the lateral torsional buckl ing li mit state. the fully braced
region cotTesponds to plastic behavior, whereas the partially braced region corresponds to
either inelastic or elastic buckling.
The flex ural design strength (LRFD) and allowable strength (ASD) are detem1ined j ust
as the~ were for the flexural members discussed in Chapter 6. Thus
<P = 0.9 (LRFD) Q = 1.67 (ASD)
Table 7.1 Sections of Specification and Parts of Manual Found in This Chapter

Specification

B4 Cl~sification of Sections for Local Buckling

F4 Other 1-Shaped Members with Compact or Noncompact Webs, Bent about their Major Axis
F5 Doubly Symmetric and Singly Symmetric !-Shaped Members with Slender Webs Bent
about their Major Axis
G Design of Members for Shear
J4.4 Strength of Elements in Compression
Jl 0 Flanges and Webs with Concentrated Forces
184 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

Plastic -·+1·- -- Inelastic ---·~~·--Elastic-

Compact Noncompact Slender

Slenderness, A.
Fig ure 7.4 Plate Girder Nomina l Flexural Strength.

and fm ASD. the allowable strength is

( l.l)
For LRFD, the design strength is
( 1.2)

7.2.1 Noncompact Web Plate Girders

The in ft uence of web slenderness on the strength of plate girders is not treated as a separate
limit state to be assessed through its own set of requirements. Rather, web slenderness
comes into play as it influences the flange yielding o r flange local buckling strength and the
lateral-torsional buckling strength as provided in Specification Section F4.
The slenderness parameter of the web is defined as A.w = hcfr.,.. For the doubly sym-
metric plate girder, Case 9 in Specification Table B4.1, this can be simplified to A.,., = h jt11. ,
where h is the distance between the flanges. For a plate girder to be noncompact, the
following requirements are set:
A. p < A.,.. ::: A.,.
where, according to Table B4.l of the Specification

A.P = 3.76 {E
yF;
and

{E
A.,.= 5.70
yF;
The influence of the noncompact web is characterized through the web plastification
factor, R pc· This factor is used to assess the ability of the section to reach its full plastic
capacity and modifies the .flange yielding or local buckling and lateral torsional budding
Limit states. The web plastification factor is given in the Specification as Equation F4.9 and
is shown here as

(7. 1)
 7.2 Huillugt:neous Plate Girders in Bending 185

I
I
I
I
------- -~- -------- -- ---

1 NoncompacL

Apw
Web slendcrnc~:,. }, Figure 7.5 Web Pl a~rincanon Factor.

where

and

Equation 7 . 1 is shown in Figure 7.5 for two values of Mp/Myc• one with a maximum
\alue of 1.6 to account for the limit on M1, and one at 1.2. The ratio Mp/Myc is the shape
factor that was discussed in Chapte r 6. A:, was the case in that discuss ion, it must be limited
w 1.6 in order to insure that the necessary rotation can take place before strain hardening
occur~ a~ the section undergoes plastic defonnation. The minimum Rpc is seen to be 1.0,
regardle s of Mp/M_,-c · Thus, a conservative approach would be to take Rpc = 1.0. Because
a plate girder with a web that is only slightly noncompact would have significant additional
'trength reflected through the use of R p< and the calculation of R pc is not particularly difficult.
there i~ no advantage to this simplification. Thus, Equation 7.1 will be used throughout this
chapter. as appropriate.
The strength of a plate girder as a function of flange slenderness is shown in Figure 7 .6.
For a compact flange girder, the impact of the noncompact web is to modify the capacity
b~ the factor Rpc• as given in Equation 7.2.

(7.2)

E
u
E
0
E
....
c 0.7F;.S.r
-~
z Compact Noncom pact Slender

1-- Yieluing -t--- - - - - - B u c k l i n g - - - - - -....

Flange slenderness. ),
Figure 7.6 Nominal Flexural Strength Based on Flange Local Buckling.
186 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

At the lower limit for a noncompact web, Arw

and

At the upper limit of a noncompact web, J...,,.., R pc = 1.0 and the nominal strength
becomes
(7.3)

At the juncture between the noncom pact and slender flange , A1f, the nominal moment
strength is given as

M11 = 0.1FySx (7.4)

where the 0. 7 F, accounts for the residual stresses in the member. This is the same residual
stress assumed ro have occurred in the hot rolled shapes, even though this is a welded shape.
The moment strength for a noncompact flange plate girder is found through the linear
interpolation between the end points as shown in Figure 7.6 and is given by Equation 7 .5.

M11 = [RpcMy,· - (R 1" Mn - 0.7F_,.S...,.) ( A. - Apf )] (7.5)

A.,t - Apf
The influence of the noncompact web is diminished as the flange becomes more and
more noncompact. Once the flange becomes slender. Rpc is no longer needed and flange
local buckling contro ls the strength of the girder. Behavior of the slender flange g irder is an
elastic buckling phenomena depicted in Figure 7.6 and given as

(7.6)

where the plate buckling factor is

4
kc = - - -
../filf::
This plate buckling factor must be taken in the range from 0.35 to 0.76.
Lateral torsional buckling behavior for noncompacr web plate girders is, in principle, the
same as for rolled beams . However, the equations in the Specification are slightly alte red
and the web plastificarion factor must be included. As was the case when considering
the noncompact flange. the influence of the noncompact web is diminished as the lateral
torsional buckl ing response becomes more dominant. Figure 7.7 shows the strength of a
noncom pact web plate girder w hen considering lateral torsional bucklin g.
For a plate g irder with lateral supports at a spacing no greater than L p, Equation 7 .2,
which includes the influence of Rp,·· again defines the g irder strength. This g irder would
be considered to have full lateral support. The definition of this limiting unbraced length is
slightly different than it was for a compact web member. This difference is slight but has
been used in the Specification because it gives more accurate results when used for singly
symmetric girders.

= {£
L, L.lr,
yF;
 7.2 Homogeneous Plate Girders in Bending 187

Rp,.F_,.S.r I
I
'::i:." I
I
5 I
!: I
0 I
E I
c;; I
"'
.E
07FA,
_______ IL ___ ___________ _

z0 I
I
I
I
I I
I I

Unbraced length. Lb
Figure 7.7 Nominal Flexural Strength Based on Unbraced Length.

For I-:.hapes with a rectangular compression flange, the effective radius of g~ ration for
lareral-wrsional buckling is
bJc
Ft = r ====== ===
/12(ho+ ~aw h2)
Y d 6 hd 0

Thi can conservatively be taken a~ the radius of gyration of the compression flange
plus one-third the compression ponion of the we b.
The strength of a section undergoing elastic lateral-torsional buckling can be obtained
through plate buckling theory. The S pecification gives

I +0.078 -J-
Sxho
(L )
____!!_
r,
2

~ Rpc Myc (7.7)

Because residual. stresses occur in plate girders just as they do for a rolled shape, e lastic
buckling cannot occur if the residual stress pushes the actual stress on the :.hape beyond
the! ield stress. With the residual stress taken as 0.3Fy, the available elastic tress is again
taken a 0.7 Fy. Thus, Equation 7.4 again gives the limiting strength. this time for elastic
lateral-torsional buckling. Using this strength with Equation 7.7. the unbraced length that
defines the limit of elastic lateral-torsional buckling is obtained as

L,. = 1.95r1- - E[sf

0.7 Fy
--
S.J10
1+
0.7 F, Sxh0
1+676 ( - -
. E · -J
)
2
(7.8)

Equation 7.8 d iffers slightly from the corresponding equation in the Specification because
it ha been modified here to reflect only the doubly symmetric girders considered in this
chapter.
The lateral-to rsional buckling strength when rhe member bas an unbraced length be-
tween L , and L r is given by the same straight-line equation as used previously. This
time, howe\'er. it accounts for the noncompact web by including R pc at the upper limit.
Thus

(7.9)
188 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

7.2.2 Slender Web Plate Girders

Slender web plate girders are covered in Specification Section FS. They are those built-up
h
members with web slenderness, A. 11• =-.exceeding the limit
r,.

as given in Table B4.1.

As was the case for noncompact web members, web slenderness is not a limit stare to
evaluate on ir~ O\\ n. Its impact on member trength is characterized through the bending
strength reduction factor, R pg · The bending strength reduction factor is given by Equation
7.10 and sho\\ n in Figure 7.8.

R1,g = 1 - a,
1200 + 300aw
(h-
fw
m
- 5.7 -
F.,.
< 1.0
-
(7.1 0)

where
a... =
-\ f

A ,. = area of the web

A. = area of flange
The Specification places limits on the proportions of members that can be designed accord-
ing to ih provisions. The web-to-flange area ratio, a"', is limited to 10 to prevent the designer
from using these provisions for members that are essentially webs with small stiffeners. In
addition. the web slenderness is limited so that h j r.. =::; 260. This insures that the girder i~
nor so slender that the stated provisions do not properly reflect its behavior.
Equation 7.10 shows he from the Specification equation replaced by h in order to take
advamnge of the doubly symmetric limitations of this discussion. The bending strength
reduction factor reduces the strength of the girder uniforn1ly in all ranges of flange com-
pacrne;;s and lateral bracing. Thus, it could simply be held as a final reduction, as sho\\ n
in rhe Specification. or used within the primary equations as shown below. Because it i~
uniforn1l y applied to all of the limit stares, Lhe in fluence of a slende r web on flexural strengrh
is easily visualized.
The strength of a plate girder as a function of flange slenderness is shown in Figure
7.9. The slendeme!>S parameters for the flange are defi ned in Table B4.1 and are the same
as those used in Chapter 6 and Section 7.2.1. For a compact flange plate girder, A. =::; Ae

(7. 11 '

1.0 - - - - - - - - --

Slender
A,
Figure 7.8 Bending Strength Reduction
Web slenderness. A Factor.
 7.2 Homogeneous Plate Girders in Bending 189

~"' RPcS·sx r-----~...

I
~ I
E I
0 I
E I
I M,-_ _0_.9_£-'kc:....
.S=-xR..cPs:.. C
-------, ---------------
I t._l
1
I

A.,
Flange slenderness. /..
Figure 7.9 Nominal Flexural Strength Based on Flange Slendemess.

Because Rp11 will not exceed 1.0. the bending strength of the !>lender \\ eb girder is
limited to the yield moment.
At the juncture between the noncompact and slender flange. Arf . the trength is limited
to elastic behavior, after accounting for residual stresses. Thus

The moment capacity for the slender web-noncompact flange plate girder is given b) the
linear transition

M 11 = RpgSx [F, - (0.3Fy) ( A- Apf ) ] (7.13)

A,J - Apf

For the slender web-slender flange member, the strength is the same as it was for the
noncompact web-slender flange member and given in Equation 7-6, except for the u e of
R pg · Thus

(7 .14)

The plate buckling factor, kc. is as previously defined.

Lateral torsional buckling for the slender web girder appears to be quite imilar to the
noncompact web girder and is shown in Figure 7. LO. However, some differences must be
noted. For a member to be considered as having full lateral suppon. i~ unbraced le ngth is

RPcS.sx 1-----~~
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
-------L---------------
1
I
I
I

Unbraced lenglh. Lh
Figure 7.10 Nominal Flexural Strength Based on Unbraced Length.
190 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

lim ited to a spacing not g reater than L P . where

This is the same limit used for noncompact web g irders but is different than that used
for compact web members.
The e lastic lateral-torsional buckling strength of the slender web girder is given in the
Specification as

II - (~: r
M _ Cbrr~ES., Rpg
(7.15)

When this strength is set equal to the corresponding strength limit given by Equation
7.12, the limiting unbraced length, L,.. becomes

This limit for el astic lateral-torsional buckling is not the same as was used for the
noncompact web girder. Thus, L ,. is different for the three types of plate girder: compact
web, noncompact web, and slender web.
For the inelastic lateral torsional buckling region, the strength is given by a linear
t:quation similar to those used previously. with the addition of the Rpg multiplier; thus

(7 .16)

EXAMPLE 7.1 GOAL: Determine the available flexural strength for two different plate girder designs, a web
Plate Girder Flexural thickness of (a)% in. (noncompact) and (b) 1/ 4 in. (slender).
Strength
GIVEN: The cross section of a homogeneous. A36, plate girder is shown in Figure 7.1 I. The span
=
is 1'20 ft and the unbraced length of the compression flange is 20ft. Assume Cb 1.0.

~-16 in.--1_!"·
~ ,..

48 in.

~16in.~ /stin. 7

Figure 7.11 Plate Girder for Example 7.1 .

 7.2 Homogeneous P late Girder in Bending 191

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the section properties for both plate girders.

(a) 3/s in. web (b) 1/4 in. web

1, = 0.375 in. l w = 0.25 in.
A = 63.5 in.2 A = 57.5 111 ~
1_, = 30,600 in 4 f x = 29.500 m.~
I , = 2560 in 4 l ,. = 2560 m-
Sx = 1230 in 3 S, =!1 90 m.'
Zx = 1330 in.3 Zx = !260m·
r, =7.13in. r, = 7.27 in
=
r_,. 6.35 in. ry = 6.67 in.
P a rt fa ) For the plate girder with a 1s-in. web plate
Step 2: Check the web slenderness in o rder to determine which secti on~ of t~Ie - re.:mcation must
be followed.

h 48 [£
A., = -
t,
=- -=
0 .375
128 > A.p = 3.76 - = 101
\ F

<A.,='J.7
- E
-=162
F,

Thus, this is a noncompact web girder and the provisions of Section F4 must be folkmed.
The web plastification factor must be derennined.
Step 3: Detennine the shape factor and calculate Rpc·

M,. = ~ = 1330 = l.08 < 1. 6

M S 1230
Therefore, use 1.08 in the calculation of Rpc• Equation 7. 1.

R,r = [ 1.08 - ( 1.08 - 1.0) ( 128 -_ 107)]

l = 1.05 ::;: I l 1
162 07
Step -t: Determine the nominal bending strength for compression flange yield "g

M, = R, cF,.Sx
= 1.05(36)(1230) = 46,500 in.-kips
46 500
= · = 3880 ft-kips
12
Step 5: Check the unbraced length for lateral torsional buckling. \\ ilh L = 20 ft or 240 in.
)29,000 ')'')'
L ,, = 1. 1(7 . l 3) ~ = ---''"·
223
= - = 18.6ft
12
and

2
29.000) 12 .5 6 6(0.7(36)(1230)(48.9))
L, = 1.95(7.13) ( 0 .?( )
36 1230(48.9) \
1-
~
1
+ .7 29,000(12.5)

796
= 796 in. = !2 = 66.3 ft
where
3 3
- " l J - ( 26(0.875)
.! - L.. br - 2
3 3
)
+ 48(0.375)
3
-
- 12.5 m.
• 4
192 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

Step 6: De termine the nominal strength based on lateral-torsional buckling.

Because the unbraced length is bet ween L 1, and L " the straight line equation, Equation
7.9, is used. Thus

7 36 1230 20 0 18 6
M" = [ 3880 - ( 3880- 0. ( )( )) ( · - · )] = 3840 ft-kips
12 66.3 - 18.6

Step 7: Check for the limit state of com pre sion flange local buckling.

hj 26
).., = - = = 14 9
'lr r 2(0.875) ·

and the lim its a re

{29JjOO
;,, = 0.38y 36 = 10.8
4
and. with k,. = = 0.35~
) 48/0.375

_ ; 0.354(29.000)
Ar = 0 .9)\
36
= J 6.0
Step 8: Determine the nominal moment strength for the limit state of flange local buc kling.
Because;.,,. < ;.,1 <)..,..the shape has noncompact tlanges so that, from Equation 7.5

II
7 36 2
M = [ 3880 - ( 3880 - 0. ( )(1
12
JO)) ( 1416.0-
9 10 8
· - · )] = 2860 ft-ki s
10.8 p

Step 9: Dete rmine the lowest available moment for the limit states checked.
For compression flange local buckling

Part (a) for LRFD

M 11 = 0.9(2860) = 2570 ft-kips

Part (a) for ASD

2860
M0 = - - = 1710 ft-kips
1.67

Part (b) For the plate girder with a 1/~-i n. web plate
Step 10: Check the we b s lenderness in order to determine which sections of the Specification must
be fo llowed.

ht 48
;.,... = - = - = 192 > ;.,,. = 162
r... 0.25
Therefore, this is a slender web plate girder and the provisions of Section F5 must be
followed.
 7.2 Homogeneous Plate Girder in Bending 193

Step 11: Detem1ine the bending strength reduction factor, Equation7.10.

12.0
a.,. = _ = 0.526
22 8

R .=I_ 0.526 ( 48.0 _ _ 7 j 29.000) _

p~ 1200 + 300(0.526) 0.250 ), 36
0 988
- ·

Step 12: Detem1ine the nominal moment strength for the limit state of yielding.
RrJ , S,
M,=
12
= 0.988(36)(1190)
12
.
=3530ft-J..t p~

Step 13: Check the unbraced length for the limit state of lateral torsional bucl,hng.

L11 =20ft

{29:000
L" = 1.1 (7.27)y ~ = 227 in.

227
=-
12
= 19.0ft
and

L = ;r(7.27)~ = 775 in.

775
=-
12
= 64.6ft
Step 1~: Determine the nominal moment \trength for the limit state of lareral torsional buckling.
Because the unbraced length i~ between L" and L,. . the nominal mome111 for lateral
torsional buckling. Equation 7. 16. i'

M, = 0.98S(1190) [ 36- 0.3(36) ( 20.0-

_ _ 19.0)]
_ l )
( 12 = 3500 ft-k ip~
19 0 64 6
tep 15: Check compression flange local buckling.
For compression flange local buckling, the Range s lenderness is the same as it was
for Parr (a) of this problem. AJ = 14.9. and the compact flange limit is also the same,
i.p = I 0.8. However. the limiting flange slenderness for the non compact flange is different
because it is influenced by the web thickness through k,.. For the 1/ 4 -in. web plate
4
"· = /48/0.250 = 0.289 < 0.35
therefore

k, = 0.350
.md

0.350(29.000) 60
A., = 0.95 = I ·
36
Step 16: Detenn ne the nominal moment strength for flange local buckling, Equation 7.13.

H = (0.988(1190)) ( 36 0.3(36) (
14.9- 10.8))
. _ O.S = 2690 ft-kips
n 12 16 0 1
Step 17: Detenmne the Jm,est nominal moment for the limit states checked.
For compre~~ion flange local buckling
194 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

Part (b) for LRFD

M" = 0.9(2690) = 2420 ft-kips

Part (b) for ASD

2690 . .
M = - - = 1610 ft-k•ps
" 1.67

EXAMPLE 7.2 GOAL: Detem1ine the available moment strength for an A572 Gr. 50 !-shaped built-up membe r.
Plate Girder
Flexural Strength GIVEN: The girder is shown in Figure 7 .12. It has lateral supports for the compression flange at
8-ft intervals. r , = 2.8 1 in.

SOLUTION Step 1: Check the web slenderness in order to determine which sections of the Specification must

/f.
be followed.

A..,. = -hr = --20 = .:>3.3

_ <A." = 3.76 - = 90.6
t,,. 0.375 Fy
Therefore, the g irder is a compact web girder and should be designed according to Section
F3. These are the provisions that were discussed in Chapter 6.
Step 2: Check the unbraced le ngth lim its for lateral-torsional buckling.

L" = 8.0ft
. j29,000 .
L 1, = 1.76r,. = 1.76(2.81) - - =119m.
. 50

119
= U = 9.92 ft > L" = 8 fl

Therefore, lateral torsional buckling is not a factor.

., ;,T 1 - - 14.0 in.---j

20.0 in.

1
/J in. =r=: c::::=~~~==:J
1--- 14.0 in. -~ Figure 7.12 Plate Girder for Example 7.2.
 7.3 Homogeneous Plate G1rders in Shear 195

Step 3 : Check the slenderness limit~ for nange local buckling.

h 7.0
}.1 = - = 0 ?50
( ·-·
= 28.0
The limiting slenderness is
{29.060
i.p =0.3Ry ----sQ = 9.15

and with
4
/.. = ---c=::==:==~===
)20.0/ 0.375
= 0.548

0.548(29 .000)
I. =0.95 50
= 16.9
tep -1: Detenuine the nominal strength for the limit state of Range local bu, khng
The Range is slender. Thu,. for nange local buckling

Mn =
() 9£k
. ,' s I

'·i
0.9(29.000)(0.548)(94.4) .
M. = ,
(28.0)-( 12)
= I..W ft-k1p

Step .5: Detennine the lowest nominal moment for the limit states checked.
Flange local buckling i~ the controlling limit state. Thu~

For LRFD

M. = 0.9( I~) = 130ft-kips

For ASD

144
M., -- - - -- 86'?f
·- t-k"IpS
1.67

7.3 HOMOGENEOUS PLATE GIRDERS IN SHEA R

Shear 1-.. an important factor in the behavior and de-.tgn of plate girders because the webs
have the potential to be relatively thin. Two de~ign procedures are available for shear design
of plate girder~. One accounts for the poc;tbud.ling '>trength available through tension field
action. \\hereas the other uses only the buckling strength of the web without relying on any
available po!)tbud.Jing strength. Transvcr e ~tiffeners can be used to increase web shear
strength but are not required unless ten..,ion field action is to be counted on.
196 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

Figure 7.13 Plate Girder Showing Tension Field Action.

The limit states for web shear are web yielding and web buckling. If tension field action
is not considered. these limit states are evaluated and the strength of the web determined.
Under certain circumstances it is possible to rake advantage of the postbuckl ing strength of
the girder web to determine a higher strength limit. Research has demonstrated that a plate
girder with rransYerse s tiffeners and a thin web can act as a Pratt truss once the web buckles,
thus providing additional postbuckl ing strength. This truss behavior is illustrated in Figure
7.13, where !he buckled panel of the girder simulates the tension diagonal of the truss and
the stiffener represents the vertical web member. The designer must decide whether to use
this tension field action or to design a conventional, nontensi.on field girder. It will be seen
that web yielding controls the maximum stre ngth of the girder web. If the size of the girder
web permits web yielding, the re will be no advantage to considering stiffeners, with or
without tension field action.
Shear design strength (LRFD) and allowable strength (ASD) are determined with
<l> = 0.9 and Q = J.67, as was the case for flexure.

7.3.1 Nontension Field Action

The nominal shear strength for a nontension field plate girder is a function of the slenderness
of the web. This slenderness is defined as A-.,. 11 = h / t,,. and the limits used to describe the
beha\'iOr are

and

A11w = 1.37
N '

The web plate-buckling coefficient, k,., for unstiffened webs ofl-shaped members that meet
the proportioning criteria of the Specification, that is, J...,.,. < 260, is taken ask,, = 5.0. For
stiffened webs
5
k, = 5 + (a/ h)2
but is taken as 5.0 when ajh > 3.0 or ajh > [260/(h / lw)f
The nominal shear strength of a nontension field girder is given by

VII = 0.6FyA ... C •. (7 .17)

 7.3 Homogeneous Plate Girders in Shear 197

Web slenderness, A,,." = hlr,.. (Fy =50 ksi)

Figu re 7.14 Web Shear Coefficient as a Functional Web Shear Slenderness.

where
A" = the overall depth times the web thickness and the web shear coefficient. C . i a
functi on of web shear slenderness.
For.A 11~· ~ Awvp = 1.10Jk" EJF.,.
c.= 1.0
for 'A 11, 1, = l.lOJkvE/Fy < Aw1• ~A.,~.,.= 1.37Jk1.E/Fy

and for Awv > Awl'!'= L.37Jk1.E/Fy

_ 1.51Ek1•
CI ' - 2
(.>.....,.) Fy
The web shear coefficient is shown in Figure 7.14 for two cases of the\\ eb plate buckling
coefficient, kv = 5.0 and 10.0. For a web with shear slenderness le . than I....,'P . C 1• = 1.0
and the web reaches its full plastic strength. For a web with shear slenderness greater than
i.,..,r. the web buckles elastically and for a web with shear slendeme between these, the
web buckles inelastically. Comparing the two curves in Figure 7.14 shows the impact of
adding stiffeners ro a nomension field girder; a girder with no stiffeners. k1. = 5.0; and one
with stiffeners spaced so that the panels are square, ajh = 1.0 and k1• = 10.0.

7.3.2 Tension Field Action

Although the Specification does not require that ten ion field action be considered, a designer
may rake advantage of tension field action when stiffeners are present. T he impact of tension
field action is to increase the web shear strength , with the nominal shear strength determined
as a combination of web buckling strength and web postbuckling strength. Both of these
strength components are functions of stiffener spacing.
To include tens ion field action in the strength calculation, the plate girder must meet
four limitations of Specification Section G3. Figure 7.15 illustrates these four limitations
as described on the next page.
198 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

\ \ \
End panel
--
\ \ \
(a) No tension field in end panel

ll l
1
(b) tllh = 3

T h

_l
(c) A,. =2.5 (d) .!!.. = 6
AI bf
Figure 7.15 Limitations on Plate Girder to Pem1it Tension Field Action.

:\o Tension Field Action in End Panels

Figure 7 .ISa shows a plate girder with a potentially buckled web. The diagonal tension that
is developed in the web brings two orthogonal components of force to the flange-stiffener
imersection. The vertical stiffener resists the vertical component and the flange resists the
horizontal component, just as for the Pratt truss . The end panel has no next panel to help
resist the horizontal component; thus, this last panel must resist the shear force through
beam shear. not tension field action. Every stiffened plate girder has end panels that must
be designed as nontension field panels. This usually results in naJTower panels at the ends
of tension field girders.

Proportions of Panels
The Specification provides two limits on the proportions of stiffened panels. Tension field
action may not be considered if
a
-> 3
h
or
2
a ( 260 )
h> hft,
Figure 7 .!Sb shows a portion of a stiffened plate girder with stiffeners placed al the
limit of afh =
3. The panel is quite elongated and its effectiveness to resist vertical forces
is significantly reduced when compared to a panel with a smaller aspect ratio such as that
shown in Fig me 7. I Sa.
 7.3 Homogeneous Plate Girders in Shear 199

Proportion of Web Area to Flange Area

For doubly symmetric plate girders, the ratio of web area to flange area carmot exceed 2.5. If
this I imit i exceeded, the flanges are not sufficient to resist the developed diagonal te nsion
forces. Figure 7. 15c shows a plate girde r with a ratio of areas at this limi t.

Proportion of Flange Width to Web Height

The Speci fication limits the proportions of a tension field plate girder so that it retains its
ability to res ist lateral buckling due to the compression forces developed in the flange. The
we b height. h. cannot exceed six ti mes the fl ange width, hr . Figure 7.15d hows a plate
girder at this limit. It is easily seen that this is a rather slender member.
The max imum shear strength of a girder web is for the limit state of yielding. 1l1us,
ten~ion field action is effective only if hjt ... > Awvp as defined for nomension fie ld action
g irder". Otherwise, the strength of the g irder is already at its yield strength. Thus, for

h
-
I
> i. 'P = 1.1·ff.'·E
- - Lhe nominal shear strength is the shear buckling streMth plus the
F,. ~

po rbuckJ ing strength as g iven by

1- c,. )
VII = 0.6F, A,. c,. + - -,===:::;;: (7 .1 8)
· ( 1.1 5JJ+(ajh) 2

Figure 7.16 shows the web shear strength for tens ion fie ld and nontension field plate
g1rders. in te rms of V11 j(0.6F_,. A,..). as a fu nction of web shear s lende rness for a variety of
panel ~izes . Equation 7.18 can be rewritten to show that the strength due to tension field
a...rion i simply the combination of the prebuckling strength and the postbuckling strength
~

.E._> 3
h -

0 ~0 100 150 200 250 300

Web ~lenderness, A..,.., = hit.,, (f'_y =50 ksi)

Figure 7.16 Web Shear Strength for Tension Fie ld and Nontension Field P late Gi_rder.
200 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

The prebuckl ing strength can be seen in Figure 7.16 as the strength of the non tension
field girder. The addition of the postbuckling strength shifts the curves for each patticular
afh shown in the figure.
The end panel in a tension field plate girder must be especially rigid in order for the
remainder of the web to properly function as a Pratt truss. Thus, the stiffener spacing for
the panel next to the support must be Je:.:. than that within the span and shear in the end
panel must conform to the rules for a nontensjon field girder.

7.4 STIFFENERS FOR PLATE GIRDERS

When stiffeners are required for a plate girder. they can be either .intermediate stiffeners or
bearing stiffeners. Intermediate stiffeners purpose is to increase girder sheru· strength, either
by controlling the buckling strength of the girder web or by permitting the postbuckling
strength to be reached. These stiffener are distributed along the girder length and result
in panel sizes with aspect ratios, afh . that impact girder shear strength. Beru·ing stiffeners
usually occur at the locatjons of concentrated loads or reactions. They pennit the transfer
of concentrated forces that could not alr·ead: be transferred through direct bearing on the
girder web.

7.4.1 Intermediate Stiffeners

The Specification requirements for intermediate stiffeners are prescriptive in nature. There
are no forces for which these stiffeners must be sized; they are s imply sized ro meet the
spec ific limitations provided in Section~> G2.2 and G3.3. As already discussed, stiffeners are
not required if the nontension field girder v. eb '>trength is determined using k,. = 5. This is
shown as the area under the lowest curve in Figure 7 .16. The increase in strength indicated
by the other curves in Figure 7.16, any area 10 the right of the shaded area, is the result of
increasing k,. to values greater than 5 and this in turn is the result of having panel aspect
ratios of 3 or less. Because stiffeners are required to produce a panel with this aspect ratio,
intermediate stiffeners are required for these girders.
The only other size requirement for intermediate stiffeners in nontension field girders is
a limit on their moment of inertia. Specification Section 02.2 states that transverse stiffeners
used to develop the available web shear strength shall have a moment of inertia about an
axis in the web center for stiffener pairs or about the face in contact with the web plate for
s ingle stiffeners shown in Figure 7.17, l.w• such that

1,1 ::::: at~. j

Stiffener
Web Web

Stiffener

I
IX X

Figure 7.17 Web Stiffener Minimum Moment of Inertia.

 7.4 Stiffeners for Plate Girders 201

Figure 7.18 Detailing Requirement for !mermediate

Stiffeners.

where
2.5
j = - -) - 2 > 0.5
(aj h )- -

In addition, the Spec ification provides detail ing requirements for inrem1edtate stiffen-
er-... The~ can be stopped short of the tension flange and, when used in pair ·. do not need
10 be attached to the compression flange. The weld by which the) are attached to the web
' hall 1:-e terminated between four and <;ix times the web thickness from the near toe to the
"eb-to-flange weld. as shown in Figure 7 .1 8. but there is no specific requirement for izing
that ''eld. ormally it would be sized based on the plate thjckness. When single tiffeners
are u-,ed. they must be attached to the compression flange, if it consists of a rectangular plate.
ro re,o~ -..t any uplift tendency due to torsion in the flange. Because intermediate stiffeners
pro' tJe a convenient mechanism to transfer bracing forces to the girder, these stiffeners
a 'o mu ...r be connected to the compres ion flange and must be capable of transmitting I%
oi the total flange force.
Intermediate stiffeners for tension field girders must meet the requirements already
di.;cu,..,ed and the slenderness and area req uirements of Specification Section G3.3 where

(b)
-
f Sf -
< 0.56 jl;
-
F.\'.<1

and

A_,, :::: -F,· [ 0.15D)11 11 ( J - C.. )V,- - l 8t,7, ] :::: 0

F"' vl'
''here
<b r 1 , = width thickness ratio of the stiffener
f, . = yield stress of the stiffener
D = 1.0 for stiffeners in pairs
= 1.8 for single-angle stiffeners
= ~ ..+ for single-plate stiffeners
required shear strength at the location of the stiffener
= a' ail able shear strength as defined in Section G3.2

Th i-. -.uffener area i. based on the force that must be carried by the stiffener. It accounts
for an) difference in \\ Cb and stiffener material strength. the ratio of the required-to-available
shear strength. and a reduction for the contribution of the web in resisting the vertical force.
202 Chapter 7 Plate Gtrders

7.4.2 Bearing Stiffeners

Bearing stiffeners are required when the strength of the girder web is not sufficient to
resist the concentrated forces exerted o n iL. Although bearing stiffe ners can be required
for rolled !-shaped members, they are much more likely to be required for plate girders,
particularly at the girder supports. Specification Section J 10 addresses the appropriate limit
states. Normally the fo rces to be resisted are compressive in natme. For those cases, the limit
states of we b loca l yielding, web crippling. and web s idesway buckling must be checked.
When the applied load is tensile, web local yielding and flange local bending must be
considered. lf the strength of the web i' insufficient to resist the applied force. bearing
stiffeners can be used.
The relationship between available strength and nominal strength varies for each limit
state associated with web strength. Thu:,. either design strengths or allowable strengths
must be compared. not nominal strength . to determine the minimum web strength. The
appropriate resistance factors and safety fac tors are given with the following discussion of
the limit states.

Web Local Yield ing

When a single concentrated force is applied to a girder, as shown in Figure 7 .19. the force
is assumed to be delivered to the girder over a length of bearing, N, and is then distributed
through the flange and into the web. T he narrowest portion of the web is the critical section.
This occurs below the web to flange weld. dimensioned as k in Figure 7 .19a. The distribllltion
takes place along a line with a slope of 1:2.5. So when the c ritical section is reached, the
force ha been distributed over a length of N plus 2.5k in each direction. lf the concentrated
force is applied so that the force distributes along the web in both directions, this distribution
increases the bearing length by Sk as shown in F igure 7.19b. If the bearing is close to the
end of the member, distribution takes place only in one direction, toward the midspan. The
Specification defines "close ro the member end" as being within the member depth from
the end. Thus, the available length of the web is (N + 2.5k), as shown in Figure 7.19c.

~~- ---------~~
Critical
section
k 1---N+Sk--l
k rN+2.5k
L-..---
. ------

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 7.19 Single Concentrated Force Applied to Beam.
 7.4 Stiffeners for Plate Girders 203

T he nominal strength of the g irder web when the concentrated force to be resisted is
applied at a distance from the member end that is greater than the depth of the mem ber,
d, is

R, = (5k + N)Fywfw
When the concentrated force to be resisted is applied at a d istance from the member
end that is less than or equal to the depth of the member, d , the nomlnal strength is

R11 = (2.5k + N)Fywlw

where
F"' = yield stress of the web
,V = lengt h of bearing
k = distance from the outer face of the flange to the web toe of the fillet weld
'" = web thickness

For web local y ielding

<I> = I .0 (LRFD) Q = 1.50 (ASD)

Web C rippling

T he criteria for the limit state of web crippling also depen d on the location of the force with
respect ro the end of t he g irder.
\\'hen the concentrated compressive force is applied at a d istance fro m the member
end that is greater than df2

R11 =0.80t,~ [l + 3(N)(~)i.s] EFywlf

d lf lw

\\nen the force is applied at a distance less than df2 and N jd ~ 0.2

R" = 0.401;.[l+ 3(: )(;~ )"]

and\\ hen Njd > 0 .2

(4N fJ )I.S]
d- 0 .2 ) (lw
EFyw lf
? [
R11 = 0.40r,:. 1+

For web crippling

<I>= 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.0 (ASD)

Web Sideswa~· B uckling

The web of a plate girder is generally a slender element, as has already been discussed. If
the tension and compression flanges of the girder are not prevented from displacing laterally
with respect to each other at the point of load, web sides way buckling m ust be assessed. Two
provisions are provided for sidesway buckling: (1) if the compression flange is restrained
against rotation, and (2) if it is not.
204 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

When the compression flange is restrained against rotation and the ratio of web slen-
derness to lateral buckling slenderness, (hjt,.)/ (1/bJ ) ~ 2.3, the nominal strength is given
as

R
II
= C-r,~.rf
f7 2
[1 + 0.4(h/f/ bjt". )3]
If, (h/tw)/(/f bJ) > 2.3, the limit state does not apply.
When the compression flange is not restrained against rotation and the ratio of web
slenderness to lateral buckling slenderness. (h/tw)/(1/hJ) ~ 1.7, the nominal strength is
given as

R/1
= C,.r,:.rf
!J2
[o (h/tw
lfbJ
.4
)
3
]

and if (h/tw)/(1/bf )> 1.7, the limit state does not apply.
In the above equations

I = largest laterally unbraced length along either flange at the point of load
C,. = 960.000 ksi when M,. < My or I .SM0 < My and 480,000 ksi when M11 ::: M_,.
or l.5Ma ::: My
For web sidesway buckling

<!> = 0.85 (LRFD) Q = 1.76 (ASD)

Flange Local Bending
This limit state applies when a single tensile concentrated force is applied to the flange
and the length of loading across the member flange is greater than 0.15bf, as shown in
Figure 7 .20. The nominal strength is

t---b, - - Figure 7.20 Flange Local Bending for an Applied Tension Load.
 7.4 Stiffeners for Plate Girders 205

Tf the force is applied at a distance less than lOt1 from the member c:nd, the strength
must be reduced by 50%.
For flange local bending,

<!> = 0 ..9 (LRFD) Q = 1.67 (ASD)

7.4.3 Bearing Stiffener Design

Once the appropriate limit states are checked, a decision is made as to the need for bearing
stiffeners. Although it is possible to select a web plate that wo uld not require stiffeners,
this is not usually the most economical approach. even though the addition of :.tiffeners is
a high labor and thus high cost element. When bearing stiffeners are to be sl.Zed . Section
J 10 . of the Specification requires that they be sized according to the prO\ i-,ions for tension
member:. or compress ion members as appropriate.
Stiffeners designed to resist tensile forces must lbe designed according to the require-
ment'> of Chapter D, for the diffe rence between the required strength and the minimum
avaiL1ble limit stare strength. The stiffener must be welded to the ftange and '' eb and these
,,eJd.., must be sized to resist the force being transferred to the stiffeners .
Stiffeners required to resist compressive forces must be designed according to the
pro\ Non of Chapter E. except for stiffeners with KL/r ~ 25, which may be designed with
F = F . according to Section J4A. for the difference between the required strength and
the minimum available limit state tre ngth. These stiffeners must also be welded to the
flange and web and these welds mu<;t be sized to resist the force being transferred to the
~tiffene~.

EXAMPLE 7.3 GO_-\.L: Determine the available momem and shear strength using tension field action.
Plate Girder Flex ural
GIYE.'\: A built-up member is shm\ n 111 Fig ure 7.21. Assume that the beam is latera lly braced
and Shear Strength 1
...omwuou-,ly. Use A572 Gr. 50 for the member plates and A36 for the stiffeners. Sx = -+6-+ in .

IO.Oin.-j
l.Om
- ,-
Stiffeners 4.50 in. x 3/s in. @ 5 ft-0 in. on center

.!JJ.O in.

IO.Oin. - j

Figure 7.21 Plate Girder for Example 7.3.

206 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

SOLUTION Step 1: Check the web slenderness to determine which section of the Specification must be used.

11 -+0 j29.000
A11 = - = - = 160 > Ar = 5.7 - - = 137
1., 0.::?5 50
Therefore. this is a slender web plate girder and the provisions of Section F5 must be
applied.
Step 2: Detennine the bending strength reduction factor.
The ratio of web area to flange area is given as

a = 40.0(0.250) = l.OO
" I0.0( i.OO)
and
= 1- 1.00 ( 40.0 - 5.7 ;29,000 ) = 0.985
RP8 1200 + 300( 1.00) 0.250 50

Step 3: Detem1ine the nominal strength for the limit state of yielding.

0.985(50)(464) .
M" = ll = 1900 ft-k1ps

Step 4: Detem1ine the nominal moment strength for lateral-torsional buckling.

The flange is fully braced. so this limit state does not apply.
Step 5: Detem1ine the nominal moment strength for the limit srate of flange local buckling.
The flange slenderness is

b 5.0 j29,000
A.1 =-=-=5.0<0.38 - - =9.15
I 1.0 50
Therefore. the flange is compact and there is no reduction in strength.
tep 6: Determine the lowest nominal moment strength for the limit states calculated.

M, = l900kip-ft

Step 7: Determine the available momenr strength.

ForLRFD

M 11 = 0.9(1900) = 1710 ft-kips

For ASD

1900
Mu = - - = !140ft-kips
1.67

Step 8: Detem1ine the shear StTength with tension field action. First check the intennediate stif-
feners against the presc1iptive requirements.
Proportions of panel
{/ 60.0
- = 0 0 = 1.50 < 3
II 4 .
2 2
< (-260 -) - ( 260 ) -264
11 / 1,.. - 40.0/0.250 - .
 7.4 Stiffeners for Plate Girders 207

Proportions of web ro flange

A ., _ 42.0(0.250) _ O
-- - I . 5 < 2 .5
A1 10.0(1.00)
Proportions of flange width LO web height
40 0
.!!_ -- " -4.
- 00 < 6.0
h1 10.0
Because the criteria have been satisfied. it is permissible to use tension field action in all
but the last panel.
Step 9: Determine whether tension field action increases shear strength by checkmg the web shear
~Jendemess.

5 5
k,. := 5 T --1
(afht
=5 +
(60.0/40.0)-
1 = 7.7..'2
thus

rcE
)..,,,, = l.l \{ --,:;- = l.l
;7.22(29.000)
50 = 71.2

and
{i:1; 7.22(29,000)
A.w,·r = 1.37 f ~ = 1.37 _ = 88.7
\ F, :>0

. fi .
Because A..,, = -II = -
40.0
-= 160
.
IS
d
greater than A.,np an >...,.,.,., tens10n- eld act1011 pro-
'"· 0.250
vides an increase in web shear ~trength.
Step 10: Determine the shear strength coefficient.
c = 1.51(29.000)(7.22) = 0.247
( 160)2 (50)
The nominal shear strength is

V" = 0.6(50)(42.0)(0.250) 0.247 + l - 0.247 ]) = 192 kips

( [ 1.15 ) I + (l.SOi

tep 11: Determine the available shear strength.

For LRFD

V11 = 0.9(192) = 173 kips

For ASD

192
11 = - = 115 kips
1.67
(I

Step 12: Check 1he imermediate stiffener ~ize for meeting the criteria.
For a single plate stiffener
hh' 0.375(4.50)3
I ,, =
3 ==
3
= II .4 in.4
208 Chapter 7 Plate Girders

which must be greater than m~ j with

2.5
.i = 60 0 0 , - 2 = - 0.89 > 0.5
< . t4 .o)-

Because j must be greater than or equal to 0.5

w~ .i = oO.D<0.2sW(O.s> = 0.468 < 11.4

and the '>tiffener satisfies thii> re4uirement.

Step 13: Check the minimum stiffener area.
Because this minimum area i' a function of the ratio of required shear strength to
available ~hear strength. the minimum stiffener area is first detennined with that ratio a~
an unkno\\ 11. Thus

.-\,. = 4.50(0.375) = 1.69

and

'iO [
A, ~ ~ 0.1 5(2.4)(40.0)(0.250)( I - 0.247) -
.)6
(II,v,. ) - '] ( Vrv, ) -
18(0.250)- = 3.77 - 1.56

Thu'>. a~ long as the ratio of required-to-available strength is less than 0.862, these stiffener:,
are adequate to pe1mit temion field action. With this limitation, the maximum nominal
~hear strength in il p<!nel where tc;-n~ion field action is used is as given on page 207 in
Step I I.

7.5 PROBLEMS
1. .Determine the available moment strength of an A36 plate I 00 x Y4 in. and the Aange plates are I 5- x Jth-in. Detem1ine
girder with a web plate of 50 - x 1h -in. and equal Aange plates by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD .
of 12- x l-in. Assume there i:, full lateral suppo rt. Detennine by 7. Detem1ine the avai lable shear strength of an A572 Gr. SO
(a) LRFD and (b) ASD. plate g irder with tniJlsverse stiffeners spaced every 100 in. The
2. Determine the available moment ~treng.th of an A572 Gr. 50 web plate is I00- x % -in. and the flange plates are 15- x 11h-in.
plate g irder with a web plate of 80- x th-in. and equal flange Determine by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
plates of 16- x th-in. Assume there is full lateral support. De-
8. De tennine the available moment and available shear
termine by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
strength of an A36 plate girder on a 100-ft span with stiffen-
3. D~tem1ine the available moment strength or <Ul A572 Gr. ers at the ends and 20 in. from the ends. along with intennediate
50 plate girder with a web plate of 40- X v~-i11. and equal flange stiffeners spaced at 40 in. on center within the span. The g irder
plate' of I 0- x l-in. Assume there is full lateral suppon. Deter- has a web plate of 40- x t/4 -in. and flange plates of 8- x 1/4-in.
mine by Cal LRFD and (b) ASD. Determine by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
4. Detennine the available moment strength of an A36 plate 9. A g irde r is to be designed to span 125ft andcany a uniformly
girder \\ ith a web plate of 75- x % -in. and eq ual flange plates distri buted live load of2.0 kip/ft and a uniformly distributed dead
of 14- x 11 ~-in ..-\ssume there is full lateral support. Detennine load of 1.9 kip/ft inc luding the beam weight. Assume that the
by (a) LRFD and fb) ASD. compression flange has full lateral support and determine the
5. For a plate girder :.panning 80ft with latera l supports at the web and flange plates necessary if the web plate is limited to a
supports and mid~pan. determine the nominal moment strength. depth of 50 in. Dctennine any stiffener requirements for a non-
The girder is an A36 member with a web plate of 45- x ·Y4 -in. tension field g irder. Use A572 Gr. 50 steel. Design by (a) LRPD
and fl ange plates of 9- x 3 J -in. and {b) ASD.
6. Determine the available ~h~ar strength of an A572 Gr. 10. Design a girder for the conditions of Problem 9 if the com-
50 plate girder without rranwerse stiffeners. T he web plate is pression flange is braced at the 113 poinrs.
Chapter 8

Torre Mayor. Mexico.

Photo courtesy WSP Cantor Seinuk.

Beam-Columns and
Frame Behavior

8.1 INTRODUCTIOl\
Beam-.... 1nJmns are members subjected to axial forces and bending moments simultaneously.
Thu-... their behaYior falls somewhere bet ween that of an axially loaded column and a beam
um.ler pure hending. ft is therefore possible to consider the beam or axially loaded member as
spe~:ial c~e, of the beam-column. Practical applications of the beam-column are numerous.
The~ occur a' chord members in trusses, as elements of rig idly connected frameworks. and
as member-. of pm-connected structures with eccentric loads. It is not always possible to
look at a member and determine whether it is a beam-column or not. There must be some
knov.ledge of the acwaJ forces being carried by the member to categorize it as a beam-
column. Hov. e'er. man) \ trucwral members are subjected to these combined forces and the
beam-column is a 'er;. common e le ment in building structures.

209
210 Chapter 8 Beam-Co lumns and Frame Behavior

My

Figure 8.1 Ultimate 1nteraction Stnface for a

Stocky Beam-Column.

The manner in which the combined loads are transferred to a particular beam-column
significantly impacts the ability of the member to resist those loads. Starting with the
axially loaded column, bending moments can occur from various sources. Lateral load
can be applied directly to the member, as is the case for a truss top chord or a column
supporting the lateral load from a wall. Alternatively, the axial force can be applied at
some eccentricity from the centroid of the column as a result of the specific connections.
ln addition. the member can receive end moments from its connection to other members of
the structure such as in a rigid frame. In all cases, the relation of the beam-column to the
other elements of the structure is important in determining both the applied forces and the
resistance of the member.
To understand the behavior of beam-columns, it is common practice to ~ook at the
re -ponse predicted by an interaction equation. The response of a beam-column to an axial
load. P; major axis moment, M_,.; and minor axis moment, M_,.; is presented on the three-
dimensional diagram shown in Figure 8.1. Each axis in this diagram represents the capacity
of the member when it is subjected to loading of one type only, whereas the cmves represent
the combination of two types of loading. The surface fom1ed by connecting the three curves
represents the interaction of axial load and biaxial bending. This interaction surface is of
interest to the designer.
The end points of the curves shown in Figure 8. I depend on the strength of the beam-
columns as described for compression members (Chapter 5) and bending members (Chapter
6). The shape of the curves between these end points depends on the properties of the
particular member as well as the properties of other members of the structure.
Table 8.llists the sections of the Specification and parts of the Manual discussed in
this chapter.

8.2 SECOND-ORDER EFFECTS

The single most complicating factor in the analysis and design of a beam-column is what
is known as second-order effects. Second-order effects are the changes in member forces
and moments as the direct resuJt of su·uctural deformations. Because the common elastic
methods of stmctural analysis assume that all deformations are small, these methods are
not able to account for the additional second-order effects. The results of that type of
analysis are called first-order effects, that is, first-order forces, first-order moments, and
first-order displacements. To account for the .influence of the deformations, an additional
analysis must be performed. The results of this additional analysis are refen·ed to as the
second-order effects.
 8.2 Second-Order E ffects 2 11

Table 8.1 Sections of Specification and Pans of Manual Found in this Chapter

Specification

83 Design Basis
c Stability Analysis and Design
H Design of Members for Combined Forces and Torsion
Appendi). 6 Stability Bracing for Columns and Beams
Appendi.\ 7 Direct Analysis Method

Manual

Part I Dimensions and Properties

Part 3 Design of Flexural Members
Part 4 Design of Compression Member~
Part 6 Design of Members Subject to Combmed Loading

Se\eral approaches are available for including second-order effects in an analysis. A

complete econd-order inelastic analysis would take into account the actual deformation of
the :.rrucrure and the resulting forces. as well as the sequence of loading and the behavior
of the structure after any of its components are stressed beyond the elastic limit. This
approach to analysis is generally more complex than is necessary for normal design. A
similar approach that includes the actual deformations but does not include inelastic behavior
is u:.uall ~ sufficient. The direct analysis method presented in Appendix 7 of the Specification
i thi type of analysis. This method has a significant advantage to the designer because it
incorporates all factors necessary to carry out a beam-column design without any further
modifications or use of the effective length factor. The direct analysis method is briefly
di-,cussed in Section 8. 7 .
.-\n approach that is consistent with normal design office practice and with how beam-
columns have been handled for many years uses a first-order elastic analysis to approxi mate
the second-order conditions. This approach applies multipliers to the results of the first-order
anal) sis to obtain the second-order effects.
T\~O different deflection components that could occur in a beam-column influence the
moments in that beam-column. The first. illustrated in Figure 8.2a, is the deflection along

,1/z
• -4-.L.) ~loment diagram
\..._./.1/~

L (a) Member effect (b) Structure effect

Figure 8.2 Column Displacements for Second-Order Effects.
212 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

the length of the member that results from the moment gradient along the member. In this
case, the member ends must remain in their original pos ition relative to each other, thus.
no sway is considered. The moment created by the load, P. acting at an eccentricity, o.
from the deformed member is superimposed on the moment gradient resulting from the
applied end moments. The magnitude of this additional , second-order moment depends on
the properties of the column itself. Thus. this is called the member effect.
When the beam-column is part of a structure that is permitted to sway. the displacements
of the overall structure also influence the moments in the member. For a beam-column that
is permitted to sway an amount t:.. as shown in Fi gure 8.2b, the additional moment is given
by P t:.. Because the lateral displacement of a given member is a function of the properties
of all of the members in a given story. thi~ moment is called the structure effect.
Both of these second-order effects must be accounted for in the design ofbeam-colunms.
Procedures for incorporating these effects wiU be addressed once an overall approach to
beam-column design is established.

8.3 INTERACTION PRINCIPLES

The interaction of axial load and bending within the elastic response range of a beam-
column can be investigated through the straightforward techniques of SllJ)(!Iposition. T his is
the approach normally considered in elementary strength of materials in which the normal
stress due to an ax ial force is added to the normal stress due to a bending moment.
Although the superposition of individual stress effects is both simple and correct for
elastic '>tresse~. there are s ig nificant limitations when applying this approach to the limit
states of real structures. These include:
1. Superposition of stress is correct only for behavior within the elastic range and only
for similar stress types.
2. Superposition of strain can be extended only into the inelastic range when deforma-
tions are small.
3. Superposition cannot account for member deformations or stability effects such as
local buckling.
4. Superposition cannot account for structural deflections and system stability.

With these limitations in mind, it is desirable to deve lop interaction equations that will
reflect the true I imit state's behavior of beam-columns . Any limit state interaction equation
must reflect the fo llowing characteristics:

Axial Load
I. Maximum coJunm su·ength
2. Individual column slenderness

Bending Moment
1. Lateral support condilions
2. Sidesway conditions
3. Member second-order effects
4. Structure second-order effects
5. Moment gradient along the member
 8.4 Interaction Equations 213

The resulting equations must also provide a close correlation with test results and
theoretical analyses for beam-columns. including the two limiting case of pure bending
and pure compression.
App.lication of the resulting interaction equations can be regarded as a process of deter-
mining available axial strength in the presence of a given bending moment or determining
the available moment strength in the presence of a given axial load. An applied bending
moment consumes a portion of the column strength, leaving a reduced a"ial load strength.
When the two actions are added together. the resulting total load must not exceed the total
column strength. Conversely, the axial load can be regarded as consuming a fractio n of the
moment ~trength. This fraction. plu~ the applied moments, must not e;..ceed the maximum
beam strength.

8.4 INTERACTION EQUATIONS

A ~imple fom1 of the three-d imen~ional interaction equation is
M,:r Mn
-P,. + -- + --· < 1.0 (8 .1)
P, Mn M,y -
where the terms with the subscript r represent the required strength and those "ith the
:-.ub.,cnpt c represent the available strength.
Thi interaction equation is plotted in Figure 8.3. The figure shows that this resuils in a
. traight line representation of the interaction between any two of the load components. The
horizontal plane of Figure 8.3 represent~ biaxial bending interaction, whereas the vertical
plane~ represent the interaction or axial compression plus either strong or weak axis bending.
It should also be apparent that the three-dimensional aspect is represented by a plane wirh
intercepts given by tbe straight lines on the three coordinate planes.
The Specification interaction equations in Chapter H of the Specification result from
fining interaction equations of the form of Equation 8. 1 to a set of data developed from an
analy'-t'> of forces and moments for various plastic stress distributions on a stub column.
Figure 8 .-+a shows the actual analysis results for a W 14x82 stub column. Figure 8.4b shows

1.0 Mrx
M,..,.

Figure 8.3 Simplified Interaction

Surface.
2 1.4 C'haptt>r 8 Bel'tm-\olunlns and FramP Rr>h:wior

1400

1200

1000

800
"'c.
-"
Cl.::: 600

400

200

600
M, (ft-kip~l
Figure 8.4a Interaction Diagram for Stub W l-+x82 Column.

the same data plotted as functions of the normalized axial and flexural strength. In both
cases. the influence of length on the axial or flexural strength is not included. Using curves
of this type. developed for a wide variety of steel beam-column shapes, two equations were
developed that are conservative and accurate for x-ax is bending. When appJjed to y-ax.is
bending. they are significantly more conservative. Simplicity of design and the low level
use of weak axis bending justify this extra level of conservatism.
An additional modification to these equations is required to account for the length
effects. Rather than normalizing the curves on the yield load and the plastic moment as
was done in Figure 8.4b, the equations were developed around the nominal stre ngth of the
column and the nominal mength of the beam. The resulting equations, given as Equations
HI-la and Hl-lb in the Specification, are given here as Equations 8.2 and 8.3 and are
plotted in Figure 8.5 . The equations shown here consider bending about both princ ipal
axes. whereas the plot in Figure 8.5 is for single axis bending.

0.80

~- 0.60
;:=
0.40

0.20

M,IMP
Figure 8.4b Nonnalized Interaction Diagram for Stub Wl4 xR2 Column.
 8.4 Interaction Equations 215

Figure 8.5 Lnteraction

Equations 8.2 and 8.3.

p
p - 0.2
For->

P,.
-+-
Pc
- +i'v-
8 (M,..,
9 Mn
!n· ) < I.O
,\1<) -
(H I -la) (8.2)

p
For-< 0.2
p

(H 1-1b) (8.3)

\\here
P required compressive strength, kips
P = available compressive strength, kips
,\J required flexural strength, ft-k ips
.\1 = available flexural strength, ft-kips
x= ~ ubscript relating symbol to strong axis bending
,. = subscript relating symbol to weak axis bending
It i' 1mponam to note that
1. The aYailable column strength, Pc. is based on the axis of the column with the largest
-.lenderne ratio. This is not necessarily the ax is about which be nding takes place.
2. The available bending strength, Me, is based on the bending strength of the beam
"ithout axial load, including the influence of a ll the beam limit states.
3. The required compressive strength, P,., is the second-order force on the member.
4. The required flexura l strength, M,., is the second-order bending moment on the
member.
216 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Second-order forces and moments can be determined through a second-order ana lysis or
by a modification of the results of a first-order analysis using amplification factors. T hese
amplification factor'i w iU be discussed as they relate to braced frames (Section 8.5) and
moment frames (Section 8.6).
Additional pro\'isions are available for cases where the axial strength limit state is
our-of-plane buckling and the flexural! imit state is in-plane bending. Equations H 1-la and
1-1 bare consen ati\'e fo r this situation but an add itional approach is available. Specification
Section H 1.3 pro' ides that ( I ) for in-plane instability, Equations H l-1 a and H 1- J b should
be used where rhe compressive strength is determined for buckling in the plane of the frame.
and (2) for out-of-plane buckling

where
P,.0 = mail able compressive strength out of the plane of bending
Me., = aYailable flexural stTength for strong axis bending
If bending is about only the weak axis. the moment tem1 is neglected. If there is significant
biaxial bending. meaning both axes exhibit a required-moment-to-available-moment ratio
greate r than or equal to 0.05, then this option is not available. Although thjs optional
approach can provide a m ore economical solution in some cases, it is not used in the
example::. or problems of this book.

8.5 BRACED FRA~IES

-\ frame is considered to be braced if a positive system, that is, an actual system such
:c. a shear wall (masonry. concrete. steel. or other material) or diagonal steel member, as
illu~trated in Figure 8.6, serves to resist the lateral loads, to stabilize the frame under gravity
load<;. and resist lateral displacements. In these cases, columns are considered b raced against

- - - + - Shear wa ll

t
~
Diagonal bracing

Figure 8.6 Braced Frame.

 8.5 Braced Frames 217

I
I
I
I
I
I
-81--
1
I
I
I
I

M,~
Lo~dmg Moment diagram
Figure 8.7 An Axially Loaded Column" irh
(al (bl
Equal and Opposite End .\lament::..

lateral translation and the in-plane K -factor is taken as 1.0 or less. This is the t) pe of column
that \\'as discussed in Chapter 6. Later in this chapter the requirements for bracing to insure
that a structure can be considered a braced frame, as found in Appendix 6, are discu ...sed.
If the column in a braced frame is rigidly connected to a girder. bending moments re:-ult
from the application of the gravity loads to the girder. These moments can be determined
through a first-order elastic analysis. The additional second-order moments resulting from
the di:-.placement along the column length can be determined through the application of an
amp! i fication factor.
The full derivation of the amplification factor has been presented by various author.... 1• 2
Although this derivation is quite complex. a somewhat simplified derivation is presented
here to help establish the background. An axially loaded column with equal and oppo ite
end moments is shown in Figure 8.7a. The resulting moment diagram i:. sho" n in Figure
8.7b where the moments from both the end moments and the secondary effects are given.
The maximum moment occurring at the midheight of the column, M, . is shown to be

The amplification factor is defined as

AF = _M_r = _M_t_+_P_8
M1 M1

Remnnging tem1s yields

1
AF = ------=p-=--
8
l-----
M, + P8
Two :-.implifying assumptions will be made. The first is based on the assumption that 8
is sufficiemly small that

----=

1
Galamboo. T. Y.. Stnu lttral Members and Frame,,, Engkwood Cliff;.. NJ: Prentice Hall. Inc.. 1968.
John~on. B. G .. Ed.. Guide Jo Srahilily Des(~n Crileria for Meral StrucJure~. 3rd ed .. SSRC. New York: Wiley,
1

1976.
218 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

I P
----
I - PI ~ _,...- - -
e ~_.,.-

,.. .,;
/
/
/
I
I
I
I
I.

3 4
Amplification factor
Figure 8.8 Amplified Moment: Exact and Approximate.

and the second. using the beam deflection. 8 = M 1L 2 18El, assumes that
M, REI -rr 2EI
-=-~--=P
0 L2 L2 e

Because these simplifying assumptions are in error in opposite directions, they tend to be
offsetting. This res ults in a fairly accurate prediction of the amplification. Thus,

AF=-- - (8.4)
1 - PIPe
A comparison between the actual amplification and that given by Equation 8.4 is shown in
Figure 8.8.
The discussion so far has assumed that the moments at each e nd of the column are
equal and opposite and that the resulting moment diagram is uniform. This is the most
severe loading case for a beam-column. If the moment is not uniformly distributed, the dis-
placement along the member is less th<m previously considered and the resulting amplified
moment is less than i.nd.icated. It has been customary in design practice to use the case of
unifonn moment as a base and to provide for other moment gradients by converting them
to an equiYalent uniform moment through the use of an additional factor, C,11 •
Numerous stud ies have shown that a reasonably accurate COJTection results for beam-
co1umns braced against translation and not subject to transverse loading between their
supports, if the moment is reduced through its multiplication by C,. where
(8.5)
M 11M2 is the ratio of the smaller to larger moments at the ends of the member unbraced
length in the plane of bending. M 1I M1 is positive when the member is bent in reverse
curvatw-e and negative when bent in single curvature.
For beam-columns in braced frames where the member is subjected to transverse load-
ing between supports, C111 may be take n from Conunentary Table C-C2.1 or conservatively
taken as 1.0.
The combination of the amplification factor, AF, and the equivalent moment factor,
Cm. accounts for the total member secondary effects. This combined factor is given as 8 1
in the Specification and is shown here as Equation 8.6.
Cm
B, = - --=-
cxP,.
:::_ 1.0 (8.6)
1- -
Pet
 8.5 Braced Frames 219

where
a = 1.6 for ASD and 1.0 for LRFD to account for the nonlinear behavior of the
structure at its ultimate strength
P, = required strength
Pe~ = Euler buckling load for the column with an effective length factor. K = L.O

Thus, the value of M,. in Equations 8.2 and 8.3 is taken as

Mr = B ,M
where M is rhe maximum moment on the beam-column. It is possible for C,.. robe less than
1.0 and for Equation 8.6 to give an amplification factor less than 1.0. Thi:-. indicates that
the combination of the P'b effects and the nonuniform moment gradient re ult m a moment
less than the maximum moment on the beam-column from first-order effect~. ln thi. case,
the amplification factor B 1 = 1.0.

EXAMPLE 8.1a
GOAL: Design column Al in Figure 8.9 for the given loads using the LRFD provi~ion~ and
Colum n Design for
the second-order amplification factor pro\ ided in the Specification.
Combined Axial and
Bending by LRFD

1-- - - - 3 @ 30ft= 90ft - -- ---1

H I I H
(a)

16 fl

l
29.1k Moment 22.tk Moment
Loading diagram Loading diagram
(b) For LRFD (c) For ASD
Figure 8.9 TJu·ee-Dimensional Braced Frame for a Single-Story Structure.
220 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

GIVEN: The three-dimensional braced frame fo r a single-sto ry structure is g iven in Figure

8.9 . Rigid connections are provided at the roof level for co lumns A I. B I . A4, and B4. All other
column connections are pinned. Dead Load= 50 psf. Snow Load =
20 psf, Roof Live Load =
10 psf. and Wind load= 20 psfhorizonral. Use A992 steel. Assume that the X-brac ing is so muc h
stiffer than the rigid frames that it resi~t~ all lateral load.

SOLu'T/ON Step l : Detennine the appropriate load combinations. From ASCE 7. Section 2.3, the fo llowing
two combinations are considered.

1.2D + 1.6(L, or S or R)+ (0.5L or O.SW) (ASCE 7 -3)

1.20 + 1.6W , 0.5 L + O.S(L, or S orR ) (ASCE 7-4)

Step 2: Detennine the factored roof gra' it) loads for each load combination.

1.2(50) + 1.6(20) = 92 psf (ASCE 7-3)

1.2(50) + 0.5(20) = 70 ps f (ASCE 7-4 )

Becau~e column A I does not participate in the lateral Load resis tance, use a uniformly
di~tributed roof load of 92 psf.
S tep 3: Can;. out a preliminary first-order analysis. Because the structure is inde terminate, a
number of approaches can be taken. If an a rbitrary 6-to- 1 ratio of moment of inenia for
beam~ to columns is assumed. a moment d istribution analysis yie lds the moment and
force given in Figure 8.9b. Tllll&. the column will be desig ned to can-y

P, = 29. I kips and M, = 37.7 ft-kips

tep -t: Select a trial size for column A I and dete m1ine its compressive streng th and bending
:>trength.
Try W IOx 33. (Section 8.8 addresse~ trial section selection.)

A=9.7lin. 2 • r,.jry=2.16. r, =4.19in., r ,. =l.94in., 1, =171in.4

The column is oriented so that bending is about the x -ax is of the column. It is braced
against sidesway by the diagona l braces in pane l A2-A3 and is pinned at the bottom
and rigidly connected at the top in the pla ne of bending. Because this column is part
of a hraced frame. K = 1.0 should be used. Altho ugh the Specification penn its the use
of a lm~er K -factor if j ustified by analysis, this is not recommended because it would
like!) require s ignificantly more stiffness in the braced panel.
From Manual Table 4- 1

<bP11 = 2 13 ki ps for KL = 16 .0 ft
From Manual Table 3-2

d>M, = 113 ft-kips for Lh = 16 .0 f t

S tep 5: Check theW IOx 33 for combined axial load and bending in-plane .
For an unbraced length of 16 ft. the Euler load is

rr2£/ rr 2(29.000 )( 171 ) .

Pe~ = (KL)-
--1 =
(1 6.0( 12))2
= 1330 klpS

The column is bent in single c urvature between brac ing points, the end points, and the
moment at the base is zero: therefore M 1/M2 = 0.0. Thus

Cm = 0.6 - 0.4(0.0) = 0.6

 8.5 Braced Frames 221

Therefore. the amplification factor becomes

0.6
29
.! = 0.61 < I .0
1---
1330
The specification requires that 8 1 not be less than 1.0. Therefore. taking 8 1 = 1.0

M,, = 8 1(M.,) = 1.0(37.7) = 37.7 ft-kips

To determine which equation to use, calcu late
P,. 29.1
- = - =0.137 <0.2
<bP, 213
Therefore. use Equation lU ( Hl - lb)
37.7
0.5(0.137) + - = 0.402 < 1.0
113

thus, theW 10x 33 will easily carry the given loads

The solution to Equation H1- I b indicates that there is a fairly wide extra margin of safety.
£t would be appropriate to con,ider a smaller column for a more economical de~ign.

EXAMPLE 8.1b
GOAL: Design column A I in Figure 8.9 for the g iven loads using tbe ASD provisions and the
Column Design for
-;econd-order amplification factor provided in the Specification.
Combined Axial and
Bending by ASD GIYEN: The three-dimensional braced frame for a single-story structure is given in Figure
8.9. Rigid connections are provided at the roof level for columns A I, B 1, A4. and B4. All other
column connections are pinned. Dead Load = 50 ps f, Snow Load = 20 psf, Roof Live Load =
I 0 p~f. and Wind load= 20 psf horizontal. Use A992 steel. Assume that rhe X-bracing is so much
stiffer than the rigid frames that it resists all lateral load.

SOLUTION S tep 1: Detem1ine the appropriate load combinations. From ASCE 7, Section 2.4. the fo llowing
two combinations are considered.

D + (L, or S orR) (ASCE 7-3)

D + 0.75W + 0.75(L, or S orR ) (ASCE 7-4)

Step 2: Detem1ine the factored roof gravity loads for each load combination.

(50) + (20) = 70 psf (ASCE 7-3)

(50)+ 0.75(20) = 65 psf (ASCE 7-4)

Becau~e column Al does not participate in the lateral load resistance. use a uniformly
di~rributed roof load of70 psf.
Ste p 3: C:uT) out a preliminary first-order analysis. Because the structure is indeterminate. a
number of approaches can be taken. If an arbitrary 6-to-1 ratio of moment of inertia for
bean1s to col umns is assumed, a moment distribution analysis yields the moment and
force given in Figure 8.9c. Thus, the column will be designed to caJTY

P,. = 22.1 kips and M,. = 28.7 ft-kips

222 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Step 4: Select a trial size for column A I and determine its compressive strength and bending
strength.
Try WI Ox33. (Section 8.8 addresses trial section selection.)

A= 9.71 in. 2 , r_,jr_,. = 2.16, r., = 4.19 in., r, = 1.94in., /_. = 171 in. 4

The column is oriented so that bending is about the .r-axis of the column. It is braced
against sidesway by the diagonal braces in panel A2- A3 and is pinned at the bottom and
rigidl y connected at the top in the plane of bending. Because this column is part of a
braced frame, K = l.O should be used. Although the Specification pennits the use of a
lower K -factor if justified by analysis. this is not recommended because it would likely
require significantly more stiffness in the braced panel.
From Manual Table 4-1

P11 /9. = l.f2kipsforKL = 16.0ft

From Manual Table 3-2

M11 /9. = 74.9 ft-kips for Lh = 16.0 ft

Step 5: Check the Wl0x33 for combined axial load and bending in-plane.
For an unbraced length of 16.0 ft, the Euler load is
2 2
'IT £/ TI (29.000)( 171)
P.1 1 = - -2 =
(KL) ( 16.0(12)) 2
= 1330 k.ips
The column is hem in single curvature between bracing points, the end points, and the
moment at the base is zero; therefore M./M2 = 0.0. Thus

Cm = 0.6 - 0.4(0.0) = 0.6

Therefore, the amplification factor with a = 1.6 becomes
0.6
1.6(22.1) = 0.6 16 < 1.0
1 - - --
1330
The specification requires that B1 not be Jess than I .0. Therefore. taking B 1 = 1.0

M,.r = BI (M., ) = 1.0(28.7) = 28.7ft-kips

To determine which equation to use. calculate
Po 22.1
-p- = - = 0. 156 < 0.2
,jQ 142

Therefore. usc Equation 8.3 (HI -1 b)

28.7
0.5(0.156) + - = 0.461 < 1.0
74.9

thus, the Wl0x33 will easily carry the g iven loads

The solution to Equation Hl-1 b indicates that there is a fairly wide extra margin of
safety. It would be appropriate to consider a smaller column for a more economical
design.
 8.6 Moment Frame~ 223

8.6 MOMENT FRAMES

A moment frame depends on the '>tiffness of the beam~ and columm that compo!>e the
frame for '-lability under gravity load and under combined gravity and lateral loads. Unlike
braced frames. rhere is no external '>tructure ro lean again~t for stability. Columns in moment
frame are ... ubjected to both axial load and moment and experience lateral translation.
The -.ame interaction equations. Equations 8.2 ancl8.3, are used to design beam-columns
in moment frames as were previou-., 1~ used for braced frames. llowever. in addition to the
member ...econd-order effects di~cu-.,-.,cd in Section 8.5, there is the additional -.econd-order
effect that results from the sway or lateral di~placemen t or the frame.
Figure 8.10 shows a cantil eYer or flag pole column under the action of an axial load
and a I.Heral load. Figure 8.1 Oa i.., the column as viewed for a first-order eta..... tic analysis
''here equilibrium requires a moment at the bottom. M,, = HL. The det~ ection thm results
at the tLp of the column. 6. 1• is the clastic deflection of a cantilever beam. thu'
3
flL
6., = --
3£/
(8.7)

-\ 'econd-order analysis yield-. the forces and displacement~ a~ shown in Figure R. LOb.
The dr-.placement, t-.. 2 , is the total di-.placement including second-order effecb and the
moment mcluding second-order effech i

(8.8)

An eljuivalcnt lateral load can be determined that results in the same moment at the
bottom of the column as in the second-order analysis. This load is H + P 6.1 / L and is
-..hO\\ n n Figure 8.1 Oc.
It ma) be assumed, with only slight error. that the displacement at the top of the column
for the ca-.es in Figures 8. 1Ob and 8.1 Oc are the same. Thus, using the equi,alem lateral
load

_::;,=
3
(H+P6.1/L)L = - 1+-- !iL'!'(
P6'!) =6. 1( 1+ -
P6.1)
- (8.9)
- 3£/ 3£/ HL HL

~/
~ II =Ill. ~ B2M~r=HL+ P\2

(b) 2nd order elastic (c) Equi\alent tateraltoad

Figure 8.10 Structur<! Second-Order Effect Sway.
224 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Equation 8.9 can now be solved for !::::.2 where

and the result sub:,tirured into Equation 8.8. Solving the resulting equation for the amplifi-
cation factor, 8 ~ . and implifying yields

B~ = ---=-
p -:-
f::::.-1 (8.10a)
1---
HL
Considering that the typical beam-column will be part of some larger structure, this
equation must be modified to include rhe effect of rhe multistory and multi bay characteristics
of the actual strucwre. This is easily accomplished by summing the total gravity load on the
columns in the :.tor) and the wtallateral load in the story. Thus, Equation 8.1 Oa becomes
I
8
~ = "E.P/::::.1
(8.10b)
1- - -
r.. HL
This ampltlication factor is essemially that given by the Specification as Equation C2-3
in combination'' irh Equation C2-6b

(8 .1 1)

where
r. P,, = total gravity load on the story
L.HL
2: P,.~ = measure of lateral stiffness of the structure= RM - -
!::::..H
.::.H = story drift from a first-order analysis due to the lateral load, H
o: = 1.0 for LRFD and 1.6 for ASD to account for the nonlinear behavior of the
'itructure at its ultimate strength
R 11 = 0.85 for moment frames to account for the influence of the member effect on
the sidesway displacement that could not be accounted for in the simplified
deriYation above. For braced frames. R111 = 1.0

It is often desirable to lim it the latera] displacement, or drift. of a structure during the design
phase. This limit can be defined using a drift index which is the story drift divided by the story
height. !::::. HIL. The de~ign then proceeds by selecting members so that the final structure
performs as desired. This i-. ~ imilar to beam design where deflection is the serviceability
criterion. Because the drift index can be established without knowing member sizes, it can
be used in Equation 8.11. Thus, an analysis with assumed member sizes is unnecessary.
Tf, however, the column s izes of the structure are known, detennination of 8 2 is possible
using the sidesway buckling resistance given as

(8.12)

where K2 is the sidesway buckling effective length factor for each column in the story that
participates in the lateral load resistance.
 8.6 Moment Frames 225

With this amplification for sidesway. the moment, M, . to be used in Equations 8.2 and
8.3, can be evaluated. M,. must include both the member and structure second-order effects.
Thus. a fir t-order analysis without sidesway is canied out, yielding moments, M111 , that
is witho ut translation, to be amplified by 8 1• Next, a first-order analysis including lateral
load and pem1itting translation must be carried out. This yields moments. Mtr, that is with
translation. to be amplified by 8 2 . The resulting second-order moment is
(8.13)
where
B i~ given by Equation 8.6
8~ i-. given by Equation 8.11
.\1 . = first-order moments with no translation
.\1 , = fi rst-order moments that result from lateral trans lation

.U. could i11clude moments that result from unsymme trical frame properties or loading as
\\ell a-, fro m lateral loads. In most real structures, however. moments resulting from this
lad. of,.,~ mmetry are usually small and often ignored.
The second-orde r force is
P,. = Pnr + B2Ptr
The sum of P111 and P,1 should equal the total gravity load on the structure but for an
indi' tdual col umn, it is important to ampl ify the portion of the individual col umn force that
come~ from the lateral ioad.
For situations where there is no lateral load on the structure, it may be necessary to
incorporate a minimum lateral load in order to capture the second order effects of the
gra' H~ loads. This is covered briefly in Section 8.7 where the three methods provided in
the Specification for tTeating second order effects are discussed.

EXAMPLE 8.2a
GO~ L: Using the LRFD provisions. determine whether theW 14x90, A992 column shown in
Strength Checkfor
F1gure R. I I is adequate to carry the imposed loading.
Combined Compression
and Bending by LRFD GIYE.\: An exterior column from an intermediate level of a multi-stOr) moment frame is
,hc.l\\ n in Figure 8.11. The column is part of a braced frame out of the plane of the figure. Figure
'·II.! ,hows the member to be checked. The same col Limn section will be u ed for the level above
and below the column AB. A first-order analysis of the frame for gravit) loads plus the minimum
l.uer.u load results in the forces shown in Figure 8.11 b, whereas the results for gravity plus wind
are ,hl'" n in Figure 8.11 c. Assume that the frame drift under service loads is limited to height/300.

SOLUTION tep 1: Determille the column effective length factor in the plane of bending.
Using the effective length alignment chart introduced in Chapter 5 and g iven in the
Commentary, determine the effective length for buckling in the plane of the moment
irame.

(999)
212.5
CA = C 8 = ( 2100 ) = 2.28
30.0

thus. K = 1.66
226 Chapter 8 Beam-Column!> and Frame Bcha\ ior

W24x76
~----------------~-----------4---,-
~ /_.. =2100in -4 I
~X ~
c
.,. ~
0 12.5 ft
;3: II
-:
8 W:!-lx-6
~----------------~----------~-- ~
I
/_.. = 2100 in.~

HJ--- - -- - 3 o n------~
Total load r H = l-IS~
LP0 =16-0~
IPu=~IIO~
<a>

r =522~ l=
fl -153~ = 354 + 99.0 r =348" lp=343k = 280 +62.0
~ 1 .nfl·klp ( r )25Jfl.kip= 96.7 + 15-1 ~9s.ort-klp ~ 17-lft·kip = 78.0 + 96.0

~ "I .CJh·~IP u 203fl·kip = 48.3 + 15-1 U 47.o~'~·k''' C) J3sfl·k 1

'' = 39.0 + 96.0

t=522~ L = -153k t =J-18" t=p 343k = 280 + 62.0

1.20- 1.6L 1.20 + O.SL + 1.6W D+L D+0.75L+0.75W

H H H H
(bl (c) (dl (e)

Figure 8. 1 I Exterior Column From an lntem1ediate Level of a Multistory Rigid Frame (Example 8.2).

Step 2: Detennine rhc controlling effective length.

\.\'ith r / r, = 1.66 for the Wl4x90
KL , = 1.66( 12.5)/ 1.66 = 12.5 ft
KL, = 1.0( 12.5) = 12.5ft

Step 3: Determine the column design axial strength.

From the column tables. ManuaJ Table 4-1. for KL = 12.5 ft

<l>P., = 1060 kips

Step -4-: Determine the first-order momcms and forces for the loading case including wind.
The column end moment~ given in Figure 8.11 c are a combination of moments
resulting from a nonswa) gravity load analy~is and a \\ md analysis. These moments are
Moment for end A
M, = 96.7 ft-kips
M1, = 154ft-kips
 8.6 Moment Frames 227

Moment for end B

Mm = 48.3 ft-kips
M 1, = !54ft-kips
Compression

Pm = 354kips
P1, = 99.0 kips

Step 5: Determine the second-order moments by amplifying the first-order moments.

T he no-translation moments must be amplified by B 1 , where

M t = 48.3 = O.SO
M~ 96.7
c, = 0.6- 0.4(0.50) = 0.4
2
TI (29,000)(999) 2 0 k'
Per = ( l.O(l 2.5)(1 2)i =I ,70 tpS
0.4
Bt = ----,,...,,..,.- = 0.41 1 < 1.0
354
1 - --
12,700
Therefore, 8 1 = 1.0.
The translation moments must be amplified by 8 2 • Because the complete design
is not known and the design drift lim it is known, Equation 8. 1 I using the drift index
formulation is used here.
Additional given informat ion:
The total lateral load on thi ~tory is

'E.H = 148 kips

The total gravity load for tl1is load combination is

L.Pu = 2110 kips

The drift limit under the lateral load of 148 kips is

t::.N = L/300 = 12.5(12)/300 = 0.50 in.

Thus, with et = 1.0 for LRFD

0.85(148)(12.5)(12) 00 .
'E.P,2 = O = 37.7 ktps
0.5

82 l.O 06
= 1.0 - ((1.0)2110) = l.
37.700
Thu ~. the second-order compressive force and moments are

P,. = 354 + I.06(99) = 459 kips

M,. = 1.0(96.7) + 1.06( 154) =260ft-kips
These repre ·ent the required strength for this load combination.
Step 6: Determine whether this shape wiU provide the required StTength based on the appropriate
interaction equation.
228 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

The unbraccd length of the compression flange for pure bending is 12.5 fl, which is
less than L P = 15.2 ft for this section. raking into account that its flange is noncom pact.
Thu<;. from Manual Table 3-2 the design moment strength of the section is
<!>·'vi,, = 573ft-kips
D<!termine the appropriate interaction equation.
459
_!::__ = = 0..+33 > 0 .2. thus use Equation S.2 (H 1-1 a)
<I>P, 1060
which yields
&(
0.433- 9 573
260) = 0.836 < 1.0
Thus

theW 14 x 90 i~ adequate for this load combination

Step 7: Check the <;ection for the gravity-only load combination. 1.2D + 1.6L.
Because this is a gravity-only load combination. Specification Section C2.2a requires
that the analysis include a minimum lateral load of0.002 times the gravity load. For this
frame the minimum lateral load i:. 0.002(21 10) = 4.2 kips at this level.
The forces and moments given m Figure 8.1 I b include the effects of this minimum
lateral load. The magnitude of the lateral translation effect is small in this case. Thus, the
force~ and moments used for thi ~ check will be assumed to come from a no-translation
case.
-'\quick review of the determination of 8 1 from the first parr of this solution indicates
that there is no change, thus

With the assumption that there is no lateral load

Mtr = 0.0 and 8~ i:. unnecessary
Again using Equation 8.2 ( 1-11-1 a)

522 ( 142)
- +89-
1060
- =0.713 <
573
1.0
Thus. the

W 14x90 is adequate for both loading conditions considered

EXAMPLE 8.2b
GOAL: Using the ASD provisions. determine whether theW 14x90, A992 column shown in
Strength Check for
Figure 8.1 1 is adequate to carry the imposed loading.
Combined Compression
and Bending by ASD GIVEN: An exterior column from an intem1ediate level of a multi-story moment frame is
shown in Figure 8 .11. The column i~ part of a braced frame out of the plane of the figure. Figure
8.11 a shows the member to be checked. The same colunm section wil l be used for the level above
and below the column AB. A first-order anaJysis of the frame for gravity loads plus d1e minimum
lateral load results in the forces shown in Figure 8.11 d. whereas the results for gravity plus wind
are shown in Figure 8.11 e . Assume that the frame drift under service loads is limited to height/300.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the column effective length factor in the plane of bending.
 8.6 l'vloment Frames 229

Using the effective length alignmenT chart introduced in Chapter 5 and given in the
Commentary, detetmine the effective length for buckling in the plane of the moment
frame.
999)
212.5
(
G4 =Go= ( 2100 ) = 2.28
30.0
thus. K = 1.66
Step 2: Determine the controlling effective length.
With r.,fr,. = 1.66 forrhe Wl4x90

KL ,= 1.66(12.5)/1.66 = 12.5 fl
KL, = 1.0(12.5) = 12.5 Ft
Step 3: Detennine the column allowable axial strength.
From the column tables. ~lanual Table 4-1, for KL = 12.5 ft

P11 j Q = 703 kip~

Step .t: Determine the first-order moments and forces for the loading case including wind.
The column end moment!. given in Figure 8. 1le are a combination of moment"
resulting from a nonsway graYity load analysis and a wind analysis. These moments are
Moment for end A

M 111 = 78.0 ft-kips

M" = 96.0 ft-kips

Moment for end B

Mm = 39.0 ft-kips
M 1, = 96.0 ft-kips
Compre5sion

P", = 280 kips

P1, = 62.0 kips

Step 5: Determine the second-order moments by amplifying the first-order moments.

The no-translation moments must be amp! ilied by 8 1 • where

M, _ 39.0 _ O O
- - .5
M2 78.0
c, = 0.6 - 0.4(0.50) = 0..+
1T\29,000)(999) ? 00 k'
Pr~ = , = 1_,7 tps
o.oc 12.5)0 :m-
0.4
1.6(~80) = 0.415 < 1.0
1-
12.700

Therefore. 8 1 = 1.0.
The translation moment must be amplified by 8 2. Because the complete design
is not known and the design drift limit is known, Equation 8. 11 us ing the drift index
formulation is used here.
230 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Additional given information:

The total lateral load on this story is

'f.H = 148 kips

The total gravity load for this load combination is

"£. P" = 1670 kips

The drift limit under the lateral load of 14R kips is

!::..u = L / 300 = 12.5(12)/300 = 0.50 in.

Thus. with a = 1.6 for ASD

0.85( 148)( 12.5)( 12) 00 .
EP,.2 = = 37,7 ktps
0 .50

1.0
B2 = ( ( l.6) l670) =1.08
1.0-
37.700
T hus. the second-order compre~"ive force and moment are

P,. = 280- 1.08(62.0) = 347 kips

M,. = 1.0(78.01 + 1.08(96.0) = 182ft kips

T hese represent the required strength for this load combination.

Step 6: Determine whether this shape will provide the required strength based on the appropriate
interaction equation.
The unbraced length of the co mpression flange for pure bending is 12.5 ft, which is
less than L P = 15.2 ft for this sectio n. taking into account that its flange is noncom pact.
Thus, fi·om Manual Table 3-2 the allowable momenr strength of the section is

M,f Q = 382 ft-kips

Determine the appropriate interaction equation.

P,. 347
Pn/ Q = = 0.494 > 0.2.thus use Equation 8.2 (HI-la)
703
which yields

0.494 + 98 ( 382
182) = 0.918 < 1.0

Thus

the W 14 x 90 is adequate for this load combination

Step 7: Check the section for the gravity-only load combination. D L. +

Because this IS a gravity-only load combination, Specification Section C2.2a
requires that the analysi::. include a minimum lateral load of 0.002 times the gravity
load. which for ASD requires the use of a= 1.6. For this frame the minimum lateral
=
load is 0.002( 1.6)(1670) 5.34 kips at this level.
The forces and moments given in Figure 8.11 d include the effectS of this minimum
lateral load. The magnitude of the lateral translation effect is small in this case. Thus, the
forces and moments used for this check will be assumed to come from a no-translation
case.
 8.7 Specification Provisions for Stability Analysis and Design 231

A quick review of the detem1ination of 8 1 from the first part of this solution indicates
that there is no change, thus

With the assumption that there is no lateral load

M,1 = 0.0 and 82 is unnecessary
Again using Equation 8.2 (Hl-1 a)

-348 +-8 (95.0)

- = 0.716 < 1.0
703 9 382
Thus, the

W 14 x 90 is adequate for both loading conctitions considered

The moments in the beams and the beam-to-column cotmections must also be amp Iified
for the critical case to account for the second-order effects. This is done by considering
equilibrium of the beam-to-column joint. The amplified moments in the column abo' e and
beiO\\ the joint are added together and this sum is distributed to the beams which frame
into the joint according to their stiffne ses. These moments then establish the connection
design moments.

8.7 SPECIFICATION PROVISIONS FOR STABILITY

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Up to this point, the discussion of the interaction of compression and bending has con-
centrated on the development of the interaction equations and one approach to incorporate
second-order effects. The Specification actually provides three overlappmg approaches to
deal with these two closely linked issues. As mentioned earlier, the mo~r direct approach is
to use the Direct Analysis Method described in Appendix 7.
The Direct Analysis Method y ields forces and moments that can be used directly in
the interaction equations of Chapter H. The nominal strength of members is determined
u ing the strengrh provisions already djscussed with the additional provision that the effec-
tiYe length of compression membeJs shall be taken as the actual length, that is, K = 1.0.
The analysis required Ln this approach can be either a general econd-order analysis o r the
amplified first-order analysis already presented. There are no limitations on the use of the
direct analysis method, although the specific provisions do require modifications of member
stiffnesses and the application of additional lateral load:.. called notional loads. T he other
two design methods given in the Specification are based on the direct analysis method.
The second method , Design by Second-Order A nalys is, given in Specification Section
C2.1a. is the approach already described in this c hapter for braced and unbraced frames.
This approach is valid as long as the ratio of second-order deflection to first-order deflection,
11d f1t. is equal to or less than 1.5. Another way to state this requirement is to remember t hat
112/11 1 = 82. therefore the method is valid as long as 8 2 :::; 1.5. An additional modification
can be applied when 8 2 ::::= 1.1 . Tn this case. columns can be designed using K = 1.0. The
Manual calls this method the effectil·e length method because it is essentially the same
232 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

method used in recent practice with the addition of the requirement of a minimum lateral
load to be applied in all load cases.
A third method is given in the Specification, Section C2.2b, and called Design by First-
Order Analysis. This approach permits design without direct consideration of second-order
effects except through the application of additional lateral loads. This is possible because
of the many limits placed on the impleme ntation of this method. For further infonnation on
this approach, consult Section C2.2b and the Manual.

8.8 INITIAL BEAM-COLUMN SELECTION

Beam-column design is a trial-and-error process that requires the beam-column section be
known before an~ of the ct·irical parameters can be dete1mined for use in the appropriate
interaction equations. There are numerou!) approaches to determining a preliminary beam-
column size. Each incorporates its own level of sophistication and results in its own level
of accuracy. Regardless of the approach used to select the trial section, one factor remains:
The trial section must ultimately satisfy the appropriate interaction equations.
To establb.h a simple, yet useful , approach to selecting a trial section, Equation H 1-1 a
is rewritten. Csing Equation 8.2 and multi plying each term by Pc- yields

8 Mr:o.Pc 8 M Pc
P,. +- -- + --·- 11
< Pc (8 .14)
9 M,.\ 9 M,y -

Multiplying the third term by M,x!Mcx. letting

8Pc U = Mcx
m=-- and
9Mc.r M,J

and !>ubstituting into Equation 8.14 yields

(8 .15)

Because Equation 8.15 calls for the comparison of the left side of the equation to the
column strength, P,, Equation 8.15 can be thought of as an effective axial load. Thus

(8.16)

The accuracy used in the evaluation o f m and U dictates the accuracy with which
Equation 8.16 represents the strength of the column being selected. Because at this point
in a design the actual column section is not known, exact values of m and U cannot be
cletem1ined.
Past editions of the AISC Manual h ave presented numerous approaches to the evaluation
of these multipliers. A sin1pler approach however, is more useful for preliminary design.
[f the influence of the length. that is. all buckling influence on Pc and Met• is neglected,
the ratio, Pc!Mr.r. becomes A/ Z\ and m=8A/9Zr. Evaluation of this m for all W6 to
W14 shapes with the inclusion of a units correction factor of 12 results in the average m
values given in Table 8.2. If the relationship between the area, A, and the plastic section
modulus, Zr, is established using an approximate internal moment arm of0.89d, where dis
the nominal depth of the member in inches, m reduces to 24/d. This value is also presented
in Ta ble 8.2. This new m is close enough to the average m that it may be readily used for
prel iminary design.
 8.8 Initial B eam-Column Selection 233

Table 8.2 Simpli fied Bending Factors

Shape 111 24/d u

W6 4.4 1 4.00 3.01
W8 3.25 3.00 3.11
WlO 2.62 2.40 3.62
W12 2.08 2.00 3.47
Wl4 1.72 1.71 2.86

When bending occurs about the y-ax is, U must be evaluated. A re' iev. of the same
W6 to W 14 shapes results in the average U values given in Table 8.2. However, an in-
depth review of the U values for these sections shows that only the smalle t sections for
each nominal depth have U values appreciabJy larger than 3. Thus. a reasonable value of
U = 3.0 can be used for the first trial.
~fore accurate evaluations of these multipliers, including length effects. have been
conducted. but there does not appear to be a need for this additional accuracy in a preliminary
de ign. Once the initial section is selected, however, the actual Specification provisions must
be atisfied.

EXAMPLE 8.3a
GOAL : Detennine the initial trial section for a column.
Initial Trial Section.
Selection by LRFD GIYEN: The loadings o f Figure 8.llc are to be used. Assume the column is a W 14 and use
A992 steel. Also, use the simplified values of Table 8.2.

SOLUTION Step 1: Obtain the required strength from Figure 8.1\c.

P, = 453 kips
M, = 251 ft-kips

tep 2: Determine the effective load by combining the axia l force and the bending moment.
For a W14, m = 1.71. thus

Peff = 453 + 1.71(25 1) = 882 kip.

Step 3: Select a trial column size to carry the required force. P,Jl .
Using an effective length KL = 12.5 ft, from Manual Table 4-1, the lightest W 14 to
carry this load is

W l4x90 with <!>P, = 1060 kips

Example 8.2 showed that this column adequate ly carries the imposed load. Because tbe
approach used here is expected to be conservative, it would be appropriate to consider
the next smaller se lection, a W 14 x 82. and check it against the appropriate interac tion
equations.
234 Chapter 8 Beam-Co lumns and Frame Behavior

EXAMPLE 8.3b
GOAL: Determine the initial trial section for a column.
Initial Trial Section
Selection by ASD GIVEN: The loadings of Figure 8.11 e are to be used. Assume the column is a W14 and use
A992 steeL Also, use the simplified values of Table 8.2.

SOLUTION Step 1: Obtain the required snength from Figure 8.11 e.

P., = 343 kips
M" = 174 ft-kips
Step 2: Dete1mine the effective load by combining the axial force and the bending moment.
For a \VI 4, m = 1.71 , thus
P,ff = 3-13 + 1.71(174) = 641 kips

Step 3: Select a rrial column size to cmT) rhe required force. P~f!·
Using an eJ!ective length KL = 12.5 ft. from Manual Table 4-1, the I ightest W 14 to
carry this load 1s

I W14x90 \\ith P j 0. = 703 kips I

11

Example 8.2 showed that this column adequately carries the imposed load. Because the
approach used here is expected to be conservative. it would be appropriate to consider
rhe next smaller selection, a W 14x82, and check it against the appropriate interaction
equations .

£, ery column section selected must be chec ked through the appropriate interaction
equarions. Thus, the process for the initial selection should be quick and reasonable. The
experienced designer wi ll rapidly learn to rely on that experience rather than these simplified
approaches.

8.9 BEAM-COLUMN DESIGN USING MANUAL PART 6

Perhap~ the most useful tables in the Manual are those in Part 6, Design of Me mbers Subject
to Combined Loading. Although these tables are presented here as they relate to combined
loading, they can also be used for pure compression. pure bending. and pure tension. each
with only a slight modification needed.
The Specification interaction equation, Hl-la, is repeated here in a slightly modified
form as

( ; , )P,. + ( 9 ~"·' )Mrx + ( 9 ~c.JM,._, ~ 1.0

Th is equation can be rewrinen as

pP,. + h,. M,._, + by Mry ~ 1.0 (8. 17)

where
1
p=-
Pc
8
b,. = - -
0 9Mcx
8
9Mcy
 8.9 Beam-Column Design Using Manual Part 6 235

Equation H 1-1 b can then be rewritten as

(8.18)

Ir should be clear that p , h , . and by are functions of the strength of the member.
In Example 8.2, the column section was c hecked by determining the axial strength and
bending strength from the appropriate beam and column equations orcorre ponding Manual
table-,. U~ing the fom10lation presented here in Equations 8.17 and 8.1 8. all the necessary
information is obtained from a single table in Part 6 of the Manual.
Figure 8.1 2 is a portion of Manual Table 6-l. It shows that the compressive strength
term. p . for a given section is a function of unbraced length about the weak axis of the
member. This table is used in exactly the same way as the column tables in Part 4 of
the \Ianual. The strong axis bending strength, br, is a function of the unbraced length
of the compression flange of the beam. Previously, this info.tmation was available only
through the beam curves in Part 3 of the Manual. Weak axis bending is not a function
of length so only one value for h, is found for each shape. Although not used for beam-
colum n:-.. when tension is combined with bending, the table a lso provides values for ry
and i .

EXAMPLE 8.4a
GOAL: Check the strength of a beam-column using Manual Part 6 and compru·e to the results
Combined Strength
~"''Example 8 .2a.
Check Using Manual
Part 6 andLRFD G I\'£~: [ t has already been shown that the W l4x90 column of Example 8.2a is adequate by
LRFD. Use the required strength value), gi\en in Example 8.2a and recheck tills shape using the
\ a'ue~ found in Figure 8.12 or Manual Table 6-1.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the values needed from Manual Table 6-1 (Figure 8.12). The column
is required to carry a compressive fo rce with an effective length about the y-axis
of 12.5 ft and an x-axis moment with an unbraced length of 12.5 ft. Thus, from
Figure 8.12

p = 0 000947
h, = 0.00155
. tep 2: Detenn ine which interaction equation to use.

pP,. = 0.000947(459) = 0.435 > 0.2

Therefore, use Equation 8. 17.

0.000947(459) + 0.00155(260) = 0.838 < 1.0

Therefore. as previously detetmined in Exmnple 8.2a, the shape is adequate for this
column and this load combination. The resulrs from Manual Tables 6-2 and 4-1 have
~light differences due to rounding. Thus, the re sults by this approach will not always be
exactly the same as those from the approach of Example 8.2a.
236 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Table 6-1 (continued)

I W 14
Combined Axial
and Bending
W Shapes.
FY =50 ksi

W14x
Shape
go! 82 74
p x 103 bx X 103 p x 103 bx X 103 p x 103 bxx 103
Design (kipst 1 (kip-tt)- 1 (kipst 1
(kip-ttt 1 (kips)-1 (kip-tt)-1
ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD

I 0 1.26 0.840 2.33 1.55 1.39 0.924 2.56 1.71 1.53 1.02 2.83 1.88
6 1.30 0.863 233 1.55 1.48 0.983 2.56 1.71 1.63 1.09 2.83 l.88
7 1.31 0.872 2.33 1.55 1.51 1 00 2.56 1.71 1.67 1.11 2.83 1.88
...... 8 1.33 0.882 2.33 1.55 1.55 1.03 2.56 1.71 1.71 1.14 2.83 1.88
c
0
9 1.34 0.894 2.33 1.55 1.60 1 06 2.57 1.71 1.76 1.17 2.84 1.89
,.::1
e>- 10 1.36 0.907 2.33 1.55 1.65 1.10 2.61 1.74 1.82 1.21 2.89 1.92
01
~ .5 11 1.38 0.921 2.33 1.55 1.71 1.14 2.66 1.77 1.89 1.26 2.94 1.96
O "CC
en c
::> .., 12 1.41 0.938 2.33 1.55 1.78 1.18 2.70 1.80 1.96 1.31 2.99 1.99
·- .c
"CC en 13 1.44 0.956 2.33 1.55 1.85 1 23 2.75 1.83 2.05 1.36 3.05 2.03
- "'
"'·-
... ><
"'x
~X
0 ....
14
15
1.47
1.50
0.976
0.998
2.33
2.33
1.55
1.55
1.94
2.04
1.29
1 36
2.79
2.84
1.86
1.89
2.14
2.25
1.43
1.50
3.10
3.16
2.07
2.10

-...c» :-
-

0. -
0
~
16
17
1.54
1.58
1.02
1.05
2.35
2.38
1.57
1.59
2.15
2.28
1 43
1 52
2.89
2.94
1.92
1.96
2.38
2.52
1.58
1.67
3.22
3.29
2.15
2.19
en .Q
~ ..... 18 1.62 1.08 2.42 1.61 2.42 1.61 3.00 1.99 2.67 1.78 3.35 2.23
.: f: 19 1.67 1.11 2.45 1.63 2.58 1.71 3.05 2.03 2.85 1 89 3.42 2.28
=lt ..,en
c
~ ..... 20 1.72 1.14 2.48 1.65 2.75 1.83 3.11 2.07 3.04 2.02 3.50 2.33
£"CC
..... ..,
::.:: ... 22 1.83 1.22 2.55 1.70 3.18 2.12 323 2.15 3.51 2.34 3.65 2.43
;:;~
O>c
24 1.97 1.31 2.62 1.74 3.73 2.48 3.37 2.24 4.12 2.74 3.82 2.54
26 2.12 1.41 2.70 1.79 4.38 2.91 3.51 2.34 4.83 3.22 4.00 2.66
..,
c~
....
-..,,.. 0 28 2.31 1.53 2.78 1.85 5.08 3.38 3.67 2.44 5.61 3.73 4.20 2.80
:.:= 30 2.52 1.68 2.86 1.91 5.83 3.88 3.84 2.55 6.44 4.28 4.42 2.94
..,
0

=
w 32
34
2.77
3.07
1.85
2.04
2.95
3.05
1.97
2.03
6.63
7.49
4.41
4.98
4.03
4.28
2.68
2.85
7.32
8.27
4.87
5.50
4.73
5.09
3.15
3.38
36 3.43 2.28 3.16 2.10 8.39 5.59 4.57 3.04 9.27 6.17 5.44 3.62
38 3.82 2.54 3.27 217 9.35 6.22 4.86 3.24 10.3 6.87 5.80 3.86
40 4.23 2.81 3.39 2.25 10.4 6.90 5.15 3.43 11.4 7.61 6.15 4.09
Other Constants and Properties
by x 1o3 (kip·ftt, 4.90 326 7.95 5.29 8.80 5.85
tr x 103 (kips)-1 1.26 0.840 1.39 0.924 1.53 1.02
t, x 103 (kipst 1 1.55 1.03 1.71 1.14 1.88 1.26
rxlry 1.66 2.44 2.44
1 Shape does not meet compact limit for flexure with Fr ~ 50 ksi.

Figure 8.12 Combined Axial and Bending Strength for W-Shapes. Copyright© American Institute
of Steel Construction, Inc. Reprinted with Permission. AIJ rights reserved.
 8. 10 Combined Simple and Rigid Frames 237

EXAMPLE 8.4b
GOAL: Check the su·ength of a beam-column using Manua l Part 6 and compare to the results
Combined Strength
of Example 8.2 b.
Check Using Manual
Part 6 and ASD GIVE:\': It has already been shown that the W l 4 x 90 column of Example 8.2b is adequate by
ASD. Cse the required strength values given in Example 8.2 b and recheck this shape using the
value~ found in Figure 8. 12 or Manual Table 6-1 .

SOLUTION Step 1: Detennine the values needed from Manual Table 6-l (Fig ure 8. l2l. The column is
required to carry a compressive force with an effective length about they-axis of I 2.5 ft
and an x -axis moment with an unbraced length of 12.5 ft. Thus. from Figure 8.12

p = 0.00143
b, = 0.00233
Step 2: Determine which interaction equation to use.

pP, = 0.00143(347) = 0 .496 > 0.2

Therefore, use Equation 8.17.

0.00143<347) + 0.00233(1 82) = 0.920 < 1.0

Therefore. as previously detem1ined in Example 8.2b, the shape is adequate for this
column and this load combination. The results from Manual Tables 6-2 and 4-1 have
s light differences due to roundmg. Thus, the results by this approach will not always be
exactly the same as those from the approach of Example 8.2b.

8.10 COMBINED SIY1PLE AND RIGID FRAMES

The practical design of steel structures often results in frames that combine segments of
rigidly con nected elements with segments that are pin connected.lf t he~e ~truc tures rely on
the moment frame to resil:it late ral load and to provide the overall stability of the structure,
the rigidly connected columns are called upon to carry more load than what appears to
be directly applied to them . ln these combined simple and momenr frames, the simple
columns .. Jean" on the moment f rames in order to maintain their stability. Thus, they are
often called leaning columns. T hey are also called grarity columns because they participate
on!~ in can-ying gravity loads. These columns can be designed with an effective length
factor. K = 1.0. Because these leaning columns have no lateral stability of their own, the
momenr frame columns must be desig ned to provide the lateral stability for the full ti·ame.
Although this combination of framing types makes design of a structure more complicated,
it can also be economic ally advantageous, because the com bination can reduce the number
of moment connections for the full structure .
:\"umerou-; design approaches have been proposed for consideration of the leaning
column and a ociated moment frame design.3 · 4 Yura proposes to design columns that

' Yura.J. \ .. "The Effecuve Length of Column~ in Lnbraced Frames," Engineering Journal, AlSC, Vo l. 8. No. 2 .
1971. pp. :n-12.
~LeMessurier. W. J.. "A Practtcal ~lcthod of Second Order Analys is," Engineering .louma/. A ISC. VoL 14,
No.2. 1977. pp. 49-67.
238 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

600k

r-~--------------~
l4 I
I (!) 10011 (!) 6oo~
I
I I I
I I I
6/ I I 6/ I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I

(a) (b)
Figure 8.13 Pi nned Base Unbraced Frame.

provide lateral stability for the total load on the frame at the story in question, whereas
LeMessurier presents a modified effective length factor that accounts for the full frame
stability. Perhaps the most straightforward approach is that presented by Yura, as fo llows.
The two-column frame shown in Figure 8. 13a is a moment frame with pinned base
columns and a rigidly connected beam. The column sizes are selected so that, under the
loads shown. they buckle in a sidesway mode simultaneously because their load is directly
proportional to the stiffness of the members. Equilibrium in the displaced position is shown
in Figure 8.13b. The lateral displacemem of the frame, t::., results in a moment at the top
of each column equal to the load applied on the column times the displacement, as shown.
The. e are the second-order effects discussed in Section 8.6. The total load on the frame is
700 kips and the total P t::. moment is 700 t::., divided betwee n the two columns based on
the load that each carries.
If the load on the rig ht-hand column is reduced to 500 kips, the column does not buckle
sideways because the moment at the top is now less than 600 t::.. To reach the buckling
condition. a horizontal force must be applied at the top of the column, as shown in Figure
8.14b. This force can result only from action on the left column that is transmitted through

lOOk + lOOk 600k - lOOk

~ ~
--
100..\ 100~
__100~ (;)~ --L-
(;) 600~
I
I

f j I
I
I
I

L ,' I
I I
I I
I I
I I
_,_I I
I
I

t200k tsook Figure 8.14 Columns From Unbraced

(a) (b) Frame wirh Revised Loading.
 8.10 Combined Simple <md Rigid Frames 239

the beam. Equilibrium of the left column. shown in Figure 8. 14a, requires that an additional
column load of 100 kips be applied to that column in order for the load on the frame to be
in equilibrium in this displaced position. The total frame capacity is still 700 kips and the
total second order moment is still 7006.
The ma·dmum load that an indi' idual column can resist is limited to that petmitted
for the column in a braced frame for which K = I .0. 1.!1 this example case . the left column
could resist -WO kips and the right column 2400 kips. This is an increa:,e of 4 times the
load originally on the column becau!:;e the effective length factor for each column would be
reduced from 2.0 to 1.0. The addi tional capacity of the left column is only \\ith respect to
the bending axis. The column would have the same capacity about the other axis as it did
prior 10 reducing rhe load on rhe right column.
The abi lity of one column to carry increased load when another column in the frame
is called upon to carry less th~m its critical load for lateral buckling is an tmponanr charac-
teri:>tic. Thi!> allows a pin-ended column to lean on a moment frame column. provided that
the total gravity load on the frame can be carried by the rigid frame.

EXAMPLE 8.5a
GOAL: Derennine whether the \tructure shown in Figure 8. 15 has sufficient strength and
Moment Frame Strength
~tablln~ to carry the imposed load~.
and Stability by LRFD
G J\ E~: The frame shown in Figure 8.15 is similar to that in Example 8.1 except rhat the
in-plane ~rability and lateral load re:,t~tance is provided by the moment frame action at the four
comer-.. The exterior columns are WR x-W and the roof girder is assumed to be rigid. Our-of-plane
'tabilit~ and lateral load resistance is pro' ided by X-bracing along column Lines I and 4.
The loading is the same as that for E:-..ample 8.1: Dead Load = 50 psf, Snow Load = 20 psf.
Roof Lt\l' Load = 10 psf. and Wind Load = :?0 psf horizontal. Use A992 steel.
SOLUTION Step 1: The analysis of the frame for gra\ ity loads as given for Example 8. 1 will be used.
Because different load combinations may be crilical. however, the anal) ~is results for
nominal Snow and nomimtl Dead Load arc given in Figure 8. 16b. The ana ly~is results
for nominal Wind Load acting to the left are given ·in Figure 8.16c.
rep 2: Determine the first-order forces and moments.
For ASCE 7 load case 3
Pu = 1.2(15.8) + 1.6(6.33) + 0.8(0.710) = 29.1 + O..'i68 = 29.7 kips
M, = 1.2(20.5) + 1.6(8.20) + 0.8(32.0) = 37.7 + 25.6 = 63.3 ft-kips

/
16 fl

1----- - - - 3 @ 30 fl =90ft - - - -- --1

H I I H
Figure 8.15 Frame Used in Example 8.4.
240 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

~710k
( ' ) 32.ok-rt

(a) Nominal wind load Nominal dead load Nominal (c) Nominal
snow load wind left
(b) Gravity loads
Figure 8.16 Nominal Wind Load. Snow Load. and Dead Load (Example 8.4).
For ASCE 7 load case 4
P, = 1.2( 15.8) + 0.5(6.33) + 1.6(0.7 10) = 22.1 + 1.34 = 23.4 kips
M, = 1.2(20.5) + 0.5(8.20) + 1.6(32.0) = 28.7 + 51.2 = 79.9 ft-kips
Step 3: Determine the total story gravit) load acting on one frame.
Dead = 0.05 ksf (90 ft)(50 ft)/ 2 frames= 113 kips
Snow = 0.02 ksf (90 ft)(50 ft)/ 2 frames = 45 .0 kips
Stt-p ~: Determine the second-order forces and moments for loading case 3.
From Step 2
P, = 29.7 kips. M ,1 = 37.7 ft-kips, M 11 = 25.6 ft-kips
For the W8x40

A= 11.7 in?. I , = 146in.'1• r, = 3.53 in., r.,fr,. = 1.73

In the plane of the frame

Cm = 0.6- 0.4(~) = 0.6

37.7
2
rr £/, 1T2(29.000)( 146)
Pr, = -(1-.0-L-)2 = (16.0(12))2 = I 130 kips
and
0.6
8, = ----:=-9;;:-;::;-
2 .7
= 0.616 < 1.0
1 - --
1130
Therefore. u~e 8 1 = 1.0.

To detennine the sway amplification. the total g ravity load on the frame is
P., = 1.2( 113) + 1.6(45.0) = 208 kips
A serviceabi Iity drift index of 0.003 is maintained under the actual wind loads. There-
=
fore, L;H = 4.0 kips and D./L 0.003 is used to determine the sway ampl ification
factor.
1
B~ = --,----~.,.... = 208 = I. IS
! - (~;(~)) I - - (0.003)
4.0
 8.1 0 Combined Simple and Rigid Frames 241

Thus. the second-order force and moment are

M, = 1.0(37.7) + 1.18(25.6) = 67.9 ft-kips

P, = J9.1 + 1.1 8(0.568) = 29.R kips
Step 5: Determine whether the column satisfies the interaction equation.
Because the roof beam is assumed to be rigid in this example. use the recom-
mended design value of K = 2.0 from Figure 5. 17 case fi n the plane of the frame,
KL.r = 2.0( 16.0) = 32.0 ft. Out of the plane of the frame. this is a braced frame where
K = 1.0; thus. KL_, = 16.0 ft.
Detem1ine the critical buckling axis.
KL, 32.0 _
KL,n = - - = - - = 18.;, ft > KLy = 16.0 h
rJr,. 1.73
Thus, from Manual Table ~-I. using KL~rr = 18.5 ft
¢Pn = 222 kips
and from Manual Table 3-1 0 with an unbraced length of L h = 16ft

<jlM11x = 128ft-kipS
Determine the appropriate imeraction equation to use.
P,
-d:>P = -29.8
222
= ,.,
0. 1.:>4 < 0.2
11

Therefore, use Equation 8.3 ( H 1- 1b).

:!9.8 67.9 = 0.598 < 1.0

:!(:!22) + 128

Thus. the column is adequate for this load combination.

tep 6: Determine the first-order forces and moments for loading case 4 from Step 2.

P., = 23.4 kips. M111 = 28.7 ft-kips. M11 = 51.2 ft-kips

tep 7: Determine the second-order forces and moments.
In the plane of the frame. as in Step 4

c, = 0.6 - o.4(_Q_)
28.7
= o.6
p - 7T2£t.T - 7T2(29.000)(1~6) = 11 30ki S
' ' - (1.0L)2 - ( 16( 12 ))1 p
and
0.6
23.4 = 0 .613 < 1.0
l- -
11 30
Therefore. use 8 1 = 1.0.
To detennine the sway amplification. the total gravity load on the frame is

P11 = 1.2( 113)+ 0 .5(45.0) = 158 kips

Again. a 'erviceability drift index of 0.003 is maintained under the actual wind loads.
Therefore. :L H = 4.0 kips and 6./L = 0 .003 is used to detem1ine the sway amplification
rae tor.
l
8 ~ = ---:-=--:::-----;-....,.-;- l58 = l.l3
1- (~;; (~)) I - - (0.003)
4.0
242 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Thus, the second-order moments are

M, = 1.0(28. 7) + 1.13(51.2) = 86.6 ft-kips

and adding in the effect of lateral load (1.6W) ampli fied by 8 2

P, = 22.1 + 1.13(1.34) = 23.6 kips

Step 8: Determine whether the column satisfies the interaction equation.
Using the same strength values found in Step 5, dete1mine the appropriate interactjon
equation
P, 23.6
- = - = 0.106 <0.2
<j>f11 222

Therefore. use Equation 8.3 (H 1-lb).

23.6 86.6 0 0 0
2(222) + 128 = '73 < I.

Thus. the column is adequate for this load combination also.

Step 9: The W8x40 is shown to be adequate for grav ity and wind loads in combinatjon. Now,
check to see that these columns have sufficient capacity to brace the interior pinned
columns for gravity load only.
Step 10: For stability in the plane of the frame. the total load on the structure is to be resisted
by the four comer columns; thus
Dead Load = 0.05 ksf (50 ft)(90 ft)/4 columns = 56.3 kips
Snow Load = 0.02 ksf (50 ft)(90 ft)/4 columns = 22.5 kips
Thus, for load combination 3

Pu = 1.2(56.3) + 1.6(22.5) = 104 kips

M 11 = 1.2(20.5) + 1.6(8.20) = 37.7 fl-kips
As determined in Step 5 for in plane buckling

<j>f"·'· = 222 kips

<j>M11x = 128ft-kips
Checking for the appropriate interaction equation

~
104
<J>P,
= 222 = 0.468 > 0.2
Thus. use Equation 8.2 (Hl-1 a).
For an effective length Klx = 16.0 ft, P, 1 = 11 30 kips.
=
As before, Cm 0.6. Thus
0.6
81 = - -. ,. . - = 0.66 < 1.0
104
1---
1130
Therefore, use 8 1 = 1.0
and

Pu 8 ( Mux ) 104 8 ( 37.7) 0 730

<J>Pu +9 <J>Mnr = 222 +g 128 = ' < l.O
 8.10 Combined Simple and Rigid Frames 243

Thus, the W8 x 40 is adequate for both strength under combined load and stability fo r
:.upporting the leaning columns.

EXAMPLE 8.5b
GOAL: Determine whether the structure shown in Figure 8.15 has suffic1em :.trength and
Moment Frame Strength
stability to carry the imposed loads.
and Stability by ASD
Gn"E\": The frame shown in Fig ure 8.15 is similar to that in Example 8. 1 e\cept rhat the in-
plane -.,tabiliry and lateral load resistance is provided by the rigid frame action at the four corners.
The exterior columns are W8 x 40 and rhe roof girder is assumed to be rigid. Out-of-plane stability
and lateral load resistance is provided by X-bracing along column lines I and -+.
The loading is the same as that for Example 8.1: Dead Load = 50 psf. Snow L oad = :!0 psf.
Roof Li\·e Load= 10 psf. and Wind Load= 20 psf horizontal. Use A992 steel.

SOLUTION Step 1: The analysis of the frame for gravity loads as given for Example 8.1 will be used.
Because different load combinations may be critical, however, the analysis results for
nominal Snow and nomina l Dead Load are given in Figure 8.16b. The analysi:. re!>ulr&
for nominal Wind Load acting to the left are given in Figure 8.16c.
Step 2: Determine the first-order forces and moments.
For ASCE 7 load case 3

P0 = ( 15.8) + (6.33) = 22. I kips

M., = (20.5) + (8.20) = 28.7 ft-kips

For ASCE 7 load case 6

P0 = ( 15.8) + 0.75(6.33) + 0.75(0.71 0) = 20.5 + 0.533 = 21. 0 kips

M11 = (20.5) + 0.75(8 .20) + 0.75(32.0) = 26.7 + 24.0 = 50.7 ft-kips

tep 3: Determine the total story gravity load acting on one frame.

Dead= 0.05 ksf (90 ft)(50 ft)/2 frames= I 13 kips

Snow = 0.02 ksf (90 ft)(50 fr)/ 2 frames = -+5.0 kips

Step 4: Dete1,111ine the second-order forces and moments for loading case 3.
From Step 2

Pu = 22.1 kips. M 111 = 28.7 ft-kips. M,, = 0 ft-kips

For the W8x40

A=ll.7in. 2 • I .• =146in.4 • r , = 3.53in.. r.Jr.,. =l.73

In the plane of the frame
0
Cm = 0.6 - 0.4( - - )
28 .7
= 0.6
2 2
- 7r £/\ - TI (29.000)( 146) - 3 .
P.1- - -2- -11 Ok1ps
' (l.OL) (16.0(12)?
244 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

and
0.6
B, = ( ) =0.619 < 1.0
I _ I. 6 22.1
1130
Therefore. use 8 1 = 1.0.
To determjne the sway amplification, the total gravity load on the frame is

P, =(I 13) + (45.0) = 158 kips

A serviceability drift index of 0.003 is maintained under the actual wind loads. There-
fore. "LH = 4.0 kips and t:./L = 0.003 is used to determine the sway amplification
factor. Again, for ASD, n 1.6.=
I I
82 = = 1.6(158) = 1·23
l-(n:;a (~)) I -
4
.0 (0.003)

Thus. the second-order force and moment are

M, = 1.0(28.7) + 1.23(0) = 28.7 ft-kips

P, = 22.1 + 1.23(0) = 2.1 kips
Step 5: Detennine whether the column satisfies the interaction equation.
Because the roof beam is assumed to be rigid in this example, use the recommended
design value of K = 2.0 from Figure 5.17 case f in the plane of the frame, KLx =
2( 16.0) = 32.0 ft. Out of the plane of the frame. this is a braced frame where K = 1.0;
thus, KLy = 16.0 ft.
Determining d1e critical buckling axis.

KL., 32
KLt.lf = - - = - = 18.5ft > KLy = 16.0ft
r.1 / r y 1.73

Thus, from Manual Table 4-1 , using KL,g = 18.5 ft

P,jQ = 148 kips

and from Manual Table 3-10 with an unbraced length of Lh = 16ft

M,,;n = 85.0ft-kips
Detem1ine the appropriate interaction equation to use.

P,. 22. 1
Pn/Q =
148
= 0.149 < 0.2

Therefore. use Equation 8.3 (Hl- 1b) .

22.1 28.7 .
2( 148) + 85.0 = 0.4 12 < I.O

T hus, the column is adequate for this load combination.

Step 6: Derem1ine the first-order forces and moments for loading case 6 from Step 2.

Pa = 21.0 kips, Mm = 26.7 ft-kips. M1, = 24.0 ft-kips

 R.LO Combined Simple and Rigid Frames 245

Step 7: Determine the :.econd-order force!> and moment!>.

In rhc plane of the frame. as in Step 4

Cm = 0.6- 0.4(-!---) = 0.6

-6.7

1
TI-El, '11' (29. 000)( 146) k'
P,.1 = - - - , = = II 30 'Ips
(I .OL)• ( 16( I 2))1

and
0.6
1.6(21.0) = 0.618 < 1.0
1----
1130
Therefore. use 81 = I .0.
To determine the swa) amplification. the total gravity load on the lrame j,

P. =( 113)+0.75(45.0)= 147kips
Again. a ~ervieeability drift mdex of 0.003 is maintained under the actual '~ind loads.
Therefore. L II= -tO kip' and ~/L = 0.003 is used to determine the sway amplification
factor.

I ?
B2 = ------=-- -
1- (Q::"(I)) 1 - 1.6( 147) (0.003) = L I
4.0

Thus. the second-order force and moment are

M, = 1.0( 26.7) + I .21 (24.0) = 55.7 ft-kips

and adding in the lateral load effect amplified by 8 1

P, = 20.5 + 1.21 (0.533) = 21.1 kips

\tep 8: Detem1ine whether the column sali~fies the inreraction equation.
Using the same values found in Step 5. detennine the appropriate interaction equa-
tion
P, 21.1
- =-=0.143<0.2
P11 {Q 148
Therefore, use Equation 8.3 (H 1-1 b).

55 7
~ ' -07''7
2( 148) + 85.0 - . - <
10
.

Tim,. the column is adequate for this load combination also.

Step 9: The\\'\ x40 1s shown to be adequate for gravit) and wind loads in combination. Now.
che-ci.. t•J ec thai these columns have sufficient capac11y to brace the interior pinned
L0lumf1' !or gravity load only.
Step 10: For :-tabiltt~ in the plane of the frame. the total load on the structure is to be resisted
b~ the four corner colurrms; thu~

Dead Load= 0.05 bf (50 ft)(90 ft)/4 columns= 56.3 kip~

SnO\\ Load = 0.02 1-..sf (50 ft)(90 ft)/ 4 columns = 22.5 kips
246 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Thus. for load combination 3

Pa = (56.3) + (22.5) = 78.8 kips

Ma = (20.5) + (8.20) = 28.7 ft-kips
As dete1mined in Step 5 for in plane budding

P11 / 0.= l48kips

M",/ 0. = 85.0 ft-k.ips

Checking for the appropriate interaction equation
Pu 78.8
~ = - 8 =0.532 > 0.2
P,,/ H 14
Thus. u:.e Equation 8.2 (Hl-l a).
For an effective length Kl, = 16.0 ft. P,x = 1130 kips.
As before, C111= 0.6. Thus
0.6
,___
!.6 (78 .8)
_:_
= 0 .675 < l.O

I 130
Therefore, use 8 1 = 1.0
and

-P"-+- 8(-M0- , ) 78.8+8 -

= - (28.7)
- =0.833<1 .0
P11 /0. 9 M11 ,/0. 148 9 85.0

Thus, the W8 x40 is adequate for both strength under combined load and stability for
supporting the leaning columns.

8.11 PARTIALLY RESTRAil\'ED (PR) FRAMES

The beams and columns in the frames considered up to this point have all been connected
with moment-resisting fully restrained (FR) connections or simple pinned connections.
These latte r connections had been considered a special case of the more general partially
restrained (PR) connections provided for in the Specification. However. these simple con-
nections are now separately defined in Specification Section B3.6a. Partially restrained
connections, defined in Specification Section B3.6b along with FR conections, have histor-
ically bee n referred to a~ semirigid connections. When these PR connections are included as
the connecting elemenb in a structural frame. they influence both the strength and stability
of the structure.
Before considering the partially restrained frame, it will be helpful to look at the
partially restrained beam. The relationship between the end moment and end rotation for a
symmelric. uniformly loaded prismatic beam can be obtained from the well-known slope
deflection equation as
£/8 WL
M= - 2 - + - (8.19)
L 12
This equation is plotted in Figure 8.17a and labeled as the beam line.
 8. 11 Partially Restrained (PR) Frames 247

PR

M M
Beam line

e
(a) Beam line (b) Connection~

Figure 8.17 Moment Rotation Curves for Uniformly Loaded Beam and Typical Connecttons.

All PR connections exhibit some rotation as a result of an applied moment The moment-
rotation characteristics of these connections are the key to determining the type of connection
and rhus the behavior of the structure. Moment-rotation curves for three generic connections
are hown in Figure 8. J7b and are labe led rigid, simple, and PR. A lot of research has been
conducted in an effort to identify the moment-rotation curves for real connections. Two
compilations of these curves have been published. 5 · 6
The relationship between the moment-rotation characteristics of a connection and a
beam can be seen by plotting the beam line and connecTion curve together, as shown in
Figure 8.18. Nom1al engil1eering practice treats connections capable of resisting at least
90C( of rhe fixed-end moment as rigid and those capable of resisting no more than 20% of
the fixed-e nd moment as simple. All connections that exhibit an ability to resist moment
between these I imits must be treated as partially restrained connections. accountil1g for their
true moment-rotation characteristics.
The influence of the PR connection on the maxilnum positive and negative moments
on Ihe beam is seen in Figme 8.19. Here, the ratio of positive or negati,·e moment to the
fi:-.ed-end moment is plotted against the ratio of beam stiffness. El!L. to a linear connection
stiffness. M/6. The moment for which the beam must be designed ranges from 0.75 times
the fixed-end moment to J.5 times the fixed-end moment, depending on the stiffness of the
connection.
\\nen PR collilections are used to connect beams and columns to form PR frames,
the analysis becomes much more complex. The results of numerous studies dealing with
this i sue have been reported. Although some practical designs have been carried out,
wide pread practical design of PR frames is still some time off. In addition to the problems
associated with modeling a particular connection. rhe question of loading sequence arises.
Because real. partially restrained connections behave nonlinearly, the sequence of applied
loads influences the structural response. The approach to load application may have more
signifi cance than the accuracy of the connection model used in the analysis.

5Goverdhan. A. V.. A Co/leuion of Experimemal Momem Rorarion C urves and Evaluation of Predicrion

Equatio11sjor Semi-Rigid Connections, Master of Science Thesis, Vanderbilt University; Nashville. TN. 1983.
6
Kishi, N.. and Chen, W. F.. Data 13ase ofSred 13eam-ro-Column Connection;·, CE-STR-86-26, West Lafayette.
IN: Purdue University. School of Engineering. 1986.
248 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

1.0
0.9

M
FEM

Simple
0.2

Rotation, e
Figure 8.18 Beam Line and Connection Curves.

Although a complete, theoretical anal ys is of a partially restrained frame may currently

be beyond the scope of normal engineering practice, a simplified approach exists that is
not only well within the scope of practice. but is commonly carried out in everyday design.
This approach can be refeued to as Flex ible Moment Connections. It has historically been
called Type 2 with Wind. The Flexible Moment Connection approach relies heavily on
the nonlinear moment-rotation behavior of the PR connection although the actual curve is
nor used. In addition, it relies on a phenomenon called shake down, which shows that the

1.5

1.0

M Fixed end moment = M0 ::; ~{

Mo

0.5

0 1.5
Stiffness ratio u = EI/L
, M/8

Figure 8.19 Influence of the PR Connection on the Maximum Positive and Negative Moments of a
Beam.
 8.1 I Partia lly Restrained (PR) Frames 249

E
<U
E
0
~

Rotation
(b)

Rotation
(c)

Figure 8.20 Moment-Rotation

Curves Showing Shake-Down.
Rotation Rotation Courtesy American Iron and Steel
(e) ( f) Institute.

connectiOn. although exhibiting nonlinear behavior initial1y, behaves linearly after a lim ited
numlx-r of applications of lateral load .~
The momen t-rotation curve for a typical PR connection is shown in Figure 8.20a along
\\ ith the beam line for a uniformly loaded beam. The point labeled 0 represents equilibrium
for the applied gravity loads. The application of wind load produces moments at the beam
end" that add to the gravity moment at the leeward end of the beam and subtract from the
\\ md\\ ard end. Because moment at the windward end is being removed. the connection
beha'e:> e lastically with a stiffness close to the o riginal connection stiffness, whereas at
the iee\\ ard end, the connection continues to move along the nonlinear connection curve.
Poinb labeled 1 and I ' in Figure 8.20b represent equilibrium under the first application of
'' ind 10 the frame.
When the wind load is removed, the connection moves from points I and 1' ro points 2
and 2. a.." :.hown in Figure 8.20c. The next application of a wind load that is larger than the
fir!>t and m the opposite direction will see the connection behavior move to points 3 a nd 3'.
No te that on the windward side, the magnitude of this applied wind moment dictates whether
the connecuon behaves linearly or follows the nonlinear curve, as shown in Figure 8 .20d.
Remo\'a) of this wind load causes the connection on one end to unload and o n the other end
to load. b01h linearly. Any further application of wind load, less than the maxin1Um already
applied . \\ 111 see the connection behave linearly. In addition, the maximum moment on the
connecuon i:-. :-nil close to that applied originally from the gravity load. Thus, the condition
described 1n Figure .20f shows that shake-down has taken place and the connection now
behaves linear!) for borh loading and unloading.

7
Ge~chwindm:r. L. F.. and Di,que. R. 0 .... Flexible Momem Connections for Unbraced Frames Subject to
Lateral Fo rce,- A Return to Stmphcll) :·Engineering Journal. AISC. Vol. 42. No. 2. 2005. pp 99- 112.
250 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

The design procedure used ro account for this shake-down is straight forward. All
beams are designed as simple beams using the appropriate load combinations. This assures
that the beams are adequate, regardless of the actual connection stiffness, as was seen in
Figure 8.19. Wind load moments are deretmined through a modified portal analysis where
the leeward column is assumed not to participate in the lateral load resistance. Connections
are sized to resist the resulring moments. again for the appropriate load combinations. ln
addition, it is particularly important to provide connections that have sufficient ductility
to accommodate the large rotations that will occur. without overloading the bolts or welds
under combined gnn ity and wind.
Columns must be designed to pro\ ide frame stabil ity under gravity loads as well as
gravity plus wind. The columns may be designed using the approach that was presented for
columns in moment frames, but with two es~ential differences from the conventional rigid
frame design:
1. Because the gravity load is like!) to load the connection to its plastic moment
capacit). the column can be restrained only by a girder on one side and this girder
will act a~ if it is pinned at its far end. Therefore. in computing the girder stiffness
rotation factor, lq/L.~, for usc in the effective length alignment chart, the girder
length ~hould be doubled.
2. One of the external columns, the leeward column for the wind loading case, cannot
participate in frame stability becau~e it will be attached to a connection that is at
it~ plastic moment capacity. The stability of the frame may be assured. however. by
de-,igning the remaining columns to support the total frame load.

For the exterior column, the moment in the beam to column joint is equal to the capacity
of the connection. It is sufficiently accurate to assume that this moment is distributed one-half
to the upper column and one-half to the lower column. For interior columns, the greatest.
realistically possible difference in moments resulting from the girders framing into the
column should be distributed equally to the columns above and below the joint.

EXAMPLE 8.6a
GOAL: Design the girders and columns of a building with flexible wind connections and
Column Design with detennine the moments for which the connections must be designed.
Flexible Wind
Connections by LRFD GIVEN : An intermediate story of a rhree-swry building is given in Figure 8.21. Story height
is 12 ft. The frame is braced in the direction nom1al to that shown. Use the LRFD provisions and
A992steel.

SOLUTION Step 1: Derennine the required forces and moments.

The load\ shown in Figure 8.2 1 are the code-specified nominal loads. The re-
quired forces are calculated using tributary areas as follows. Gravity loads on exterior
columns.

1.2DL = 1.2(25 kips+ 0.75 kips/ ft ( l5 fl)J = -1-3.5 kips

1.6LL = 1.6(75 kips + 2.25 kips/ft( 15 fl)) = 174 kips

Total 218 kips

Gravity loads on interior columns

1.2DL = 1.2(50 kips+ 0.75 kjps/ ft(30 ft)) = 87.0 kips

1.6LL = 1.6( 150 kips + 2.25 kipsj fl(30 ft)) = 348 kips
Total 435 kips
 8.11 Partia lly Restrained (PR) Frames 251

r r· r· r 2 2 ·klft
11 11111111 11 111111 1111 111 11 111 1111 ilfl ll lllll lll l ll llll lll llllll lll lll llll

(b) Nominalli\'e load

12~ 12k l2k

l: l: 1: !±I· 3 @ 30 ft =90 ft
(c) Nominal wind load
Figure 8.21 Intermediate Story of a Three-Story Building (Example 8.5).

Gravity load on girders:

1.2DL = 1.2(0.75 kips/ ft(30 ft)) = 27.0 kips

1.6LL = 1.6(2.25 kips/ ft(30 fl)) = 108 kips

Total 135 kips

tep 2: Design the girder for the simple beam momem using Table 3-2.

M , = 135(30.0)/8 = 506ft-kips

Use W2lx62 (<!:>M, =540 ft-kips, l , = 1330 in.4 )

tep 3: Design the columns for the gravity load on the inte rior column using Table 4-l.
For buckling out of the plane in a braced frame

K = 1.0 and KLy = 12.0

Thus, w itb P11 = 435 kips
try Wl 4x53. (<!:>P, = 465 kips)
Step -k To check the column for stability in the plane, determine the effective leng th factor from
the al ignment chart with

2( 541)

c,. =c.,,.,= ( ~) = 4.07

2(30.0)
Note that only one beam is capable of re<>training the column and that beam is pinned
at its far end, thus the effective beam length is taken as twice its actual le ngth.
252 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Considering the stress in the column under load, the stiffness reduction factor can be
determined.

f, = -+35/1 5.6 = 27.9ksi

T hus, from the Manual Table4-21. the stiffness reduction factor, T u = 0.807. The inelastic
stiffness ratio then becomes

Grop = G "''"""' = 0.807(4.07) = 3 .28

which yields, from the alignment chart

K = 1.87
Step 5: Determine the effective length in the plane of bending.
KL = 1.87( 12.0) = _ ft
7 31
rJr, 3 .07
Step 6: Determine the column compressive strength from Manual Table 4-1 .

d.>P, = 602 kips

Step 7: Detem1ine the second-order moment.
The applied wind moment i AI, = 1.6(6.0)( 12.0) = 115 ft-kips and the applied
force is P,. = 435 kips.
Considering all the momem as a translation moment
'li~ ( :29. 000)(541 )
p~, = = 2140 kips
- ( 1.87(12.0)(12))2
Therefore
I
8 :. = - - 3 -
(4-3-5)- = 1.26
1---
3(21-tO)
and M, = 1.26( II 5) = 145 ft-kips
Step 8: Determine whether the column satisfies the interaction equation
P,. 435
- = - =0.72 1 > 0.2
<j>P.. 602
Therefore, use Equation 8.2 (H 1- 1a), <j>M, = 285, from Manual Table 3-10, which
results in

8 ( 145)
0.721+9 285 =1.17> 1.0 /

This indicates that the Wl4x 53 is not adequate for stability. The next larger column
should be considered.
Step 9: Determine the required moment strength for the connections.
All beam-to-column connections must be designed to resist the amplified wind
moments.
Thus

M , ,..,,, =290ft-kips
 8.11 Partially Restrained (PR) Frames 253

EXAMPLE 8.6b
GOAL: Design the girders and columns of a building with flexible wind connections and
Column Design with
determine the moments for which the connections must be desi!:,'l1ed.
Flexible Wind
Connections by ASD GIVEN: An intem1ediate story of a three-story building is given in figure 8.21. Story height
is J2 ft. The frame is braced in the direction nom1alto that shown. Use the ASD provisions and
A992 steel.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the required forces and moments.

The loads shown in Fig ure 8.21 are the code-specified nominal loads. The re-
quired forces are calculated using tributary areas as follows. Gravit) load.. on exterior
columns

DL = (25 k + 0.75 k/ft( l 5 ft)) = 36.3 kip:.

LL = (75 k + 2.25 k/fl(l5 ft)) = 108 kips

Total 14-J. kips

Gravity loads on interior columns

DL = (50 k + 0.75 k/ft(30 ft)) = 72.5 kips

LL = ( 150 k + 2.25 k/ fl(30 ft)) = 2 18 kips

Total29 I kips
Gravity load on girders

DL = (0.75 k/fl(30 ft)) = 22.5 kips

LL = (2.25 k/ft(30 ft)) = 67.5 kips

Total 90.0 kips
tep 2: Design the girder for the simple beam moment.

M ., = 90.0(30.0)/8 = 338ft-kips
Use W21 x62 (M, /Q =359ft-kips.!,.= 1330 in. 4 )
tep 3: Design the columns for gravity load on the interior column.
For buckling our of the plane in a braced frame

K = 1.0 and KL,. = 12.0

Thus, with Pa = 290 kips
try Wl4x53. (P,/Q = 310 kips)
Step 4: To check the column for stability in the plane. determine the effective length factor from
the alignment chart with

2 _)"4_1 )
(
Gwp = Ghouom = 12.0 = 4 .07
1330 )
( 2(30.0)

'\ote that only one beam is capable of re!>training the column and that beam is pinned at
its far end. thus the effective beam length i1. taken as rwice its actual length.
Considering the stress in the column under load. the stiffness reduction factor can be
determined.

j;, = 290/ 15.6 = 18.6 ksi

254 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Thus, from the Manual Table 4-:?.1, the stiffness reduction factor, 'I" a = 0.805. The in-
elastic stiffness ratio then becomes

Crop = G,,11,,, = 0.805(4.07) = 3.28

which yield!.. from the alignment chart

K = 1.87
Step 5: Determine the effective length in the plane of bending.
KL 1.87( 12.0) .
-- = = 7.31 tt
r.Jr 3.07
Step 6: Determine the column compressive strength from Manucd Table 4-1.

P. Q = 401 kips
Step 7: Determine the second-order moment.
The applied wind moment b \1" =
6.0( 12.0) = 72.0 ft-kips and the applied force is
P" = 290 kips.
Considering all the moment a.-. a rranslation moment
..~129,000)(54 1)
P,, = = 2J40kips
- ( 1.87!1::! l( l2)i

aP" = 1.6C290J = 464 kips

Therefore

82= I - ?8
3(464) - )._
1---
3(?.140)
and M, = 1.28(72.0) = 922ft-kips
Step 8: Determine whether the column satisfies rhe 1111eraction equation
P, 290
-- = - = 0.723 > 0.2
P,/0. 401
Therefore, use Equation 8.2 (HI-la) . M 11 j 0. = 190. from Manual Table 3-10. which
results in

0.723 +- 89 (92.2)
- = 1.15 > 1.0
190

This indicate~ that the Wl4x53 is not adequate for stability. The next larger column
should be considered.
Step 9: Determine the required moment strength for rhe connecrions.
All beam-to-column connections must be designed to resist the amplified wind mo-
ments. Thus

M" "0 , 11 = 184ft-kips

 8. I 2 Bracing Design 255

After an acceptable column is selected. the lateral displacement of the structure must
be ched.ed. Coverage of drift in wind moment frames is beyond the treatment intended
here bu1 is covered in Geschwindner and Disque.

8.12 BRACING DESIGN

Brace~ in .;;reel structures are used 10 reduce the effective length of columns. reduce the
unbraced Ieng1h of beams, and pro\' ide overall structural stability. The discussion of columns
in Chapter 5 showed how brace~ could be effective in reducing effective length and thereby
increa-..mg column strength. Chapter 6 demonstrated how the unbraced length of a beam
influenced its strength and earlier in this chapter the influence of swa~ on the stability of
a -.tructure was discussed. Ever) case assumed that the given bracing requirements were
san ... ned: however, nothing wa:. ~aid about the strength or stiffness of the required braces.
Appendix 6 of the Specification treat~ bracing for columns and beam:, ~imilarl). although
the 'pecilic requirements are different. Two types of braces are defined. nodal braces and
relau\e braces.
'\odal braces control the mowment of a point on the member 'A"ithour interaction with
an~ ...djacent braced points. The~e braces would be attached to the member and then to a
th.ed 'upport, such as the abutment -,hown in Figme 8.22b.
Relative braces rely on other braced points of the structure to provide support. A
diagonal brace within a frame "ould be a relative brace, as shown in Figure 8.22a. In
thi:-. \.J-.,e. the diagonal brace and the horizontal strut together compose the relative brace.
Becau'e the horizontal strut is usuall)o a part of a very stiff floor system that has significant
-..rrer.;th ll1 its plane, the strength and -.,ti lTness of the diagonal element usually controls the
O\ erall behavior of this braced!>) ~tem.
The brace requirements of the Specification are intended to enable the members being
Je,r;ned to reach their maximum ..,trength based on the length between bracing points and
an etlec1he length factor. K = 1.0. A brace has two requirements: strength and stiffness.
A bract! that is inadequate in either of these re~pects is not sufficient to enable the member
it i'- bracmg to perf01m as it was designed.

r r
/
/
/
r r Typ
/
brace

-.--
/

/
/
/
A
K= J.O
c ___\_ ~
/
/ E
/
=
__
L
_, /
/
/
/
/

D
~
"0
":.b
e<:
/
/
Strut /
/
/

t R.:,allll.'
L t L
l\'otlal
Column bracing
Ia I (b)
Figure 8.22 Definitions of Bracing Types. Copyright © American lnstitute of Steel Construction,
Inc. Repnmed 11 ith Permission. All rights reserved.
256 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

8.12.1 Column Bracing

For a column rela1i' e brace. the required brace strength is

P,, = 0.004?, (8.20)

and the required brace stiffness is

[3h, = ~I (2?,.
Lh ) (LRFD) [3b,. = Q -(2P,)
Lb
(ASD) (8.21 )

¢ = 0.75 (LRFDl Q = 2.00 (ASD)

where
Lb = distance between braces
P,. = required strength for ASD or LRFD as appropriate for the design method being
used.

For a column nodal brace. the required hrace strength is

P· = O.Ol P,. (8.22)

and the required brace stiffness is

I (8?,.
f3br = - - ) (LRFD l f3Jw = Q 8?,. ) (ASD ) (8.23)
¢ L, ( - Lb

¢ = 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD )

''here
Lh = distance between braces
Pr = required strength for ASD or LRFD as appropriate for the design method being
used.

8.12.2 Beam Bracing

For a beam relative brace. the required streng th of the brace is

(8.24)
and the required brace stiffness is

(8.25)

<P = 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)

where
1111 = distance between flange centroids
C" = 1.0 for single c urvature and 2.0 for double curvature
Lb = laterally unbraced length
M,. = required Aex ural strength
 8.12 Bracing Design 2 57

For a beam nodal brace, the required strength of the brace is

(8.26)

and the required brace stiffness is

!3b,. = 2_ (1OM,. C") (LRFD) (8.27)

<!> L bho

<P = 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)

where
h distance between flange centroids
C.t = 1.0 for single c urvature and 2.0 for double c urvature
L ~oo = laterally unbraced length
J/,. = required flexural strength

8.12.3 Frame Bracing

Frame bracing and column bracing are accomplished by the same relative and nodal braces
and u e the same stiffness and strength equations.

EXAMPLE 8.7a
GOAL: Determine the required bracing for a braced frame to resist lateral load.
Bracing Design
by LRFD
GIYE~ : Using the LRFD requirements. select a rod to provide the nodal bracing shown in the
three -ba) panel of Figure 8.9a to resist a wind load of 4 kips and provide stability for a gravity
lhe load of I 13 kips and dead load of 45 kips.

SOLUTION tep 1: Determine the required brace stiffness for gravity load.
For the gravity load, the required brace stiffness is based on 1.20 + 1.6L.

P,. = 1.2( 113) + 1.6(45.0) = 208 k ips

13br = -l(8P,)
<!>
-
Lh
J (8(208) ) = 139 k1ps/ft
=- - -
0.75 16.0
.

Step 2: Detem1ine the required brace area accounting for the angle of the brace.
Based on the geometry of the brace from Figure 8.9 . where 8 is 1he angle of the brace
wah rhe horizontal
Ab,.E 2 .
13/Jr = --cos
L,
e= 139 klps/ft

Thi~ results in a required brace area

139(34.0)
A,, = 30)2 -- 0.209. 111.
2

29.000 (34

Step 3: Determine the required brace force for gravity load. The required horizontal brace force
for a nodal brace is

P,, = 0.0 I P, = 0.0 I (208) = 2.08 kips

258 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

which gives a force in the member of

P,wt'"'"'"1 = 2.08(34/30) = 2.36 kips

and a required area, assum ing F, = 36 ksi for a rod, of
2.36 . 2
Ah, = 0. ( )
9 36
= 0 .0728 111.
Step .t: For gra\ ity plus wind, determine the stiffness and strength requirements. The stiffness
requirement will be the same.
The ~trength must be sufficient to resist the 4.0 kip wind load. thus for the wind
portion
34
J.6c4.o)( )
0
A,,. = -....,.0-,.9-(3--'6'-3) --'- = 0 .-?24.1n.2
Step 5: Derem1inc the required area for rhe combined wind and gravity loading.
Combining the required area from the gravity force and that from the wind force
yields

A, _,1 = 0.0728 + 0.224 = 0.296 in.2

Step 6: Select a rod to meet the required area for stiffness and strength.

use a 5/ 8-in. rod with A = 0.307 in. 2

EXAMPLE 8.7b
GOAL: Detem1ine tl1e required bracing for a braced frame to resist lateral load.
Bracing Design by ASD
GIVEN: Using the ASD requirements, select a rod to provide the nodal bracing shown in the
three-bay panel of Figure 8.9a to resist a wind load of 4 kips aDd provide stability for a gravity
live load of I 13 kips and dead load of 45 kips.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine tbe required brace stiffness for gravity Joad.
For the gravity load, the required brace stiffness is based on D + L.

P,. = 113 + 45.0 = 158 kips

13br =Q (8P,L, . ) = (8(158))

-
16.0
=
2.00 - - I 58 kips/ft

Step 2: Detennine the required brace area accounting for the ang le of the brace.
Based on the geometry of the brace from Figure 8.9, where 8 is the angle of the brace
with the horizontal
Ab,-E .
13br = - . - cos2
L,
e= 158 kips/ft

This results in a required brace area

158(34.0) . 2
A br = 0 = 0.238 tn.
30
29 ooo( ).
' 34
 8.13 Problems 259

Step 3: Detennine the requiJed brace force for gravity load.

The horizontal brace force is

P1, =O.OIP, =0.0l(L58)= 1.58kips

which gives a force in the member of

PI>. '"nclrl = 1.58(34/ 30) = I .79 kips

and a required area. assuming F_,. = 36 ksi for a rod. of
1.79 . 1
A br = 0. ( ) = 0.0829 ln.-
6 36
Step~: For gravity plus wind. de1ermine the stiffness and strength requiremenb. The stiffness
requirement will be the ~arne. T he strength must be sufficient to re~t<;t the .to kip wind
load, thus for the wind portion

40 ( -34)
30
Anr = .
0.6(36)
= 0.210 in."

1\tep 5: Detennine the required area for the combined wind and gravity loading.
Combining !he required area from the gravity force and that from the wind force
yields
2
A " = 0.0829 + 0.210 = 0.293 in.
Step 6: Select a rod ro meet the required area for stiffness and strength.

use a 5 8-in. rod with A = 0.307 in.2

8.13 PROBLEMS
Unless noted otl1erwise. all column... -.hou ld be considered pinned moment of 20ft-kips and live load moment of 50ft-kips at each
in a braced frame out of I he plane b.?mg considered in the prob- end. bending the column in ~ingle curvarure by (a) LRFD and
lem with bending about the mong ... \1~. (b) ASD?
I. Detennine whether a W 14 x l)O. .-\992 column with a leng1h 3. Given a Wl4x 120. A992 16-ft column in a braced frame
of 12.5 ft is adequa1e in a braced trame to carry Lhe following with a compressive dead load of 90 kips and live load of 270
loads: a compressive dead load of It I(I !..ip' and live load of 300 kips. Maintaining a live load ro dead load ratio of 3, determine
kjps. a dead toad moment of 3() lt-!..tp-. :.md live load moment the maximum live and dead load moments that can be applied
of 70 ft-kips at one end, and a dead load momem of 15 ft-kips about the strong axi~ on 1he upper end when rhe lower end is
and a live load moment of 35 fi-J...tp~ at !he other. The member pinned by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
is bending in reverse curvature. Detennine b~ (a) LRFD and 4. Reconsider the column and loadings in Problem I if that col-
(b) ASD. umn were bent in single curvature by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
2. A Wl2x58. A992 is used a~ a 14-lt column in a braced 5. Recon!.ider the column and loadings in Problem 2 if that
frame to carry a compressive dead load of 50 !..1p-. and live load column were ben! in reverse curvature by (a) LRFD and
of 150 kips. Will this column be adequate to carr) a dead load (b) ASD.
260 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

6. A pin-ended column in a braced frame mu'>t ~arry a com- column end are a dead load moment of 80 ft-kips and a live
pressive dead load of 85 kips and live load of 280 kips, along load moment of 250 ft-kips. The lower end of the column i
with a umfom1ly distributed tranwerse dead load of 0.4 kips/ft considered pinned and the effective length factor is taken as J .5.
and lh·e load of 1.3 kips/ft. \\11! a Wl4x7-1. A99~ member be Determine by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
adequate if the transverse load 1 applied to put bending about
9. Will a W14x38 beadequateas a 13-ft column in an unbraced
the ~trong axis? Determine b) (al LRFD and (bJ ASD.
frame with a compressive dead load of 25 kips and live load of
For Problems 7 through 9. a~~ume that the ratio of total grav-
80 kips? The top and bottom of the column are loaded with a no-
it) load on the story to the Euler bud. ling load. (ex "E. Pm/"E. P,.2 ) .
translation dead load moment of 20ft-kips and a no-translation
is the ame as the ratio of the column load to the column Euler
live load moment of 55ft-kip~. The translation moments applied
buckling load for the specific column. tcxP, jP,2 ) .
to the column ends are a dead load moment of 10ft-kips and a
7. An unbraced frame includes a 12-ft cohmm that is called live load moment of 50 ft-kips. The column is bent in reverse
upon ro carry a compressive dead load of I 00 kips and live load curvature and K r =
1.3. Determine by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
of 300 kips. The top of the column is loaded with a no-translation
dead load moment of 25 ft-kips and a no-translation live load 10. Determine whether a 10-ft long braced frame Wl4 x43.
moment of 80ft-kips. The translation moments applied to that A992 column can carry a compressive dead load of 35 kips
column end are a dead load moment of 35 ft-k ips and a live load and live load of 80 kips along with a dead load moment of
moment of I 00 ft-kips. The lower end of the column feels half 20 ft - kip~ and live load moment of 40 ft-kips. One half of
of these moments and the column is bending in reverse curva- these moments are a'jlplied at the other end, bending it in single
ture. Will a Wl4x 109, A992 member be adequate to carry this curvature.
loading? Assume that the effective length factor in the plane of 11. A l\\0-::.tof) ~i ngle bay frame is shown below. The uniform
bending is 1.66. Determine by (a) LRFD and (bJ ASD. live and dead loads are indicated along with the wind load. A
8. A Wl4x 176, A992 member is proposed for use as a 12.5- first-order elastic analysis has yielded the results shown in the
ft column in an unbraced frame. Will thi~ member be adequate figure for the given loads and the appropriate notional loads.
to carry a compressive dead load of 160 ~ip~ and live load of Assuming that the story drift is limited to height/300 under the
490 kips? The top of the column i~ loaded 11 ith a no-translation given ~~ ind loads. determine whether the first- and second-story
dead load moment of 15 ft-kip~ and a no-translation 1ive load cohunns are adequate. The members are shown and are all A992
moment of 30 ft-kips. The translation moments applied to that steel. Determine by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.

It'LL=2.01Jft
wnL = I.Skllt

~------ 24 fr
Beams W 18x65
·I
~ 12.4n·k ~ t3.sn·k ~ 30.7°·k

t Dead t Live t Wind

43.2k 48k 3.24k

PS.U Leeward columns

 8.13 Problems 261

12. Determine whether the columns of the two-bay unbraced total Euler load in caJculating the second-order amplifications.
frame shown below are adequate to support the given loading. All members are A992 steel and the sizes are as shown. Deter-
Results for the first-order anal ysis are provided. Because the mine by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
structure drift is unknown, use the ratio of total applied load to

Wind
load
A E
(1)9.1fl·k C.) 9Jfl·~

To.35k lo.35"
~20k + 120k _.li:!.Ok - I ~Ok
( t J 12S.Ofl-k ( t ) 128.0fl-k
B F
Live load
Mm +Mit
A 64.Qrt·k
£
(.} 64.0fl·k
ct12.Qk + 12Qk 142.Qk + 12Qk
Beam> W24x84 ~3.8k +68k .J.t3.8k + 68k
( t) 72.5ft·k ( t) 72.srt-k
8 F
Dead load
M11r+M1,
A E
(. J 36.2ft-k (. ) 36.2fl·k
't23.8k + 68k 123.8k+ 68k
ColumnAE Column CD Column EF
P8.l2

13. A nonsymrnetric two-bay unbraced frame is required to mine whether each column will be adequate. All members !Ue
support the live and dead load, gJ\Cn in the figure below. Using A992 steel and the sizes are as shown. Detetmine b~ (a) LRFD
the resuJts from the first-order el~uc anaJysis provided, deter- and (b) ASD.

i""""'""""'li "'I""'"'"'"I i"

. z z
All columns W 12x96
AJJ beams W21 x7 3

1--30 fL 20 ft --l
~ 25Ak l 55.1 k ' 1-4.-4'

(j) -.,_:!- 11.3; 65.7ft·k (j) 23.9 + 11.3; 35.2rt-k (jJ 1-4.5 + l3.7 = 28.2fl-k

~ 3 .6 - t6.6"' n.on·k 0 ~ 7.3 + 17.8=25.lft-k

t:)..!l. tss.Jk tl 4.4k

Dead load M111 + Mt1
l.<Jk J92.7k f4.3k

(j) 130.0- 19.0; lllft·k (jJ 42.0 + 19 ; 59.it-k (1) 24.4 + 23.0; 47.4ft-k

~ 65.0 - 28.o "' 37.ort-k ~ 12.2 + 30.0; 42.2ft.k

t43k t 24.3k
P8.13 Live load M111 + Mu
262 Chapter 8 Beam-Columns and Frame Behavior

Assume that the columns de~cribed in Problem 14 through 17 16. Select a W-shape for a column with a length of 14 ft
are member-.. of moment frame~ for which a c;econd-order direct to carr) a force of 350 kips and a moment of 470 ft-kips b~
anal) si' has been performed. L -..e the approach described in Sec- (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
tion 8. to select trial section' to carry the indicated loads and 17. Select a W-shape for a column with a length of 16 ft to
check. the appropriate interaction equations for column strength. ~arry ,, force of 1250 kips and a moment of 450 ft-kips b~
As~ume all members are A992 and that the given forces and (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
moments arc from either LR FD load combinations or l.6(ASD)
18. The two-bay moment frame shown below contains a sin-
load combinations.
g le leaning column. The results of a first-order elastic analy~is
U. Select a W-shape for a column with a length of 18 ft for each load are given. Determine whether the exterior columns
to carry a force of 700 ki p~ and a moment of 350 ft-kip~ by are adequate to provide stability for the frame. All W-shapc~
ta) LRFD and (b) ASD. are given ant.l the steel is A992. Detem1ine by (a) LRFD and
15. Select a W-shape for a column with a length of 28 ft to (b) ASD.
carry a force of II 00 kips and a momem of 170 ft-kip · by
(a) LRFD and (b) ASD.

r
Wind
load

Ff 14ft Live

£1
%
load

1--- - - - 3 6 n - - - - - 1 - - - - - - 36rt -----1•1 ( . ~ 52.1fl·k

"t;7.3k
Beam~ W24x!l4

Dead
load

{ • ) 85.8fl·k ( • ~ 85.8fl.k
1 44.9k t111.8k l 44.9k
PS.LS ColumnAB Column CD Column EF

19. The two-story frame c;hown on page 263 relies on the left- results shown. determine whether the given structure is adequate
hand columns to provide stabi lity. Using the first-order analysis if the steel is A992.
 8. 13 Problems 263

~45" 96.8fl-~

rc=too'
P0 = 80k
r=,,.
Pn = -o~
96.81 1"1-k

- 9,.,.
I :!k

W= 12k
--.-
W =8k
W l 2x 79 Wl2x 45

,-, 12 II

'
47.2fl·l.~ --- 173.
I:!"
l60An-~

3...15"
t 5.73"
Wl2><79 Wl:!x45 16ft
0)''
:%
l
... _, I 13.2~"~·k

- :!O"

'--'"' Beams \\"24

''

P8.19

20. The two-bay. two-stOJ! •ram<! ,] O\\ n below b to be de- the ligure. design the columns and beams to prO\ ide the required
signed. Using the Live. Dead. Sn \.and Wind Loads given in strength and stability by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.

Level en
wu =O.I:!t.ft
"''""" =I os'-'f•
w 01 = I '-01...u
Lt!\el BfH
,., LL =:;,):,giJfl
" ot = ::.o"~~'~
\\ llld
at Co.3"
al 8 1::!.6k

:----24 fl-- -·+1---24 fl----i•l

P8.:W
Chapter 9

\\'aMu Center. Seallle.

Phow coune~) Michael Dickter/Magnusson Klemencic
A>sociates.

Composite Construction
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Any structural member in which two or more materials having different stress-strain rela-
tionships are combined and called upon to work as a single member may be considered a
composite lllembPr.
Many different types of members have been used that could be called composite. Such
members as shown in Figure 9.1 are (a) a reinforced concrete beam. (b) a precast concrete
beam and cast-in-place slab. (c) a "flitch'' girder combining wood side members and a steel
plate. (d) a stressed skin panel where plywood is combined with solid wood members, and
(e) a steel shape combineu with concrete.
This last type of member. and those similar members, are normally thought of as
composite members in building applications. The Specification, Chapter l, provides rules
for design of the composite members illusLJ·ated in Figure 9.2. These members are (a) steel
beams fully encased i11 concrete. (b) steel beams with flat soffit concrete slabs, (c) steel
beams comb ined with formed steel deck, (d) steel columns fully encased with concrete, and
(e) hollow steel shapes filled with concrete.
Encased beams and filled columns, as shown in Figures 9.2a and e, do not specifi-
cally require mechanical anchorage between the steel and concrete. other than the natural

264
 9.1 Introduction 265

(a t (b) (c) (d ) (e)

Reinforced Precast and Flitch Stressed Composite
concrete cast-in-place girder skin panel steel
concrete
Fig11re 9.1 Composite Members.

bond rhat exists between the two materials; however, the other flexural and com pression
members shown in Figures 9.2b. c. and d always require some form of mechanical shear
connection.
Regardless of the type of mechanical shear device provided, it must connect the steel
and concrete to form a unit and permit them to work together to resist the load. This
con iderably increases the strength of the bare steel shape. Composite beams were first
used in bridge design in the United States in about 1935. Until the invention of the shear
srud. the concrete floor slab was connected to the stringer beams by means of wire spirals
or channels welded to the top flange of the beam, as shown in Figure 9.3.
In the 1940s the Nelson Stud Company invented the shear stud, a headed rod welded to
the :.tee! beam by means of a special device or g un, as shown in Figure 9.4. The company did
not enforce its patent but instead encouraged nonproprietary use of the system, a uming
correctly that the company would get its share of the business if it became popular. In a
\'er: hort time, studs replaced spirals and channels, so that today, studs are used almost
exclu ively in composite beam construction.
Jn 1952, AJSC adopted composite design rules for encased beams in its spec ification
for building des ign and later, in 1956, extended them to beams w ith flat soffits. Although
rhe design procedure was based on the ultimate strength of the composite section, the rules
were w ritten in the form of an allowable stress procedure as was co mmon for the time.
,-\..,a re ult. allowable stress des ign for composite beams has often bee n criticized as being
con\ oluted and difficult to understand.
In the current specification , whether for ASD or LRFD. the rules for the design of
campo ire beams are straightforward and surprisingly simple. The ultimate flexural strength

. .
.....c-:,·: :6·.-:c-:
=~ '::H"~:
~

A
·.:··. :. :>>-:·
.•... o:_.:l> -'.' •:
~
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Encased Flat soffit With metal deck Encased column Filled column

Figure 9.2 Composite Steel Beams and Columns.

266 Chap1er 9 Compo,ite Conwuction

Figure 9.3 Compo,ne Beam Using a Sp1ral Sh~Jr Connector.

Figure 9.4 lnstallauon of a Shear Stud with a Stud Gun.

Photo Counc~y W. S;unucl E:.btcrling.
 9.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composite Beam Construction 267

Table 9.1 Sections of Specification and Parts of Manual Found in this Chapter

Specification

II General Provis ions

I2 Axial Members
13 Flexural Me mbers
I4 Combtned Axial Force and Flexure

Manual

Part 3 Design of Flexural Member

Part -+ Design of Compression Members

of me composite member is based on plastic stress distribution with the ductile shear
connector transferring shear between the steel section and the concrete slab.
Specification Section II gives limitations on material properties for use in composite
concrete members. Concrete is limited to J;between 3 ksi and 10 ksi for normal weight
concrete and between 3 ksi and 6 ksi for lightweight concrete. The specified minimum yield
. rrength of the structural steel and reinforcing steel is up to 75 ksi.
This chapter discusses the design of both composite beams and composite columns.
Table 9. llists the sections of the Specification and parts of the Manual discussed in
thi" chapter.

9.2 ADVANTAGES A:\1) DISADVANTAGES OF

COMPOSITE BE.-\..\1 CONSTRUCTION
One feaw re of composite constructi on makes it particularly advantageous for u e in building
. tructures. T he typical building floor system is composed of two main parts: a floor structure
that carries load to supporting members, usually a concrete slab or lab on metal deck;
and the supporting members that span between girders, usually steel beams or jois ts. The
ad\·anrage of a composite floor system stems from the "double counting'' of the already
ex_i ring concrete s lab. All other factors that could be identified a advantages of this type of
con,truction can be traced back to this single feature. A campo ire beam takes the already
exi~ting concrete slab and makes .it work with the steel beam to carry the load to the girders.
Thu . the resulting system has a greater strength than would have been available from the
bare teel bea m alone. The compos ite beam is stronger and riffer than the noncomposite
beam.
Thi factor manifests itself in reduced weight ancl/or shallower depths of members to
c~ the same loads when compared to the bare steel beam. Because the concrete slab is
in compre~ ion and the majority of the steel is in tension, both materials are working to
their be t advantage. In addition, the effective beam depth has been increased from just the
depth of rhe steel to the total distance from the top of the slab to the bottom of the steel,
thus increa ing the overall efficiency of the member.
With regard to stiffness, the composite section also has an increased elastic moment of
inertia\\ hen compared to the bare steel beam. Although actual calculations for the s tiffness
of the composite ection may be somewhat approximate .in many cases, the impact of the
increased stiffness profoundly effects the static deflection.
268 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

The only disadvantage with composite construction is the added cost of the required
shear connectors. Because the increased strength, or reduction in required steel weight, is
nonnally sufficient to offset the added cost of the shear connectors. this increased cost is
usually not a disadvantage.

9.3 SHORED VERSUS UNSHORED CONSTRUCTION

Two methods of construction are available for composite beams: shored and unshored
construction. Each has advantages and disadvantages, which wil l be discussed briefly. The
difference between these two approaches to the construction of a composite beam is how
the self-weight of the wet concrete is carried.
When the steel shape alone is called upon to carry tile concrete weight, the beam
is considered to be unshored. In this case. the steel is stressed and it deflects. This is
the simplest approach to constructing the composite beam because the formwork and/or
decking is s upported directly on the steel beam. Unshored construction may, however.
lead to a deflection problem during rhe construction phase because, as the wet con-
crete is placed. the steel beam deflect~. To obtain a level slab, more concrete is placed
where the beam deflection is greatest. This means that the contractor must place more
concrete than the initial slab thickne~=- called for and that the designer needs to pro-
vide more ~trength than would have been needed if the slab had remained of uniform
thickness.
For shored construction, temporary suppot1s caUed shores are placed under the steel
beam to carry the wet concrete weight. In this case, the composite section carries the entire
load after the shores are removed. No load is carried by the bare steel beam alone and thus.
no deflection occurs during concrete placement. Two factors must be considered in the
selection of shored construction ( 1) the additional cost. both in time and money, of placing
and removing the temporary shori11g; and (2) the potential increase in long-term. dead load,
deflection due to creep in the concrete, which now is called upon to participate in carrying
the permanent weight of the slab.
Although elastic stress distribution and deflection under service load conditions are
influenced by whether the composite beam is shored or unshored, research has shown that
the ultimate strength of the composite section is independent of the sholing s itltation. Thus,
the use of shoring is e ntire ly a serviceability and constructab ility question that must be con-
sidered by both the designer and constructor. Whether using ASD or LRFD provisions, the
nominal strength of the shored and unshored system is the same and is given in Specification
Section 13.

9.4 EFFECTIVE FLANGE

A cross section taken through a series of typical composite beams is shown in Figure
9.5. Because the concrete slab is normally part of the transverse spanning floor system, its
thickness and the spacing of the steel beams are usually estabLished prior to the design of the
composite beams. Because the abi lity of the slab to participate in load carrying decreases as
the distance from the beam centerI ine i1.1creases, some limit must be established to deterrnine
the portion of the slab that can be used in the calculations to determine the strength of the
composite beam. The Specification provides two criteria for determining the effective width
of the concrete slab for an interior beam and an additional criterion for an edge beam in
Section 13.1 a. As shown in Figure 9.5, the effective width, he.IJ• is the sum of b' on each side
 9.5 Strength or Composite Beams and Slab 269

__ "l!".u - --
I~--~,_

~ r-----' .....__ ....----' L-- ....----' ....._ r-----'

~ '------., ~ ,_____, ~ ,_____, .------ '------.,

I
1-- h b, ' - l---b2' bJ'--
I I I I

F igu re 9.5 Effective Flange Width.

of the centerline of the steel section. For an interior beam, b' is the least of
b' < span
- :-;

b' -< ~distance to the adJ·acent beam

')

For an edge beam, the additional criteria is

b' s distance to the edge of the slab

The en me thickness of the concrete slab is available to carry a compressive force. However,
the depth of the concrete used in calculations is that required to provide sufficient area in
compresc;;ion to balance the force transferred by the shear connectors to the stee l shape. The
~lab thtckness does not influence the effective w idth of the slab.

9.5 STRENGTH OF CO~ IPOSITE BEAMS AND SLAB

Flat ,offir composite beams. Figure 9 .2 b. are constructed using formwork which is set at
the ;;ame elevation as the top of the stee l section. The concrete s lab is placed directly o n the
:-tee! :-ecrion. resulting in a flat surface at the level of the top of the stee l. Composite beams
'' l[h r"om1ed steel deck, Figure 9.2c, are constructed with the steel deck resting on top of
the 'tee! beam or girder. The concrete is placed on top of the deck so that the concrete ribs
and , ·oicb alternate. Provided that the portion of concrete required to balance the tension
force m the steel is available above the tops of the ribs, the ultimate strength of both types
of compo:-ite beams are determined in a similar fashion. Although the steel member may be
either 'hored or unshored, the strength of the composite member is independent of shores
and the de<;1gn rules are independent of the method of con~truction.
The flex ural strength of a composite beam under po:. iti\'e moment where concrete is
in compre,-,ion is presented in Section I3.2a of the Spec ifi cation. In this section, strength
i:. de,eJoped for flat soffit beams. The required modifications to account for the use of
meral deck are presented in the next section. For steel sectio ns with a web slenderness ratio,
hf F s 3 - 6\ E I F."· the case for all rolled W-. S-. and HP-shapes, the nominal moment,
M11 • i' detem1ined from the plastic distribution of stress on the composite section and
<Ph = 0.90 (LRFD) Qb = 1.67 (ASD)

A compo~i te beam cross section is shown in Figure 9.6 w ith three possible plastic stress
distributions. Regardless of the stress d istribution considered, equilibrium requires that the
total tens ion force mu~t equal the total compression force, T = C. In Figure 9 .6a. the
plastic neutral ax is (PNA) is located at the top of the steel shape. The compression force
27 0 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

t
tPNA ~-c lPNA §-c --.-- 3 PNA - c

T- T-

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.6 Plastic Stress Distribution.

developed using all of the concrete is exactly equal to the tension force developed using all
of the steel. For the distribution of Figure 9.6b. the PNA is located within the steel shape.
In this case. all of the concrete is taking compression but this is not sufficient to balance
the tension force that the full steel shape could provide. Thus, some of the steel shape is in
compression in order to satisfy T = C. The plastic stress distTibution shown in Figure 9.6c
is what occurs when less than the full amount of concrete is needed to balance the tensile
force de' eloped in the steel shape. Here rhe PNA is located within the concrete and that
portion of the concrete below the PNA is not used because it would be in tension.
In :111 three cases, equilibrium of the cross section requires that the shear connectors
be capable of transfening the force canied by the concrete into the steel. For the cases in
Figure~ 9.6a and b, this is the fLLII strength of the concrete. For the case in F igure 9.6c, this
•.., rhe <;trength of the steel shape. Because the shear connectors are carrying the full amount
of shear force required to provide equilibrium using the maximum capacity of one of the
elements. this is called a jitlly composite beam. It is also possible to design a composite
beam \\hen the shear force that can be transferred by the shear connectors is less that this
amount. In this case. the beam is called a panially composite beam. Although it has Jess
strength than the fully composite member, it is often the most economical solution.
The Specification indicates that the plastic stress distribution in the concrete shall be
taken as a uniform stress at a magnitude of 0.85.f/ . This is the same distribution specified
by AC1 318. rhe specification for reinforced concrete. In addition, the distribution of stress
in the steel is taken as a uniform F,., as was the case for determining the plastic moment
strength of a steel shape.
The Specification also provides for the use of a sb·ain compatibility method in deter-
mining the strength of a composite section. T his approach should be considered when a
section is of unusual geometry or the steel does not have a compact web.

9.5.1 Fully Composite Beams

Establ ishing which stress distribution is in effect for a particular combination of steel and
concrete requires calculating the minimum compressive force as controlled by the three
components of the composite beam: concrete, steel, and shear colU1ectors.
If all of the concrete were working in compression

(9. 1)
 9.5 Strength of Composite Beams and Slab 271

If all of the steel shape were working in tension

(9.2)

If the shear studs were carrying their full capacity

v: = L:Q/1 (9.3)

Because full composite action is assumed at this time, V~ does not control and is not
considered further. If v; :S V/, the steel is fully stressed and only a portion of the concrete
is stres ed. This is the distribution given in either Figure 9.6a or c. If v(: :=:: \~· .the concrete
is full y stressed and the steel is called upon to carry both tension and compression in order
to assure equilibrium. This results in the distribution shown in Figure 9.6b. Once the proper
tres distri bution is known. the corresponding forces can be dete rmined and their point of
application found. With this information, the nominal moment, M 11 • can be found by taking
moment:. about some reference point. Because the internal forces are equivalem ro a force
couple. any point of reference can be used for taking moments: however, it is convenient
to use a consistent reference poinr. These calculations use the top of the steel a. the point
about '' hich moments are taken.
Detem1ination of the PNA for the cases in Fig ures 9 .6a and c is q uite strajghtforward.
In both ca es the steel is fully stressed in tension so it is referred to as the steel controls and
it i known that the concrete must carry a compressive force equal to Vl' . Only that portion
of the concrete required to resist this force will be used so that Cc = 0.85 J;b'efla where a
dennes the depth of the concrete stressed to irs ultimate. Setting v; =Ceo and solving for
a\ields

(9.4)

For the special case where V,' wa ·exactly equal to v;.

the value of a thus obtained is
equal to the actual slab thickness, r. T his is the case shown in Figure 9.6a. For all other
\'alue~ of a. the distribution of Figure 9.6c results. The nominal flexural strength can then
be obtained by taking moments about the top of the steel so that

M11 = Ts(d /2) + Cc(t - a/ 2) (9.5)

\\hen the concrete controls, V; < Vl~. the dete1mination of rhe PJ A is a bit more
complex. lt is best to consider this case as two separate subcases: ( I ) the PNA occurring
\\ ithin the steel flange , and (2) the PNA occurring within the "eb. Once it is determined
that \ controls, the next step is to determine the force in the teel flange and web from

(9.6)

(9.7)

A comparison between the force in the concrete and the force in the bottom flange pl us
the" eb ~hO\\ s whether the PNA is in the top flange or web. Thus, if C(' > Tw + T1, more
tension is needed for equilibrium and the PNA must be in the top flange. If C· < T,.. + TJ.
less ten ion i' needed for equilibrium and the P A is in the web. In either case, the difference
between the concrete force. Ceo and the available steel force, Ts, must be divided evenly
between tension and compression in order to obtain equilibrium. This allows detennination
of the P A location and the nominal moment strength. Thus, with

As_,. = area of steel in compression

272 Chapter 9 Compo:-ite Construction

and
A, = roraJ area of steel
equi librium is given by

C,. + F, A,_, = T:,.- FyAs-c (9.•

Solving for the area of steel in compre!:>:-ion yields

T~-c,.
A,_, =--- (9.9
2F.,
For the case where the PNA is in th~ flange. the distance from the top of the flange ro
the PNA is given by x, where

(9.101

and for the case where rhe PNA is in rhe web

A,_, - hrtr (9.1 1)
x = +rf
r.,
Equati on 9.11 can be more easily understood if it is related to the areas being considered.
The area of the web in compression is the area of steel in compression less the flange area.
This web compression area is divided b) the web thickness and the result is the location of
the P:\.-\ measured from the underside of the flange. Thus, .r is simply the thickness of the
flange plu.-. the depth of the web in compre.~sion .

EXAMPLE9.1 GOAL: Deteimine the nominal moment ~trength for the interior composite beam shown as Beam
Fully Composite Beam .-\ m Figure 9.7. Also determine the design moment and the allowable moment.
Strength
G T\'EN: The section is a W2l x 44 and supports a 4.5-in. concrete slab. The dimensions are as
shO\\ n. F, = 50 ksi . .f;' = 4 ksi. Assume full composite action.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the effective flange width, the minimum of

h,11 = 30.0( 12 in.jft)/4 = 90.0in.

I-<-!1 L__ ;-----1

4J
.) 111 •
t
(/
t
2.12
.---
I
0 85/'
~~I
C,=650.k

3.44 in.

= 30ft PNA

I-~-!1
10.4 in.
T 650k
·' +
2
As = 13.0 in.
d = 20.7 in.

1-------3 @IOfr--l b1 =6.50 in.

r1 =0.450 in.2
,-- ---,
Fl.= 50 ksi

(a) Framing plan (b) Compo&ite section (c) Plastic stress tlistrihutiun
Figure 9.7 Interior Composite Beam (Example 9. 1).
 9.5 Su·ength of Composite Beams and Slab 273

or

hrff=( IOO+ 10.0)(12in.j ft)/2= 120in.

Therefore use

b,ff = 90.0 in.

Step 2: Determine the controlling compression force.

\': = 0 .85(4.0)(90.0)(4.5) = 1380 kips

I·,' = L3.0(50) = 650 kips
Assuming full composite action. the shear connectors must carry the ~malle:.L of V.' and \~,' ,
rhus

v; = 650 kips
Because v; is less than I·,·. the PNA is in the concrete.
tep 3: Determine the PNA location using Equation 9.4.
650 .
a= =2. 12tn.
0.85(4)(90.0)
The resulting plastic stres di tribution is shown in Figure 9.7c.
tep ~: Determine the nominal moment strength using Equation 9.5.

M, = 650 ( 20.7) ~ -
+ 650 ( 4..)0 -2.12)
- = 9000 .m. ktps
.
2 2

9000) = 750ftktps
M r. = ( ~ .

tep 5: For LRFD, the design moment is

<J>M11 = 0.9(750) = 675ft kips

Step 3: For ASD , the allowable moment is

M, 750 .
- = - =449ftktps
Q 1.67

EXAMPLE 9.2 GOAL: Determine the nominal moment strength for the interior composite beam shown as Beam
F ully Composite Beam A in Figure 9.7 using a larger W-shape. Also derermjne the design moment and the allowable
Strength moment.

GIVEN: Use a W21 x I ll for the reel member and the same materials as in Example 9.1. Again,
assume full composite action.
274 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

SOLUTIO A. Step 1: Detennine the effective flange width.

The effective flange width will remain the same. thus

b,0 = 90.0 in.

Step 2: Determine rhe controlling compression force.

v; = 0.85(4.0)(4.5)(90.0) = 1380 kips

I · = 32. 7(50) = 1640 kips

Assuming full composite action

\': = 1380 kips

Because 1'. is less than v;, the P A i~ in the steel.
Step 3: Determine '' hether the PNA is in the -.tee I flange or web.

Tl = 12.3(0.875)(50) = 538 kips

T,. = 16-+0 - 2t538) = 564 kips
Thu!>

C, = 1380 > T , ..,... T,. = 538 + 564 = 1100

Becau-,e additional tension is required to balance the compression in the concrete, the PNA
is in the flange.
Step 4: Detem1ine the area of steel in compres:.ion.
use Equation 9.9.

- 1640 - 1380 - ') 60 . !

A,_, - '_(.) )-o - -·
m.

Step 5: Determine the location of the PNA in the !lange.

The PNA is located down from the top of the steel x as given by Equation 9.I0.

x = 2.60/12.3 = 0.211 in.

The stress distribution for this PNA location is shown in Figure 9.8b.
Step 6: Determine the nominal moment strength of the composite beam.
Moments could be taken about any point to determine the nominal moment: however.
a simplified mathematical model is shown in Figure 9.8c that makes the analysis quicker.
Tn this ca~e. the full area of steel is shown in tension and the ponion in compression is first
removed t 130 kips on the compression side) and then added in compression (another 130
kips on the compression side), shown by the 2( 130) = 260 kips. Thi results in only three

·.:e. .D': . ~ . '. ·. ;u. .t>:

. : ... .....".<J . : .... . !§ - 1380" § - 1380k
' ' : V · · · · : . · ·;<l · ·

130k A, 32.7in.2 2(130)=26Qk

W21 xll 1
-1640k
;, 21.5 in.
b1 [?.3 in.
t1 0.875 in.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 9.8 Interior Composite Beam (Example 9.2).

 9.5 Strength of' Composite Beams and Slab 275

forces and moment am1s entering the moment equation. Thus

M, = T, (~) + C, (i)- 2AsJ,. (~)

M,. = 1640 ( T ~ = 20.-00in.-kips
21.5) + 1380 (4.5) -2(130) (0.211)
2

20.700
Nt, = -12- = 1730 ft-kips

Step 7: For LRFD. the design moment is

d>M, = 0.9(1730) = 1560 ft-kips

S tep 7: For ASD, the allowable moment is

Mn 1730 .
- = -- = 1040ft-klps
Q 1.67

9.5.2 Partially Composite Beams

The composite members considered thus far have been fully composite. Thi-, means that the
shear connectors were assumed to be capable of transferring whatever force \\a~ required for
eq uilibrium when either the concrete or steel were fully stressed. T here are m:my conditions
where the required strength of the composite section is less than \\h.Jt '·' "~uld result from
full composite action. ln particu lar. these are cases where the ~ize Jf me
:.tee! member is
dictated by factors other than the strength of the composite section. Be :u.~-.e shear connectors
compose a s ignificant pan of the cost of a composite beam. economie' l.:IO resulr if the lower
required flexural strength can be reflected in a reduced number oi ...hear connecrors when
the steel secrion and concrete geometry are already gi,·en.
If the composite section is viewed under elastic !>tre'=> -.i:.oibutions. partial composite
action can be more eas ily understood. Figure 9.9 shO\\-. eb.'n.: .;tress distributions for three

Steel

(a) Noncomposite !bl Parual c0mp..'-ite (c) Full compo>H<!

Figure 9.9 Levels of Composite Action for ElastiC Behavior.
276 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

:.:~ >~:. >··.~:.:~ >~:.:

: . .. "' ... . : . .. "' .
~- Cone. compression

:===J - Steel compression

PNA/

·-
Steel
tCilSIOil

Figure 9.10 Plastic Stress Distribution for Partial Co mposite Action.

cases of combined steel and concrete. The first case , Figure 9.9a, is what results when the
concrete simply rests on the steel with no shear transfer between the two materials. The
result is two independent members that slip past each other at the interface. If the two
materials are fu lly connected, the elastic stress distribution is as shown in Figure 9.9c and
the materials are not permitted to slip at all. lf some limited amount of slip is permitted
between the teel and the concrete, the re ulting elastic stress distribution is similar to that
shown in Fig ure 9.9b. This is how the partially composite beam would beh ave in the elastic
region.
The pia tic moment strength for a partially composite member is the result of a stress
distribution similar to that shown in Fig ure 9.10. The PNA will be in the steel and the
magnitude of the compression force in the concrete will be controlled by the strength of the
shear connectors.

v; = l:Q ,
Regardless of the final location of the PNA, the force in the concrete is limited by the
strength of the shear studs. Thus, an approach combining those taken for the three cases of
full y composite sections is used for the partiall y composite member. By the definition of
partially composite members

Cq = v~ = EQn
and the depth of the concrete acting in compression is given by

I:QII
a=---- (9.12)
0.85// heJT
Equations 9.6 through 9.1 I c an then be used to determine the location of the PNA
within the steel and the nominal moment can be obtained as before.

EXAMPLE9.3 GOAL: Derermine rhe nominalmomenr strength of a partially composite beam. Also dete rmine
Partially Composite the design moment and the allowable moment.
Beam Strength
GIVEN: Consider the concrete and stee l given in Example 9.! and shown in Fig ure 9.7. ln this
case, howeve r, assume rbattbe shear connectors are capable of transferring only C q = 500 kips.
 9.5 Strength of Composite Beams and Slab 277

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the effective flange width.

TillS is the same as detem1ined for Example 9.1.

h,0 . = 90.0 in.

Step 2: Dt:termine the controlling compression force.

From Example 9.1

1'/ = 1380 kips

v; = 650 kips

From the given data

v,; = c" = soo kips

Because the lowest value of the compressive force is given by v;, this is a partial!~ composite
member.
Sttp 3: Determine the depth of the concrete working in compression from Equation 9.12.
500
a= = 1.63 in.
0.85(4)(90.0)
Step -1: Determine the area of steel in compre~sion from Equation 9.9.

_ 650 - 500 _ I SO . 2
i\ - 2(50) - . Ill.

Bet:ause this is less than the area of the flange. 6.50(0.450) = 2.93 in. 2 . the PNA is in the
flange.
Step 5: Dcrcrmine the location ol' the P'\-\ from Equation 9. 10.

.r = 1.:'0/ 6.50 = 0.23 1 in.

Step (i: Determine the nominal moment ~trength using the three fo rces shown in Figure 9.1 1.

M" = 650 ( 20.7) + 500 ( 4.50 - 21.63) - 2(75.0) ( 0.231

~ ) = 8590 111.-kips 0

8590
= 7J6 ft-krps
0 0

M 11 = - -
12

Step 7: For LRFD. the design moment is

<j>M11 = 0.9(716) = 044 ft-kips

Step 8: For ASD, the allowable moment is

M" 716
- = - = 429 fr-kips
Q 1.67
278 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

1.63 in.
~
~:.:~ :· ~: . :·~:···.t~ :- ~: - .-o-;.2,-3_i_n.__ ~ - 500k

PN&+
. : . .. 51 • • . . : . ..."7
- 2(75.0) = 150k

Figure 9.11 Stre~s Distribution and Forces C ed in Example 9.3.

The nominal moment sn-ength decreased from 750ft-kips for lhe full composite action
of Example 9.1 to 716 ft-kips for the leve l of partial composite action given in Example
9.3. This is approximately a 5% reduction in strength corresponding to more than a 23%
reduction in shear connector strength. In both cases, the strength of the composite beam is
significant!~ greater than that of the bare steel beam where the plastic moment strength of
the bare steel beam isM r = 398 fl kip . It is acceptable to make comparisons at the nominal
strength level because for the bare steel beam and the composite beam. the resistance factors
and afety fac tors are the same.

9.5.3 Composite Beam Design Tables

The force transferred between the steel and concrete governs the strength of the composite
beams. The shear studs transfer that force to the concrete so design can be linked to the
total shear force, 2: Q, . Des ign tables have been developed that use the shear stud strength
in combination with an infinite variety of concrete areas and strengths to determine the
flexural strength of the composite beam. These are given in Manual Table 3-19, an example
of which is shown here as Figure 9.12.
The variables used in Manual Table 3-19 are defined in Figure 9.13. The beam is
divided into seven PNA locations: five are in the flange and two are in the web. W hen the
PNA is at the rop of the flange, position I , the entire steel section is in tension. This is a
fully compos ite beam. When the PNA is in the web at location 7, 25 % of the potential steel
section force is transferred to the concrete through the studs. As shown in Figure 9.13, the
flange has five PNA locations and the stud strength for location 6 is one-half the difference
between that at locations 5 and 7. These seven PNA locations establ ish corresponding srud
strengths, L:Q 11 , which are also given in the tables.
The contribution of the concrete to the beam strength requires knowledge of the location
of the concrete compressive force. As already discussed, the force in the concrete is equal
to the force in the sruds, 2: Q11 • The moment atm for that force is defined as Y2 in Figure
9.13. It is a fu nction of the concrete strength and concrete geometry. These tables are quite
flex ible and accommodate any permitted concrete strength and effective s lab w idth. The
thickness of the slab is limited only by the maximum moment arm given in the table.
Although these tables are of most value in the design of a composite beam. they can
also be used to check a particular combination. Selection of a composite beam is nllustrated
in Section 9.9.
 9.5 Strength of Composite Beams and Slab 279

lo: ...; .-.·. · ·o: .,; :·ol Table 3-19 (continued)

Composite W Shapes
I
W16-W14
Available Strength in Flexure,
kip-ft
FY = 50 ksi

MJQb $bMp Y2b, in.

Y1a I On
Shape kip-ft PNAC 2 2.5 3 3.5
ASD LRFD in. kip ASD LRFO ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD
W16x26 110 166 TFL 0 384 189 284 198 298 208 '2 2' 7 327
2 0.0863 337 184 276 192 289 201 2 209 314
3 0.173 289 179 269 186 280 193 29' 201 301
4 0.259 242 174 261 180 270 186 l79 '92 288
BFL 0.345 194 168 253 173 260 178 267 1
83 275
6 2.04 145 161 241 164 247 168 252 171 258
7 4.00 96.0 148 223 151 227 153 ?.30 156 23.!
Wl-1-:38 153 231 TFL 0 558 252 379 266 400 280 421 294 ;-2
2 0.1 29 471 243 365 255 383 267 401 278 .:·a
3 0.258 384 234 351 243 365 253 380 262 39.!
4 0.386 297 223 336 231 347 238 358 246 -~J
~0-

BFL 0 515 209 213 320 218 328 223 335 228 ).!'3
6 1.42 174 208 312 212 319 216 325 221 332
7 2.55 140 201 302 204 307 208 312 211 3'8
W1.i:x34 136 205 TFL 0 500 224 337 237 356 249 375 262 393
2 0.114 423 216 325 227 341 238 357 24S :n
3 0.228 347 208 313 217 326 225 339 2J.d 352
4 0.341 270 199 300 206 310 213 320 220 330
BFL 0455 193 190 286 195 293 200 300 205 308
6 1.41 159 185 279 189 285 193 29' ·o-
~' 297
7 2.60 125 179 268 182 273 185 ra ' 88 283
W14x30 118 177 TFL 0 442 197 296 208 313 219 129 230 346
2 0.0963 378 190 286 200 300 209 3' 219 329
3 0.193 313 183 276 191 287 199 <')Q'(':
207 311
4 0 289 248 176 265 182 274 189 -2~ 195 293
BFL 0.385 183 169 253 173 260 178 26~ 182 274
6 1.48 147 163 246 167 251 '71 257 174 262
7 2.82 111 156 234 159 239 '62 24w 164 247
W1.1x26 100 151 TFL 0 385 172 258 181 273 i91 287 201 302
2 0.105 332 166 250 175 'M
_Q.} 183 275 191 287
3 0.210 279 161 242 168 252 '75 263 182 273
4 0 315 226 155 233 160 24, 166 250 172 258
BFL 0.420 174 149 223 153 23(. 157 236 162 243
6 1.67 135 143 215 146 22C 150 225 153 230
7 3.1 8 96.1 134
202 I 137 1 206 139 209 142 213

ASD LRFD IJ Yl =distance from top of the steel beam to plasbc neutral axis.
b Y2 = distance from top of the steel beam to concrete flange force.
nb: 1.67 1 0.90 c See Figure 3-3c for PNA locations.

Fig ure 9.12 Composite W Shapes. Available Strength in Flexure. Copyright © American Institute
of Steel Construction. Inc _Reprinted with Permi~-.ion . All rights reserved.
280 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

Table 3-19 (continued) I·"::.·· ... P':. j

Composite W Shapes
FY =50 ksi
Available Strength in Flexure,
kip-ft.
I
W16-W14

Y2b, in.
Shape 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD ASD LRFD
W16x26 227 341 237 356 246 370 256 385 265 399 275 413 285 428
218 127 226 340 234 352 243 365 251 377 260 390 268 403
208 112 215 323 222 334 229 345 237 356 244 366 251 377
198 297 204 306 210 315 216 324 222 334 228 343 234 352
188 282 192 289 197 296 202 304 207 311 212 318 217 326
175 263 179 269 182 274 186 279 190 285 193 290 197 296
158 <.37 160 24i 163 245 165 248 168 252 170 255 172 259
W14x38 308 463 322 483 336 504 350 525 363 546 377 567 391 588
290 436 302 454 314 471 325 489 337 507 349 524 361 542
272 409 281 423 291 431 301 452 310 466 320 481 329 495
253 380 260 391 268 403 275 414 283 425 290 436 297 447
234 351 239 359 244 367 249 375 255 383 260 390 265 398
225 338 229 345 234 351 238 358 243 365 247 371 251 378
215 323 218 328 222 333 225 339 229 344 232 349 236 354
W14x34 274 412 287 431 299 450 31 2 468 324 487 337 506 349 525
259 389 269 405 280 421 290 436 301 452 311 468 322 484
243 365 251 378 260 391 269 404 277 417 286 430 295 443
226 340 233 350 240 360 247 371 253 381 260 391 267 401
209 315 214 322 219 329 224 337 229 344 234 351 238 358
201 303 205 308 209 314 213 320 217 326 221 332 225 338
191 287 194 292 197 297 200 301 204 306 207 311 210 315
W14x30 241 362 252 379 263 396 274 412 285 429 296 445 307 462
228 343 237 357 247 371 256 385 266 399 275 413 285 428
215 323 222 334 230 346 238 358 246 369 254 381 261 393
201 302 207 311 213 321 219 330 226 339 232 348 238 358
187 28' 191 288 196 295 201 301 205 308 210 315 214 322
178 268 182 273 185 279 189 284 193 290 196 295 200 301
167 251 170 255 173 259 175 264 178 268 181 272 184 276
W14x26 210 316 220 330 229 345 239 359 249 374 258 388 268 402
200 300 208 m 216 325 224 337 233 350 241 362 249 375
189 283 196 294 203 304 209 315 216 325 223 336 230 346
177 267 183 275 189 284 194 292 200 301 206 309 211 317
166 249 170 256 175 262 179 269 183 275 188 282 192 288
156 235 160 240 163 245 166 250 170 255 173 260 177 265
144 216 146 220 149 224 151 227 154 231 156 234 158 238

ASD LRFD a Y1 = distance from top of the steel beam to plastic neutral axis.
b Y2 = distance from top of the steel beam to concrete flange force.
!20 = 1.67 (~b= 0.90 c See Figure 3-3c for PNA locations.

Figure 9.12 (Continued)

 9.5 Strength of Composite Beams and Slab 281

==r t, k

r~
d- 2k d

(b)
Location of
b
j effective concrete
flange force (l:OnJ

.-
~
__, _ - - -- -- - -- __.!.. 2
' a I
Y::r , - - - -- - - --
1Y~ TFL (pt. 1)
-@====+t~=-- BFL (pt. 5)
--('!) t Y1 (varies-see f~gure below)

f I

Y' = Dtstance from top of steel flange to any

of the seven tabulated PNA locations
~O- t@ pomt@) = LOn(@ pt. 5) +IOn(@ pt. 7)
2
~0. f@ point(l)) = 0.25F1 A,

- -.---- - -- -(!) ~ TFL

Beam
4Equ91 _ ~ I It
top flange
1yspaces @__j BFL
PNA FLANGE LOCATIONS
Figure 9.l3 Definition of Variables for Use with Composite Beam Design Tables. Copyright©
-\mcman institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Reprinted with Pem1isl>ion. All rights reserved.

EXAMPLE 9.4 GO \ L: Determine the design flexural strength and allm\able flexural strength for the fully
Composite Beam compo~i tc Wl6x26.
Strength Using Tables
GIYE:\: The Wl6 x 26 beam is used with tbe m(!talucd, and -;lab shown in Figure 9.14. The
effecti\C tlange width is given, b,ff = 60.0 in. f = ..: b1 L'e Table 3- 19 from Figure 9.12.

SOLUTION Step I: Derem1ine the controlling compre,,iCln iorLC.

I = 7 68(50) = 384 kips

282 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

6 in.
t
3 in.
-1 Metal deck
WI6x26
15.69 in.
A= 7.68 in.2

Figure 9.14 Composite Beam for Example 9.4.

Because I ; < v;,the steel controls and PNA is at or above the top of the flange. Jn Figure
9.12 this PNA location confirms that the EQ 11 = 384 kips.
Step 2: Detem1ine the depth of the concrete acting in compression that is needed to balance this
stud force.
384
a= = 1.88 in.
0.85(4)(60.0)
Step 3: Deiem1jne the moment ann of the compressive force from the top of the steel.
l.88
Y2 = 6.0- T = 5.06in.

Step 4: Determine the design moment (LRFD) s trength from Figure 9.12.
Entering the table with Y2 = 5.0. which wi ll be s lightly conservative for an actual
Y2 = 5.06, and EQ11 = 384.
For LRFD, the design moment is

<j>M11 = 370ft-kips

Step 4: Deternune the allowable moment (ASD) strength from Figure 9.12.
Ente1ing the table with Y2 = 5.0, which will be slightly conservative for an actual
=
Y2 5.06, and E Q" = 384.
For ASD the allowable moment is

Mil .
- = 246 ft-ktps
Q

9.5.4 Negative Moment Strength

According to Specification Section I3.2b, negative flexural sb·ength can be taken either as
that for the bare steel beam according to the provisions of Chapter F or, if the composite
section satisfies the cr iteria, as a composite section using a plastic stress distribution. For the
composite section, the concrete in tension is ignored and reinforcing steel is placed in the
 9.6 Shear Stud Strength 283

tension region. The resistance factor and safety factor are the same as for the positive momem
case, and the no minal flexural strength is calculated assuming a plastic stress distribution
simi lar to that for the positive moment case. The limitations of the Specification stare that
1. The steel beam must be compact and adequately braced according to Chapter F.
2. Shear connectors are provided in the negative moment region.
3. The required longitudinal reinforcing bars arc placed within the effective width of
the ..,lab and arc properly de, eloped .

~6 SHEARSTUDSTRE~GTH

The Specification recognizes two different types of shear connectors. reel stud and chan-
neb. The nominal strength of a !'>ingle :,tee! stud, Q11 , is given in Specification Section I3.2d
as
(9 .13)

''here
.-\,, cross sectional area of the shank of the stud. in. 2
f = specified compressi\ e ~rrength of the concrete. ksi
F, = minimum specified tensile strength of the stud, ksi
£ = modulus of elasticit~ of the concrete, 5
wi JJ:..
ksi, where W e is the unit
weight of the concrete in pounds per cubic foot and 1:.
is in ksi. Although
this is somewhat different than the equation used by ACI 318, it provides
sufficiently accurate re:-.tllb for use in this instance.
R . Rr = factors to accoum for the reduction in stud strength when used in slabs wirh
a metal deck. When u:,ed in a flat soffit slab, R 8 = Rp = 1.0.

The nominal strength of rypical ·'/4 -in. shear studs is given in Table 9.2 for studs used
in a tlat -..oftlt compo site beam. Values are give n for normal and lightweight concrete with
f = 3 k~i and 4 ksi. Values are also given for the stud strength based on the tensile strength
of the ..,rud material. The reductions to be applied when these studs are incorporated into a
-..lJ.b v1 a metal deck are addressed later.
Although not normally used in today's practice. the Specification provides for channel
she.1r LOnnectors. The nominal strength of a channel shear connector, Q11 , is given as

Q11 = 0.3(rf + 0.5t.,.)Lcji' £ , (9.14)

Table 9.2 Nominal Horizontal Shear for One Stud. Q". !-.ips
Nom1al wdght .:oncrete Lightweight concrete

II = l-+5 "'-• II'<"= ((Q pCf

Stud diameter (in.) r: = 3 k:,i
. t =.! b! J;' = 3 ksi f.'= 4 ksi Based on F 11 = 65 ksi

% 5.26 t1.:'3 4.28 5.31 7.18

lh 9.35 I 1.6 7.60 9.43 12.8
% 14.6 IS. I J 1.9 14.7 19.9
% 21.0 26.1 17.1 21.2 28.7
284 Chapter 9 Compo ite Construction

where
1f = thickness of channe l flange, in.
fw = thickness of channel web, in.
Le = length of channel, in.

The strength of the channe l shear connector must be developed by welding the channel
to the beam flange for the force Q, with appropriate consideration of the eccentricity of the
force on the connector.

9.6.1 Number and Placement of Shear Studs

Although a shear stud serves to transfer load between the steel beam and the concrete slab. it
is not necessary to ?\.ace \he studs in accordance w\\h the shear diagram of \he \oaded beam
Tests have demonstrated that the studs have sufficient ducti lity to redistribute the shear loa.:
under the ultimate load condition. Therefore. in design, it is assumed that the studs share
the load equally. Thus, the total shear force determined according to Section 9.5 must be
transferred over the distance between maximum moment and zero moment. For a uniform
load this results in V~/ Q11 connectors on each side of the maximum moment at the center
line of the bea m span. In the case of concentrated loads placed at the third points of the
beam. the same number of studs would be on each side of the beam between the load and
the support. and a minimum number of studs wou ld be required between the loads. This is
shown in Figure 9.15.
Shear studs must be placed so that they have a mi nimum of 1 in. of lateral concrete
co\'er. unless placed in ribs of formed steel deck. The diameter of the studs must be no
greater than 2.5 times the flange thickness of the beam to which they are welded if they
are not located directly over the beam web. For studs not placed in steel deck ribs, tbe
minimum center-to-center spacing of studs is six stud diameters along the member and four
stud diameters transverse to the member. When placed in metal dec k ribs, the spacing is
to be no less than four diameters in any direction and the max imum stud spacing is e ight
times the total slab thickness or 36 in.

r L
L' - r.- 'l
r Beam

~ll l l l l l l l l l l l llffii1n:1
r-v',tQ.+ Moment

M;rum"m +v',tQ.---1
Stud requirements
Figure 9.15 Stud Placement for Concentrated Load.
 9.7 Composite Beams with Formed Metal Deck 285

EXAMPLE9.5 GOAL: Detem 1inc the required number of % -in. shear studs required over rhe complete beam
Shear Stud span.
Determination
GIVE~: C;~ the fully composite beam of Example 9.1. Assume normal weight concrete and the
va lues of E \.ample 9.1.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the strength of a single shear stud.

From Table 9.2. based on the concrete
Q = 26. I kips
11

anJ based on the stud

Q11 = 28.7 kips

L..,e the neast Q11 , so
Q11 = 26.1 kips
Ste p 2: Determine the number of stud~ required.
From Example 9.1
I ; = 'EQ 11 = 650 kips
Thus

# ~lllds = 650/ 26. 1 = 24.9 studs

Step 3: Detetmine the total number of studs required for the beam .
Place 25 % -in. shear studs on each side of the beam between the maximum moment
..tml the zero moment. Thu,.

u~e 50 studs for the entire beam span

'\ote that these calculations are independent of ASD or LRFD because tile calculations are
carried out at the nominal strength level.

9.7 COMPOSITE BEA~IS \YITH FORMED METAL DECK

The .:ombmarion of formed steel deck and composite design is considered today to be one
of the mo-.t economical methods of floor construction. The steel deck is a stay-in-place
fornn\ork tor the concrete slab. Ce lls, which can be Jormed by enclosing the space below
the deck and between the ribs, can then be used to distribute the electrical and electronic
sy:>tcm ... ot the building. contributing greatly to the overall economy of the system.
T he Specification provides rules for steel decks with nominal rib heights of up to 3 in.
and average nb \\ idths of 2 in. or more. For a deck that has ribs naJTower at the top than
at the imerface \\ ith the beam, the w idth of the rib used in calculations must be taken as
no more than the \\ idth at the naJTow po rtion. Deck w ith this profile is shown in Figure
9. 16 along \\ ith other common deck profiles. Studs must be 3f.t in. in diameter or less and
e"\tend at lea~t 1 ~ inche~ above the top of the steel deck. The concrete slab thickness must
be !>Uftic ient to prO\ ide t ~ in. of cover over the top of the installed stud. The deck must be
ancho red to the s upporting beam by a combination of puddle welds and studs at a spacing
not to exceed 18 in.
286 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

tth in. 6 in. 1

6 in. 1
6 in. · 1 6 in.
1-- - 24 in. coverage - - - - t
f - - -- 24 in. coverage - --
(a) (b)

6 t; 8 in.

1----- 24 t;2 in. coverage

(c) (d)

Figure 9.16 Common Steel Deck Profiles.

9.7.1 Deck Ribs Perpendicular to Steel Beam

Beams supporting the steel deck have the ribs running perpendicular to the beam, as shown
in Figure 9.17. The space below the Lop of the rib contains concrete only in the alternating
spaces so there is no opportunity to transfer force at this level. Thus, the only concrete
available for calculating the full concrete force is above the top of the deck.
The right-hand side of the inequality of Equation 9.13, without R" orR8 , accounts for
the tensile strength of the stud material. This strength must be reduced to account for the
fact that the force exerted on the stud is applied at a higher point in this application than
in a flat soffit beam. It must also be reduced to account for the location of the stud within
the concrete rib. because there is a difference in strength if the stud is placed closer to the
rib wall in the direction of force or closer to the rib wall away from the force . The stud
strength value specified on the right-hand side of the inequality of Equation 9.13 include
two multipliers, Rfl and R, . A simplified table of the values for these adjustment factors is
given in Table 9.3 and the strength of the stud as controlled by F11 is given in Table 9.2.
R11 is used to account for rhe number of studs in a given concrete rib. lf a rib contain~
a single stud. R~ = 1.0: if the rib contains two swds, R 8 = 0.85; and if a rib contai ns 3 or
more studs, R~ = 0.7.
Rp is used to account for the location of the stud in the rib in either the strong or weak
position. Figure 9.18 shows the strong and weak location of a stud in relation to the applied
force. Because it is difficult to insure that the studs are located in the strong position, it is

_,_

neglected

Figure 9.17 Beam with Formed Metal Deck.

 9.7 Composite Beams with Formed Metal Deck 287

Table 9.3 Shear Stud Strength Adjustment Factors

Copyright © American Institute of Steel Construction. Inc. Re printed with
Permission. A ll lights reserved.

Condition R.~ R,
No decking· 1.0 1.0
Decking orienred parallel to the steel ~hape
\1"
.....:.... > 1.5
h, -
1.0 o.-s
\1"
.....:.... < 1.5 0.85 .. 0.75
h,
Decking oriented perpendicular to the ::.tee! shape
Number of tuds occupying the same decking rib
l 1.0
2 0.85
3 or more 0.7

/1, = nominal rib height, in. (mm)

11 = :l\ ~rage width of concrete rib or haunch (u~ defined in Secrion I3.2c). in. (mm)
'to qualiry a ""no decking;· stud hear connector~ ~hall be welded directly 10 the steel shape
and no more rhan 50 percent of the top Hange of the steel shape may be covered by decking or
~heet ·Mel. ::.uch as girder filler material.
for a 'mgle stud
-tht, \alue may be increased to 0.75 when e,.,,J-111 ?: 2 in. (5 1 nun)

recommended that R" = 0.6 be used unless it is critical enough to warrant the extra effort
to insure that studs are placed in the srrong position. When studs are placed in the strong
po~ition, which is when they are at least 2.0 in. from the loaded side of the rib edge at
mrd-height to the stud, as shown in Figure 9.18, R 1, can be increased to 0.75.
The max imum stud spacing is specified as 36 in .. which is convenient because many
decks have a rib spacing of 6 in.

9.7.2 Deck Ribs Parallel to Steel Beam

For girders supporting beams that carry steel deck. the ribs run parallel to the steel section,
a.. hown in Figure 9. 19. Concrete below the top of the deck can be used in calculating the
composite section properties and must be used in shear stud calculations. For calculation
purpo:.es. concrete below the top of the steel deck can be neglected unless it is needed to
balance the shear stud strength. The design procedure described for flat soffit beams applies
here a:. ''ell. provided sufficient concrete is available above the top of the steel deck as
detem1ined through Equations 9.4 or 9. 12. If the concrete below the top of the steel deck is

Weak Strong
Figure 9.18 Strong and Weak Shear Stud Locations.
288 Chapter 9 Compos ite Construction

Figure 9.19 Girder\\ ith Formed Metal Deck.

needed to balance the stud or steel beam strength, the only difference in the determination
of strength is related to the changed geometry when including a portion of the ribs.
When the depth of the steel deck i~ 11 2 in. or greater, the average width, Wr, of the
haunch or rib ic; not to be less than 2 in. for the first stud in the transverse row plus four srud
diameters for each additional stud. If the deck rib is roo narrow, the deck can be split over
the beam and spaced in such a way as to allow for the necessary rib w idth witho ut adverse])
effecting member strength.
For thi<; deck orientation. R.~ is used to account for the width-to-height ratio of the deck
rib. When 11",/ h, 2: 1.5. Rg = 1.0 . When ll'r/h r < 1.5, R8 = 0 .85.
Rt i~ taken as 0.75 in all cases "'here the deck ribs are parallel to the supporting
member.

EXAMPLE9.6 GOAL: Calculate the design moment and allowable moment and dctcm1ine the stud requirements
Composite Beam for a composite section.
Design CatTy o ut the calculations for the following three cases.
(a) Full composite action. (Figure 9.20)

(b) Panial t' Omposite action with I'~ = 387 kips, which results in the PNA at the center of the top
ftange of the ~teeI beam. (Figure 9.21)
(c) Partial compo:.lle ;letion with v,; = 260 kips. which results in the PNA at the bottom of the top
flange of the sreel beam. (Figure 9.22)

GIVEN: Use a 'A J8 x 35 with a 6-in. slab on a 3-in. metal deck perpendicular to the beam
with the profile shown in Figure 9.16c. The beam spacing is 12 ft and rhe beam span is 40 ft.
J; = 4 ksi. f_1. =50 ksi.
SOLUTION Step 1: Detennine the effective flange width.

heff = 40.0/ 4 = 10.0 ft (governs)

b,'ll = beam spacing= 12.0 ft

Step 2: Determine the compression force using the full concrete and full steel areas.

V,' = 0.85(4)(120)(3.0) = 1220kips

~: = I 0.3(50) = 5 15 kips
 9.7 Composite Beams with Formed Metal Deck 289

j--- h = 120 in. - j ~1 = 1.26 in.

!; W«:Wf:V$!74704- , ..-:
ci.
----- ' ~
6 Ill.
. - - - - - - - - I) 37 . . 8
+.. Ill
PN A

0.425 in
1 3111. m~la, deck --:s1 i~.--- ·~r---
~ ~
- c.g.WI SxJ5 - - -- - T, = S IS

Figure 9.20 Example 9.6. case (a ).

Part Ia ) Full compos ite action. F igure 9.20

Step 3: Deterrrilne the controlling concrete force.
For full compos ite ocrion. I ,; is the smallest of v; and v;, thus
v~ = 5 15 kips

Ste p ~ = Calculate the effective depth o f the concrete.

SIS
1 26
a = 0.85(4)(120) = ' in.

Because a < 3 in. available in the concrete above the deck, the procedures for a flat soffit
beam can be used .
. tep .5 : Determine the nominal mome nt stre ngth.

M 11 = 515 ( TI7.7 ) + 515 ( 6.0 - -1. 26)

- = 7320 in.-kips
2

7320
M, = - - = 610ft-kips
12

Step 6: For LRFD, the design moment is

<I>M, = 0.9(610) = 549ft kips

Step 6: For ASD. the allowable moment is

M" 610 .
- = - = 365ftklpS
Q 1.67
290 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

Step 7: Determine the strength of n single stud.

1
From Table 9.2. the value of a single 4 -in. stud, with normal weight concrete J; =
4 ksi. is 26.1 kips.
HOI\evcr, because the studs arc used in conjunction with the metal deck, a check for
any required reduction must be made. Assuming two studs per rib with the studs placed
in the 11eakest location. from Tables 9.2 and 9.3

Rp = 0.85
R, =0.6
A.rrF,, = 28.7 kips
R p RgA .,J.. = 0.85(0.6)(28.7) = 14.6.:::; 26.1 kips
The stud strength is the lower ,·alue. based on the stud placement in the metal deck.
Step 8: Detennine the number of s!lld~ required on each side of' the maximum moment.
The -.hear that is to be transferred i~ 515 kips. Therefore
Number ofsruds = 515/14.6 = 35.3
Step 9: Detennine the total number of studs required for the beam.
L ~e 36 studs on each half span or

72 ~tuds for the ful l beam span

With this deck profile, studs can be placed every 12 in. This will nicely accommodate the
~tuds on the 40-ft span with two studs placed in each rib.
7'2
Part CbJ Partial composite action, Figure 9.21
tep 10: Determine the controlling concrete force.
Because the value of v; = 387 kip~ given is less than v; and v:. v,; controls and thi ~
is a partially composite beam.
Step 11: Calculate the effective depth of the concrete.

387 - 4 .
a = 0.85(4)(120) - 0 ·9 9 ln.

Because a < 3.0 in. sufficient concrete is available above the metal deck as in Part (a).
Step 12: Detem1ine the area of steel in compression.
515- 387 ..,
A,_'"= ( 0)
25
= 1.28 in . ~

F igure 9.21 Example 9.6, case (b).

 9.7 Composite Beams with Formed Metal Deck 291

Step 13: Determine the location of the PNA in the steel.

Assume the PNA is in the flange.
A,_, 1.28 . .
X= - - = - - = 0.213111. < IJ = 0.425 m.
b, 6.00
Therefore, the PNA is in the flange.
Step l-1: Determine the nominal momenr strength.

M11 =51 5 ( -17.7)

-
2
+ 387 ( 6.0 - -0.949)
2
- - 128 (0.213)
- -
2
== 6680 in kips

6680
M, = l2 =557ft-kips

Step 15: For LRFD, the design moment is

rbM11 = 0.9(557) = 501 ft-kips

Step 15: For ASD, the allowable moment is

-,'vf, = ( -557) = 334ft-kips

.
Q 1.67

, tep 16: Determine the stud requirements.

The shear to be transfened is 387 kips.
The value of stud strength previously determined in Part (a)
Q, = 14.6 kips
Step 17: Determine the required number of shear swds.
#studs = 387/ 14.6 = 26.5 studs

rep 18: Detem1ine the total number of studs required for the beam.
Use 27 studs in each half span or

54 studs for the fu ll beam span

Part !CI Panial composite action. Figure 9.22

Step 19: Detem1ine the controlling concrete force.
Because the value of V~ = 260 kips given is less than v; and v;, v,; controls and this
h a partially composite beam.

Step 20: Calculate the effective depth of concrete.

260
a= = 0.637 in.
0.85(4)(120)
Step 21: Dcrennine the area of steel in compression.
- . ~
A .,-c = 515-260
( 0) = 2.)5 111.-
25
292 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

t----b= l20in. -------jj_=0.637 in. .

6 in.,
w??(ZZ?Z(Z(?ZZ(Z~ZZ(l
• j_ · o· ·
. ·.. P· ·~
v·+ · o· · ·. . p. · I>· f I-
5.68 in.
~i
8"'
~ -T--=~-~=~= ---- cs =255k
PNA
3 in. 0.425 in. 15
-~
0...125 in.
~

Figure 9.22 Example 9.6, case (c).

Step 22: Determine the location of the PNA in the steel.

Assume the PNA is in the flange
A,_, 2.55
x = - - = - - =0.425in.
b, 6.00
which is the flange thickness. as expected.
Step 23: Determine the nominal moment strength.

17.7) +260 ( 6 . 00.637)

M, = 515 ( T - -- - 255 (0.425)
- - =5980 in.-kips
2 2
5980
M, = - - =498ft-kips
12

Step 24: For LRFD. the design moment is

<PM" = 0.9(498) =448ft-kips

Step 24: For ASD. the allowable moment is

-M" = ( -498) = 298 ft klpS

.
Q 1.67

Step 25: Determine the stud requirements.

The shear to be transferred is 260 kips.
As before. the single stud su·ength is

Q" = 14.6 kips

Step 26: Determine the required number of shear studs.

#studs = 260/ 14.6 = 17.8 studs.

Step 27: Determine the total number of studs required for the beam.
Use 18 studs in each half span or 36 studs for the full beam span.
 9.9 Selecting a Section 293

However. this requires only a single stud in each rib so the R~ = 0.85 does not need to be
applied. Therefore.

Q11 = 1.0(0.6)(28.7 ) = 17.2 < 261 kips

and

# ~tuds = 260/ 17.2 = 15.1 studs

Thu~.

use a total of 32 studs

which will a lso be accommodared with one stud per rib.

9.8 FULLY ENCASED STEEL BEAMS

Sreel beams fully encased in concrete that contributes to the strength of the final member
are called encased beams. Such beams can be designed by one of two procedures given in
Specification Section B.3. The flexural strength can be calculated from the superpositio n
of eJa..,tic stresses, considering the effects of shoring, with <P" = 0.9 and Q b = 1.67. Or.
when -,hear connectors are provided . the flexural strength can be based on the plastic stress
dbtribution or StTain compatibility approach for the composite section with <Pb = 0.85 and
s-2, = I. 76. Alternatively, the stJ·ength can be calculated from the plastic stress distribution
on the :.reel section alone. with <1>11 = 0.9 and Q " = 1.67.

9.9 SELECTING A SECTIO~

The desig n of a composite beam is somewhat of a trial-and-en-or procedure, as are numerous
other design situations . The material presented thus far in this chapter has been directed
to\\ ard the detennination of section stTength when the cross-section and concrete dimensions

are J..nown. This section addresses the preliminary selection of the steel shape to go along
"irh an already known concrete slab. This procedure is followed by a discussion of the
de-;1gn tables found in the Manual.
\\'ith an estimate of beam depth. the weight of the beam can be estimated. This is based
on the asc;umption that the PNA is within the concrete so that the full steel section is at yield.
The resulting dimensions are given in Figure 9.23. The moment am1 between the tension
force in the steel and the compression force in the concrete is given by

d
moment arm= '2 + ( t - 0)
2 (9.15)

..r-a/2
!
f
Ann
ld/2 l

F igure 9.23 Moment Arm for Preliminary Weighr Determ inarion.

294 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

If the nominal mome nt strength is divided by the moment arm, the required tension
force w ill be detetmined. lf that force is divided by the steel y ie ld stress, the required area is
detennined. Multiplying the required area by weight of steel, 3.4 lb./ft for each in.2 , yields
an estimate of the beam weight. Thus

beam weight = -(-d---

Mn
-+t - -
--,),..--
0
F.
(3.4) (9.16)

2 2 J

To determine the beam weight by thi' approach, the depth of the beam must be esti-
mated . Several approaches have been s ugge~ted for this. One simple approach would be to
take the span in feet and divide it by 2-l to get the depth in inches. Another approach to
determine the depth of the total composite section (d + t) is to take the span in feet and
divide by 16 to obtain the depth in inches. Any reasonable approach gives a starting point.
Because the thid..ness of the slab is detem1ined from the design in the transverse direction.
only the effecti\'e depth of the concrete is left to be determined . It is generally s ufficient to
assume that the effective depth of the concrete is l in.; therefore, a /2 = 0.5 in.
Although this approach to finding a <.tarring point for composite beam design might
be helpful. the design tables in the Manual are such that this much effort is not needed to
establish a starting point. Manual Table 3-19! Figure 9. 12) has already been discussed in the
context of determining the strength of a gh en combination of steel and concrete. It will now
be approached from the perspective of selecting a section through the use of an example.

EXAMPLE 9.6a
GO\L: Select the most economical W-shape to be used as a composite beam.
Composite Beam
Design by LRFD GJYE:'\: T he composite beam spans 30.0 ft and i~ ~paced at I0.0 ft from adjacent beams. l t
..;upport\ a 5-in. slab on a 2-in. formed steel deck '~ ith a profile similar to that shown in Figure
9.16a. The beam must caJTY a dead load moment of 50.0 ft-kips and a live load moment of 150
fl-1.ip~ . Tn addition. the bare steel beam must be checked for the dead load plus construction live
load.'' hich produces a moment of 40.0 ft-kips. F.,. = 50 ksi and J;= 3 ksi.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the required moment for the composite beam.

M, = 1.2(50.0) + 1.6( 150) = 300ft-kips

Step 2: Determine the starting moment am1 for the concrete from the top of the steel.
~lanual Tables 3-19 are most effective w hen entered with a value for Y2. [n order to
start the de,ign process. the moment arm for the compressive force in the concrete must
be estimated. It is almost a lways adequate to assume, as a starting point, that a= 1.0
in. Thu~
1.0
Y2 = 5 - T = 4 .5 i.n.

Step 3 : Select potemial \V-,hapes from Figure 9.1 2 .

Enter the column in Figure 9.12 with Y2 = 4.5 and proceed dow n to identify the
potential section that will carry the design moment of 300 ft-kips.

W16x26 with M, =306ft kips and L:Q 11 = 242 kips

Using additional portions of Table 3.19 from the Manual y ields additional possibilities

Wl6x31 with M, =3 19ft kips and L:Q" = 164 kips

W L4x34 with M, =308ft kips and ~Q, = 159 k.ips
WJ4x30 with M, = 311 frkipsand ~Q, = 248 kips
W 14x26 with M, =3 12ft kips and L: Q, = 332 kips
 9.9 Selecting a Sectio n 295

Step 4: Detennine the effective flange width.

30.0( 12)
b,,r ::=::: = 90.0 in.
4
b,g .::=::: 10.0(12) = 120 in.
Therefore b,0 = 90.0 in.
Step .5: Determine the depth of concrete needed to balance the force in the ~hear studs.
For the beam span and spacing given, considering further the W 16 x 3 1. using the
value of LQ 11 and the effective flange width already determined.
164
a= 0.85(3)(90.0) = 0.71 5in.

Because this is less than a = 1.0 in. that was assumed to start the problem. the a~o;umption
was conservative. Design could continue with the determination of a more accurate
required stud strength or this conservative solution could be u!.ed. The required number
of studs would be detem1ined as before, accounting for the presence or any formed steel
deck and its influence on the individua l stud strength.
Step 6: Determine the required l>trength of the bare steel beam under dead load plus construction
live load.
M, = I 2(50.0) + l .6(40.0) = 124ft-kips
Step 7: Check to verify that the bare <;!eel beam will support the required stre ngth.
From Manual Table 3-19. the W I6x31 has a design strength of,

$.\1 r = 203 ft-kips > 124 ft-ki ps

Therefore, the W J6 x 31 is <Ul acceptable selection for strength.

S tep 8: To show what happens v-. hen the assumption for a is not quite as good. theW 14 x 26
is considered. Again using the L: On determined from the table and the effective flange
width
332 .
a = = 1.45 1!1.
0.85(3)(90.0)
This is s ignificantly greater than the assumed value. To consider this section further,
detennine a new Y2 such that

Y2 = 5 - T1.45 = 4.28 in.

Entering Manual Table 3-19 with Y2 = 4 .0 as a conservative nlllnber, Mu =300ft-kips

is determined and it corresponds to the same required shear stud strength. Thus, this
ection also meets the strength requirements and the design can proceed w ith stud
selection.

EXAMPLE 9.6b
GOAL: Select the most economical W-shape to be used as a composite beam.
Composite Beam
Design by ASD GIVEN: The composite beam spans 30.0 ft and is spaced at 10.0 fr from adjacent beams. It
supports a 5-in. slab on a 2-in. formed steel deck with a profile similar to that shown in Figure
9 .16a. TI1e beam mu~t carry a dead load moment of 50.0 ft-kips and a live load moment of !50
ft-kips. In addition, the bare steel beam must be checked for the dead load plus construction live
load, which produces a moment of 40.0 ft-kips. F 1 = 50 ksi and f.' 3 ksi. =
296 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

SOL UTION Step 1; Determine the required moment for the composite beam.

Ma = 50.0 + 150 =200ft-kips

Step 2: Determine the starting moment arm for the concrete from the top of the steel.
Manual Tables 3-19 are most effective when entered with a value for Y2. In order to
start the design process. the moment ann for the compressive force in the concrete must
be estimated. It is almost always adequate to assume. as a starting point. that a = 1.0
in. Thus
1.0
Y2 =5 - -
2
= 4.5 in.

Step 3: Select potential W-shapes from Figure 9.1 2.

Emer the column in Figure 9.1:! with Y2 = 4 .5 and proceed down to identify the
potential section that will carry the design moment of 200 ft-kips.

W 16x26 with M., =204 ft kips and E Q11 = 242 kips

Usmg additional portions of Table 3-19 from the Manual yields additional possibilities
Wl6x31 with Mol = :! 12ft kips and EQ, = 164 kips
Wl4x34 with M., =205ft kips and EQ" = 159 kips
W l4x30 with Mol =207ft kips and EQ, = 248 kips
W 14x26 with M,, = 208 fr kips and E Q, = 332 kips
Step ~ : Determine the effective Range wtdth.

30
·~
12
b,ff 5 ) = 90.0 in.

b~ff 5 10.0(12) = 120 in.

Therefore b,ff = 90.0 in.

Step 5: Determine the depth of concrete needed to balance the force in the shear studs.
For the beam span and spacing given, consider further theW 16x31, using the value
of E Q, and the effective flange width already detem1ined.

164
a= 0.85(3)(90.0) = 0.715 in.

Becau)>e this is less than a = l .O in. that was assumed to start the problem, the assump-
tion was conservative. Design could continue with the dete1111ination of a more accurate
required :.tud strength or this conservative solution could be used. The required number
of studs would be determined as before, accounting for the presence of any formed steel
deck and it!. influence on t11e individual stud strength.
Step 6: Determine rhe required strength of the bare steel beam under dead load plus construction
live load.

M, = 50.0 + 40.0 = 90.0 ft-kips

Step 7: Check to verify that the bare steel beam will support the requjred strength.
From Manual Table 3-19, the WJ6x31 has an allowable strength of

M
; = 135ft-kips> 90.0 ft-kips

Therefore, the WJ6 x 3 1 is an acceptable selection for strength.

 9.10 Serviceabili!) Considerations 297

Step 8: To show what happens when the assumption for a is not quite as good, the Wl4x26
is considered. Again using the :BQ, determined from the table and the effective flange
width
332
a=
0.85(3)(90.0)
= 1.45 in.
This is significantly greater than the assumed value. To consider thi section further,
determine a new Y2 such that
1.45
Y2 = 5 - - - = 4.28 in.
2
Entering Manual Table 3-19 with Y2 = 4.0 as a conservative number. Ma = 200 ft
kips is determined and it corresponds to the same required shear stud strength. Thus,
this section also meets the strength requirements and the design can proceed with stud
se lection.

Wh ich of the many possible !:>ecti ons should be chosen as the final design depends on
the O\erall economics of the situation. One way to compare several choices is to look at
the total weight of the steel sections combined with the total quantity of studs required. To
make thi comparison it is often effective to assume that an installed single shear stud has
the equivalent cost of 10 pounds of steel. To make this type of comparison, the five potential
secrion found initially are presented in Table 9.4. Here, it was assumed that Q11 = 21.0
ktps. This means that no consideration was taken for metal deck reduction. In addition,
no check was made for the assumed versus actual a dimension. This table is simply to
help detennine which of the potential shapes should be considered further. Based on this
table. it could be said that the W16 x 26 with an equivalent weight of 1020 lbs. shou ld be
im e'tiga ted further.

9.10 SERVICEABILITY CONSIDERATIONS

T hree important serviceability considerations are associated with the design of composite
floor ·ystems: deflection during construction, vibration under service loads, and live load
deflection under service loads.

9.10.1 Deflection During Construction

A<; di~c us ed in Section 9.3, the Specification permits either shored or unshoredconstruction.
With unshored construction. the Specification requires that the steel section alone have

Table 9A Shapes Selected for Example 9.6

Weight of Equivalent weight Equivalent total
Shape ,\J, :BQ, steel #studs of sruds weight of beam
Wl6x31 319 164 930 16 160 1090
Wl6x26 306 2-+2 780 24 240 1020
Wl4x34 308 159 1020 16 160 1180
Wl4x30 3 11 ::!48 900 24 240 1140
Wl4x26 312 33:?. 780 32 320 1100
298 Chapter 9 Composiie Construction

adequate strength ro support all loads applied prior to the concrete attaining 75% of its
specified strength. The bare steel beam. under the weight of these loads, deflects as an
elastic member. Because of this deflection of the beam under the weight of the wet concrete.
cambering of the steel beam is often specified. Cambering is the imposition of a permanent
upward deflection of the beam in irs unloaded state so that, under load, the downward
deflection results in a beam without excessive deflection. Predicting the necessary camber
is difficult because of the varying methods and sequences of concrete p lacement used
by different conrracrors as well as such factors as the end restraint provided by the beam
connection. Even \\ ith camber it is often prudent for the designer to add a little extra concrete
load into the design dead load and for the contractor to allow for a little extra concrete in
the quantity estimate.
In the case of shored construction. deflection during construction is usually not a
concern, because the shores are not removed until the concrete has achieved some strength
and composite action can be counted upon . The deflection under the wet concrete for shored
construction is at a minimum. On the other hand, long-term deflection due to creep of the
concrete may have to be investigated becau e the concrete is stressed under the self-weight
as a permanem load along with the sustained service loads.

9.10.2 Vibration Under Service Loads

Composite con truction usually is shallower than comparable noncomposite construction
and. therefore, may be more susceptible to perceived vibrations. Because vibration calcula-
riom, a ume that the beam behaves campo. itely. even when it is not a composite beam, the
additional riffness of a composite beam does nor improve its vibration characteristics. If
problems occur, they usually occur in applications with long spans and little damping. For
in. ranee. a large area of a departmem tore containing only a light jewelry display might
exhibit vibrations that would be perceptible to ome customers. On the other hand, an office
building. constructed with the same floor system. could contain full or partial height parti-
tiom, that would provide sufficient damping to obviate any perceived vibration. Because of
wide differences in human perception of vibration and many other factors, vibration prob-
lem do not lend themselves to simple solutions. AISC Design Guide 11 Floor Vibrations
Due to Human Activity provides more information and gives the designer an approach to
v ibration-acceptance criteria, damping, and rational design techniques .

9.10.3 Live Load Deflections

Live load deflections can be a critical design consideration for many applications. Excessive
deflection could cause problems with the proper fit of prutitions. doors, and equipment and
may also result in an unacceptable appearance, including cracking of finishes and othe r
visible evidence of distress. Therefore, a live load deflection calculation should be canied
out for most situations. As discussed in Chapter 6, this calculation is made with the service
loads for which deflection is of interest. usually the nominal live loads.
Because beam deflection are a function of the stiffness of the beam, the modulus of
e lasticity and moment of inenia of the composite section must be determined. The true
moment of inertia at the service load level for which deflections are to be calculated are
not easily detennined. In addition, the modulus of elasticity of the composite section must
account for the interaction of steel and concrete. The normal approach is to transform the
concrete into a material that behaves like steel, with the same modulus of elasticity. The
moment of inertia of the new transformed section can then be determined. Transformation
of the concrete into steel is accomplished by dividing the concrete ru·ea by the modular
 9.10 Serviceability Considerations 299

ratio. n = Es/E,.. and maintaining the same thickness. Although this seems like a fairly
straightforward process. the problem is determining the thickness of the concrete that is
actually participating in resisting the deflection.
One approach is to assume that the only concrete participating in resisting deflection is
what is abo providing strength. Thus. whether it is a fully composite or partially composite
member. a moment of ine1tia can be detem1ined using the known value of a from the
strength calculations. Because the nominal strength is calculated at the ultimate load level,
the amoum of concrete actually participating for service loads could be :.Jgnificantly more
than that used in the strength calculations. Thus, a moment of inertia detemlined by this
approach is less than might actually be available and is called a lo~rer hound moment of
inertia. I0 , . Figure 9.24 is an example of Manual Table 3.24, which give:. the lower bound
moment of inertia in a format that parallels the strength tables alread~ di<:.cussed. Use of
the. e I'-" values results in a conservative estimate of service load deflections.

EXAMPLE9.7 GOAL: Detelllline the construction load deflection of the bare steel beam and the l.ervice load
Deflection deflection for the composite beam of Example 9.6.

G lYE:\: Consider the W 16x 26 a~ the beam designed in Example 9.6. Cbeck the beam for a dead
lo ad of 0.45 kip/ft, a construction live load of 0.36 kip/ft and an in-service live load of 1.35 kip/ft.
Compare the construction load deflection to span/360. For the live load deflection, usc the lower
bo und moment of inertia from Figure 9.14 and compare the calculated deflection to span/360 as a
de,tgn limit.

SOLUTION tep 1: Detennine the rotaJ construction load for deflection calculations.

\\' = 11'D + 11'1 -um<r. = 0.45 + 0.36 = 0.81 kip(ft

Step l: Detem1ine the moment of inertia of the W l6x26 from Manual Table 1-1 or Manual
Table 3-20.

1, = 301 in ..J

Step 3: Calculate the construction load deflection and compare to span/360.

6
= 5 (0.8 1)(30.0)4 ( 1728) = 1.69 in. > 30( 12) = l.O in.
LL 384(29 .000)(30 1) 360
Because the deflection exceeds our limit. camberi11g of the beam or shoring during con-
~rrtlction would be required. Shoring has a significant cost impact as weU as a scheduling
impact, therefore, it is likely that the beam would be cambered or a larger section would be
u~ed.

Step -k A~-;uming that the construction load deflection issue would be resolved, detelllline the live
load deflection under the in-service live load.
From Example 9.6, the Wl6x26 was selected using Y2 = 4.5 and the resulting shear
~tud force was :E Q, = 242 kips at PNA location 4.

Step 3: Detennine the lower bound moment of inertia.

Lsing Manual Table 3-20. with the values given in Step 4 and select

hs = 754 i.n. 4
Step 4: Determine the live load deflection.
4
5( 1.35)(30.0) ( 1728) .
3
t..u = 384(29,000)(754) = l.l m.
300 Chapte r 9 Composite Construction

Table 3-24 {continued)

Lower Bound Elastic Moment
of Inertia, I LB' for Plastic
W16-W14
I,B
Composite Sections
Y1a LOn Y2b, in.
Shaped PNAC
in. kip 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7
W16x26 TFL 0 384 673 712 753 795 840 886 935 985 1040 1090 1150
(301) 2 ,0.0863 337 649 685 723 763 805 848 893 940 989 1040 1090
3 I 0.173 289 621 654 689 726 764 804 845 888 933 980 1030
4 0.259 242 589 619 650 683 718 754 791 830 870 912 955
BFL 0.345 194 551 577 604 633 663 694 726 760 795 832 869
6 2.04 145 505 526 549 572 596 622 648 676 705 734 765
7 4.00 96 450 465 482 499 517 535 554 575 595 617 640
W14x38 TFL 0 558 842 894 949 1010 1070 1130 1200 1260 1340 1410 1490
(385) 2 0.129 471 803 851 901 954 1010 1070 1130 1190 1260 1320 1390
3 0.258 384 758 800 845 891 941 992 1050 1100 1160 1220 1280
4 0.386 297 703 739 777 817 858 902 948 996 1050 1100 1150
BFL 0.515 209 634 662 692 723 756 791 827 864 903 943 985
6 1.42 174 602 627 653 680 709 739 770 803 837 872 909
7 2.55 140 568 589 611 634 658 684 710 738 766 796 827
W14x34 TFL 0 500 744 790 839 890 944 1000 1060 1120 1180 1250 1320
{340) 2 0.114 423 710 753 797 844 894 945 999 1050 1110 1170 1240
3 0.228 347 671 709 749 791 835 881 929 979 1030 1090 1140
4 0.341 270 623 656 690 726 764 803 844 887 932 978 1030
BFL 0.455 193 565 591 618 646 676 708 740 774 810 847 885
6 1.41 159 535 557 581 605 631 659 687 716 747 779 812
7 2.60 125 502 520 540 560 582 604 628 652 677 704 731
W14x30 TFL 0 442 643 683 726 771 818 868 919 973 1030 1090 1150
(291) 2 0.0963 378 615 653 692 734 777 823 870 920 972 1030 1080
3 0.193 313 583 616 652 689 728 769 812 857 903 951 1000
4 0.289 248 544 573 604 636 670 706 743 781 822 863 907
BFL 0.385 183 497 521 546 572 600 629 659 690 723 757 793
6 1.48 147 467 487 508 531 554 579 605 631 659 688 719
7 2.82 111 432 448 466 484 503 522 543 565 587 611 635
W14x26 TFL 0 385 554 589 626 666 707 750 795 842 891 942 994
(245) 2 0.105 332 531 5G4 598 635 673 713 754 798 843 890 939
3 0.210 279 504 534 565 598 633 669 707 747 788 830 875
4 0.315 226 473 500 527 556 587 619 652 687 723 760 799
BFL 0.420 174 437 459 482 507 533 559 587 617 647 679 712
6 1.67 135 405 424 443 463 485 507 531 555 580 607 634
7 3.18 96.1 368 382 397 413 430 447 465 484 503 523 544

=
a Yt distance from top of the steel beam to plastic neutral axis.
b Y2 = distance from top of the steel beam to concrete flange force.
c See Figure 3- 3c for PNA locations.
4
d Value in parentheses is lx (m. ) ol non-composile steel shape.

F ig ure 9_24 Lower Bound Elastic Moment of Jnertia. / 10 • for Plastic Composite Sections. Copyright
©American Institute of Steel Construction, Inc. Reprinted with Permission. All rights reserved.
 9.ll Composite Columns 301

Step 5: Compare the calculated deAecLion with the given limit.

span 30( 12) .

6.LL = 1.13 >
360
=~ = 1.0111.

Because the calculated deAectio n is greater than the limiting value, the ]i\ e load deflection is
not acceptable based on the gi\ e n c riteria. This result. combined with the consuuction load
deflection issue, would likely lead the designer ro select a larger section tor this situation
a was actually done in Example 9.6.
DeAection calculations are carried out under service loads and are independent of design
by LRFD or ASD.

9.11 COMPOSITE COL L:MNS

Composite columns in building construction have been much slower to gain acceptance
than composite beams. Specification provisions were first provided in the 1986 LRFD
Specification and, until the 2005 Specification, were never available for ASD. Although the
use of composite columns in buildings is still quite limited, the attention to hardening of
stmctures against blast forces will likely bring them more to the forefront.
Specification Section [2 provides two types of composite columns: open shapes en-
c~ed by concrete and hollow shapes filled with concrete. Composite columns exist at the
interface between specification prm isions for steel and those for concrete. T he 2005 Spec-
ification closes the gap between the AISC and ACI material-specific requi rements. For a
member to qualify as a composite column under the Specification, it must meet the following
limitations:
1. The cross-sectional area of the steel member must comprise at least I% of the gross
area.
2. T he concrete encasement must be reinforced with longitudinal steel as well as lateral
ties or spirals. The longitudina l steel area must be at least 0.004 times the gross area
and the tie area must be at least 0.009 in. 2 per in. of tie spacing.
3. The concrete strength, J;, must be between 3 ksi and 10 ksi for nonnal weight
concrete and 3 ksi and 6 ksi for lightweight concrete.
4. The maximum value of Fy to be used in calculations is 75 ksi.

5. Hollow sections must have a minim um wall thickness such that ~t ::=: 2.26yF;
{E for
D E
rectangular HSS and - < 0.15- for round HSS .
r - Fy

Although these requirements are usually readily satisfied, for s ituations where they are
not, ACI 3 18 should also be consulted.
To account for the effects of slenderness on the nominal strength of a composite column,
the equations found in Chapter E for steel columns are used with slight modification. Because
of the combination of two dissimilar materials and the general uncertainties of composite
column behavior. the resistance and safety factors are taken as

<Pc = 0.75 (L RFD) S1c = 2.00 (ASD)

302 Chapler 9 Compo~lle Construclion

To convert the column equation~. Equations 5. 10 and 5.11 , for use w ith a composite
column. the yield stress is replaced b) a nominal axial strength and the elastic critical
buckling stress is replaced by the elastic critical buckling strength of the composite column
u-.ing an effective stiffness. This is presented in Specification Section 12.1 for encased
columns where
For P, ~ 0.44P0

(9.1 7)

and for P,. < 0.44P0

P" = 0 .877Pe (9.1 8)
where
Pn = A.F - .-\ F,,. + 0.85Acf.'
2 £1,.11
PI' =1T - - ,
(KL t
El rfl = EJ, ..J.. 0.5£, 15 ,. + C, E<. fc

C1 = 0.1 -r 2 ( As ) ~ 0.3
.-\, + A~

ln these equations, the s subscript refers to the steel section. the sr subscript refers to
the long itudinal reinforcing steel. and the c '>Ubscript refers to the concrete.
Fo r fllkd columns. the fol lowing are 10 be used

Pa = A,F, + Av F_,,. + C2 A c f.~

El <ff = £ , ! , ,- E,I ,,. ,- C:. E, Ic
c2 = 0.85 for rectangular sections
= 0.95 for round sections

C3 = 0.6 + 2 ( As ) < 0.9

A<+ As -
The5e two separate cases can easily be combined through the use of the already defi ned
constant. C2. and the new constants. C 4 and Cs.

(9.1 9)

(9.20)

C 2 = 0. 85 for encased sections and rectangular HSS

= 0.95 fo r round HSS
c4 = 0.5 for encased sectio ns
= 1.0 for filled HSS

C5 = 0.1 + 2( A, ) < 0.3 for encased sections

. A, + As -

= 0.6 + 2 ( As ) < 0.9 for filled HSS

Ac + A,~ -
 9. 1I Composite Columns 303

EXAMPLE9.8 GOAL: Determine the nominal strength of a composite column. Then determine the design
Composite Column strength and the allowable strengU1.
Strength
GIVEN: The column is composed of a WI4x53 encased in 18 in. x 22 in. of concrete as shown
in Figure 9.25. Additional given information is as follows:

Column effective length = 15 ft.

Steel hape: F_, = 50 ks i
Reinforcing: four #9 bars, Gr. 60. F,. = 60 k si
Concrete strength: .f.~ = 5 ksi
£ =I~SI.S J5=3900ksi

SOLUTION Step 1: Detem1ine the areas of the components.

A, = 15.6 in. 2
A " = ~( l.O) = 4.0 in .2
A , = 18.0(22.0)- 15.6-4.0 = 376 in. ~

Step 2: Check tlle minimum steel ratios.

p, -- -A , -- 15.6 -- 0.0 394

c > 0 .00 I
A~ 22.0( 18.0)

Av 4.0
P.\r = - = = 0.0101 > 0.004
A~ 22.0( 18.0)

So the specified minimums are satisfied.

Step 3: Determine Pn and P, .

c2= o.85
c4= 0.5
Cs=0. 1 +2 ( 15.6 ) =0.1 80 < 0 .3
. 376 + 15.6

-,--
Wl4x53

h =22tn.

4-#9

6.6:!5 in.
Figure 9.25 Composite Column (Example 9.8) .
304 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

By inspection. the y-axis will be the critical buckling axis.

Is= 1, = 57.7 in. 4

l.,r = ·H 1.0)(6 625) 2 = 176 in. 4
22.0( 18.0)3 . 4
/, = -57.7- 176 = 10,500m.
12
P,, = 15.6(50) + 4 ..0(60) + 0. 85(5)(376) = 2620 kips

£/ elJ = :?9.000(57 .7) + 0.5(29.000)( 176) + 0. l 80(3900)( I 0,500) = I 1.6 X l06 in.-kips

Step 4: Detem1ine the controlling column strength equation.

P, 3530
P,. = :26.20 = 1.35 > 0.44
Therefore, because Pc > 0.44?0 . use Equation 9.17.
Step 5: Determine the nominal compressive strength.
P, I
P" = ?, (0.658) P. = 2620(0.658) 1.35 = 1920 k.ips

I tep 6: For LRFD, the design compressive strength is

cpP = 0.75( 1920) = 1440kips

11

Step 6: For ASD, the allowable compressing strength is

Pn 1920
- = --
Q 2.00
= 960kips

The strength of fi lied HSS is determined in the same fashion as j ust discussed for
the encased shapes, with the use of the appropriate C constants. Primarily because of the
unlimited possible combinations of steel section and concrete size, the Manual does not
provide tables for composite encased columns. However, because filled HSS represent a
limited set of possible geometries. Manual Parl4 does give strength tables for these shapes.
These tables are used exactly like the column tables for the bare steel column previously
discussed.

9.12 COMPOSITE BEAM-COLUMNS

Composite beam-columns have the same potential to occur as bare steel beam-columns.
Any application where bending moment and axial force are applied simultaneously needs
to be addressed according to the provisions of Specification Section I4.
 9.13 Problems 305

F igure 9.26 Composne Column

Moment.M Interaction Diagrams.

For doubly symmetric composite beam-columns, the most common composite beam-
colwnns found in building construction. the interaction equations of Specification Chapter H
can be used conservatively. For a more accurate approach to determining the available
strength. the interaction surface can be developed based on plastic stress distributions and
the length modification from Specification Section 12, as discussed in Section 9. I I.
Figure 9.26 provides several potentially useful interaction diagrams for a composite
beam-column. Curve 1 is the interaction curve based on a strain-compatibility approach
similar to that used for developing similar diagrams for reinforced concrete columns. without
consideration of length effects. Curve 2 represents a segmented straight line approx imation
based on plastic stress distributions. again without incorporating any length effects. Curve 3
i~ a further simplification of Curve 2, incorporating resistance or safety factors and the length
effects. Curve 4 is the result of applying the equations of Chapter H.
Only Curves 3 and 4 in Figure 9.26 account for the effects of length on beam-column
. trength. The conservatism of the Chapter H approach is not that great when compared to
the Curve 3 approach. Thus, a detailed discussion of beam-column behavior will not be
undertaken.

9.13 PROBLEMS
1. Determine the location of the plastic neutral axis and the composed of a W18x50 spanning 20ft and spaced 6ft on cen-
available moment strength for a flat soffit. fully composite beam ter, supporting a S-in. concrete slab. Use J: =
5 ksi and A992
composed of a W 16 x 26 spanning :w rt and spaced 8ft on cen- steel. Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable
ter, supporting a 6-in. concrete slab. Use f.' = 4 ksi and A992 strength by ASD.
steel. Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable 4. Detem1ine the location of the plastic neutral axis and the
strength by ASD. available moment strength for a flat so(fit, fully composite beam
2. Determine the location of the pla tic neurral axis and the composed of a W 18 x 71 spanning 18 ft and spaced S ft on cen-
available moment strength for a flat so ffi t. fully composite beam ter, supporting a 4-in. concrete slab. Use .r; = 4 ksi and A992
composed of a W 16 x 4S spanning 22 ft and spaced 8 ft on cen- steeL Detennine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable
ter, supporting a S-in. concrete slab. Use .( = 5 ksi and A992 strength by ASD.
steeL Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable 5. Detem1ine the location of the plastic neutral axis and U1e
strength by ASD. available moment strength for a fiat soffit, fully composite beam
3. Determine the location of the plastic neutral axis and the composed of a W 14 x 43 spanning 20 ft and spaced S ft on cen-
available moment strength for a flat soffit, fully composite beam ter, supporting a 4-in. concrete slab. Use .r; = 3 ksi and A992
306 Chapter 9 Composite Construction

steeL Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable 17. Determine the available moment strength of a W 18x 35
strength by ASD. A992 composite beam supporting a s lab with a total thickness of
6. Detennine the location of the plastic neutral axis and the 5 in. on a 3-in. metal deck perpendicular 10 the beam. T he beam
available moment strength for a flat soffit, fully composite beam spans ~R ft and is spaced I 2 rt from adjacent beams. Use J; =
composed of a Wl4x61 spanning 24ft and spaced 6ft on cen- 5 ksi. Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable
ter. ~upporting a 4-in. concrete slab. Use f.' = J ksi and A992 streng th b) ASD.
steeL Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and !b) allowable 18. D c1Cm1ine the available moment strength for a W 18 x46
:.treng th by ASD. A992 member used as a partially composite beam to support 3 in.
7. Repeat Problem I with the shear stud capacity limited to of concrete on a 3-in. metal deck for a total slab thickness of 6 in.
I = 250 kips. D etermine (a) design strength b) LRFD and The beam spans 30 ft and is spaced ll ft from adjacent beams.
lb ) allowable strength by ASD. Shear stud ~trength is v; = 400 kips, J; = 5 ksi. Determine
(a) design -.tre ngth by LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD.
8. Repeat Proble m 2 with the shear stud capacity limited to
I'~ = 500 kips. Determine (a) design strength b) LRFD and
19. A composite beam is to span 20 ft and support a 4-in. slab
(b) allowable strength by ASD. including a L1h -in. metal deck. The deck span is I0 ft. The beam
must accommodate a uniformly distributed dead load of 75 psf
9. Repeat Problem 3 with the shear stud capacity limited to
including the slab weight and live load of 100 psf. T he deck ha~
V~ = 500 kips. Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and 2-in. rib~ spaced 6 in. on center. Dete1mine the required A992
(b) allowable strength by ASD.
W-shape and the number of 3/ 4 -in. shear studs. Use J;~ =3 ksi.
10. Repeat Problem 4 with the shear stud capacity limited to Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
v<; = 400 kips. Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and 20. Detem1ine the required W-shape and % -in. shear studs for
(b) allowable strength by ASD.
a composite girder that spans 30ft and supports two concentrated
11. Repeat Problem 5 with the shear srud capacity limited to dead load-., of l2 kips and live loads of20 kips at the third points.
v<; = 300 kips. Determine (a l design strength by LRFD and The 11h -in. metal deck with 2-in. 1ibs spaced at 6 in. on center
(b) allowable strength by ASD. is parallel to the girder and supports a total slab of 5 in. Use
12. Repeat Problem 6 with the shear stud capacity limited to J;' = 4 ksi and A992 steel. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
v,; = 600 kips. Detennine tal destgn rrengrh by LRFD and 21. Determine the live load deflection for a W24x76 A992
(b) allowable strength by ASD. composite beam with an 8 in. total thickness slab on a 3-in.
13. A Wl2 composite b eam ' paced every 10ft i:; used to sup- metal decJ.... The beam spans 28 ft and is spaced at 10-ft inter-
port a unifom1 dead load of 1.0 k/ ft and live load of 0.9 k/ft o n vals. The beam is to c arry a live load of 3.4 k/ft. Assume Y2 =
a 20-ft span. Using a 4-in. tla1 soffit slab w ith.r;
= 4 k si, 3/.!-in. 6 .0 in. and :EQ" = 393 kips.
shear studs, and A992 steel. determine the least-weight shape 22. Detennine the live load deflection for a Wl 6x26 A992
and the required number of shear connectors to support the load. composite beam suppo11ing a 6-in. slab on a 2 1h -in. metal deck.
Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. The beam spans 24ft and is spaced at 8 ft on center. The live
1-l. A W l4 composite beam is to support a uniform dead load =
load is 2.1 k/ft, Assume Y2 5.5 in. and :EQ" =
384 kips.
of 1.2 k/ft and live load of 1.2 k/ft. The beam spans 24 ft and 23. Determine the available compressive stre nglh of a 20-ft ef-
is spaced 8 ft from adjacent beams. Using a 5-in. flat soffit s lab fective length 18- x 18-in. composite column encasing an A992.
and y_,-in. shear studs. determine the least-\\ eight ::.hape to sup- W l0x68 and eighr#8, Gr. 60, reinforcing bars,/,~ = 5 ksi. E ach
pon the load if .t,:
= 4 ks i and A992 steel is used . Design by face has three bars with their centers located 2 .5 in. from the face
(a) LRFD and (b) ASD. of the concrete. Determine (a) design su·ength by LRFD and
15. Compare the least-weight A992 W16 and W 14 member~ (b) allowable strength by ASD.
required to ~upport a unifonn dead load of 2.4 k/ft and li\ e load 24. D etem1ine the available compressive strength of a 22- x
of 3.2 k}f1. The beams span 18 ft and are spaced 12 ft on cenrer. 22-in. composite column with an effective le ngth of 16 ft. The
They suppon a 6-in. concrete slab with j~ = 4 ksi. Design b) concrete encases an A992. Wl2x 120 and eight #9. Gr. 60. bars.
(a) LRFD and (b) ASD. ;;: = 5 ksi. Each face has tlu·ee bars with their centers located
16. A series of W16 x 36 A992 composite beams are spaced 2.5 in. from the face of the concrete. Determine (a) design
at 10-ft intervals and span 24ft. The beams support a 2 1h-in. stre ngth by LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD.
metal deck perpendicular to the beam with a s lab whose to- 25. Detennine the available compressive strength of a 20- x
tal thickness is 5 in. Assuming full composite action, de- 22-in. composite column with an effec tive length of I 2ft. The
termine the available moment strength and the number of concrete encases an A992 W 12 x 136 and e ight # I0, Gr. 60, bars,
% -in. shear studs required. The deck has 6-in. wide ribs t: = 5 ksi. Each face has three bars with their centers located
spaced at 12 in. Use J;
= 4 ksi. Detem1ine by (a) LRFD and 2.5 in. from the face of the concrete. Detennine (a) design
(b) ASD. strength by LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD.
Chapter 10

University of Phoenix Stadium.

Photo courtesy Arizona Cardinals.

Connection Elements
10.1 INTRODUCTI O~

A steel building structure is essentially a collection of individual membe rs attached to each

other to form a stable and serviceable whole, called the frame. The assumed behavior of the
connection between any two members determines how the structure is analyzed to resist
gravity and lateral loads. This analysis, in turn, determines the moments, shears, and axial
loads for which the beams. columns, and other members are designed. It is, therefore,
essential that the designer understand the basic behavior of co1mections.
Members are attached to each other through a variety of connecting elements, such as
plate , angles. and other shapes. using mechanical fasteners or welds. The characteristics
of these connecting elements and fasteners must be understood to assess the response
of the complete connection. With each connection. the load transfer mechanism must be
understood so that the applicable limit states of the joint can be evaluated.
Table J 0.1 lists the sections of the Specification and pans of the Manual discussed in
rhi chapter.

10.2 BASIC CONNECTIONS

The wide variety of potential geometries and arrangements of members available for con-
struction makes listing the corresponding potential connections quite complex. Every joint
between members must be analyzed and designed according to the unique aspects of that
j oint.

307
308 Chapter 10 Connection Elenwnts

Table 10.1 Sections of Specification and Pans of Manual Found in this Chapter
Specification

B3 Design Basis
Chapter D Design of Members for Tension
Chapter E Design of Members for Compression
G2 Members with Unstiffened or Stiffened Webs
J2 Welds
J3 Boll~ and Threaded Parts

.1-1- Affected Elements of Members and Connecting Elements

Manual

Part 7 Des1gn Considerations for Bolts

Part 8 De\Ign Considerations for Weld~
Part 9 De,Ign of Connecting Elemento.

Figure I 0.1 shows several example of tension connections. The connections shown
in Figures I 0. J a, b, and c illustrate way~ that a tension member can be spliced. In each
case, the bolts are subjected to a shear force. The butt joint (Figme 10.1 a) and the lap
joint (Figure I 0.1 b) provide a connection between two members whereas the joint shown
in Figure lO.Ic shows the connection of a ~ingle member to a pair of members. This type
of joint can also be considered as a portion of the butt joint shown in Figure IO.la. The
joint <.ho\\ n in Figure I O.ld represenrs a hanger connected to the lower flange of a beam;
in rhj~ case rhe connection is accomplished with a WT-shape, and the bolts are subjected
to a temile load. The connection of a tension member to a gusset plate is shown in Figure
I 0.1 e. Here again. the bolts are subjected to a shear force. All of these examples illustrate
bolted connections. Similar connections can be accomplished with welds.
The connections illustrated in Figure L0.2 are bracket connections. The connection
sh0\\11 in Figure 10.2a shows a bracket attached to rhe ftange of a column. ln this case.

I 0 0 I 0 0
p ~ .......;
0
0 0_.1!
_ __ II _0 __
0:: 0
0
0
---..: --- p ~ ---:--o-
10 0
------ ~ . . . --+ -o- - o- . ~;>- -----
1 0 0

p ~ +: 111111 :+ - - p
(a)
--+f===c,o• l ~+ -- ::::: 1~~·~·~+-----
•==
<b> (c)

0 0

I I

~~ IJ=
I ====4f _.
(d) (e)

Figure 10.1 Tension Conneclions.

 10.3 Beam-to-Column Connections 309

.J
v
(al (b) Figure 10.2 Bracket Connections.

the bolts are subjected to shear and moment in the plane of the connection when loaded as
shown. The bracket shown in Figure 10.2b, when loaded as shown. subject-- the bolt group
to shear in the plane of the connection and a moment out of the plane that result:> in a tensile
force in the top bolts.

10.3 BEAM-TO-COLUM~ CONNECTIONS

The connection of a beam to a column can also be accomplished in a variety of ways.
Figure 10.3 illustrates several connections of W-shaped beams toW-shaped columns. The
classification of these connections is a function of the forces being transferred between the
members . The connectio ns shown in Figure 10.3a through dare usually called simple or
shear connections whereas those in Figure 10.3e through hare generally referred to as fixed
or momen1 connections.

r
_A _A -'I

r r r
II II II II
f--
•
l
~

II II II II
• ~ ;> ~?-

II 1--
• I
I
II II
t-'-
II II II II
J J I J -
r r r r
(a) Double-angle connectio n (b) Single-plate connection (<:) Seated conne~:tion (d) Stiffened-seat connection
(shear tab)

t I r
...1\,

r
II I II

J 1
t
II ~
II
?>
II
II II II
f-'-+-- f-'-+-
II II II
J I j
T r r
(c) Shear plate moment (f) Shear plate moment (g) Field-bolted moment (h) End-plate moment
connection at flange connection m web connection connection
Figure 10.3 Beam-to-Column Connections.
310 Chapter 10 Connection Elements

Figure 10.4 Beam-to-Column Moment-Rotation

Rmation. 8 Curves.

Although normal practice tends to classify beam-to-column connections as simple or

fixed.the~e connections actually exhibit awide range of behaviors as discussed in Chapter 8.
This beha\ ior can be described through a plot of the moment-rotation characteristics of
a particular connection. Typical moment-rotation relationships for three beam-to-column
connections are presented in Figure 10.-+. When a connection is very stiff, it defom1s very
linle. e\'en when subjected to large moments. This type of connection is represented by
Cul\e a in Figure 10.4. At the other extreme, when a connection is quite flexible, it will
rotate considerably bur will not deve lop a significant moment, as shown by Curve c in
Figure 10.4. Curve b in Figure 10.4 is representative of any connection whose moment
rotation behavior occurs somewhere between Cu rves a and c. These connections have some
appreciable stiffness but still exhibit a degree of flexibility; rhus, signifi cant rotation will
occur along with significant moment resistance.
For the purposes of design, connections have usually been assmned to behave according
to the simpli fied behaviors represented by the vertical axis of Figure 10.4 as a fixed con-
nection and the horizontal axis of Figure 10.4 as a simple connection. Because connections
do not acn1ally behave in this way, those that follow Curves a and c and exhibit a behav-
ior close to the idealized connection are called fixed connections and simple •COnnections.
respectively. Specification Section B3.6 divides connections into two categories: simple
connections and moment connections. W ithin the moment connection category, it defines
Fully Restrained Moment Connections (FR) and Partially Restrained Mo ment Connections
(PR). FR connections transfer moment with a negligible rotation between the connected
members, as shown in Curve a. PR connections transfer moment between the members bur
the rotation is not negligible. as demonstrated by Curve b.
Tt is the designers· responsibility to match connection behavior with the appropriate
analys is model and to complete the connection design so that the actual connection behavior
matches that used in the ana lysis. Often, this requires experience and j udgme nt; the state-
of-the-art is such that it is usually not possible to predict the actual M -0 curve with much
accuracy for anything but the simplest of connections.

10.4 FULLY RESTRAINED CONNECTIONS

The basic assumption for frames with FR connections is that the beams and columns
maintain their original relationship during the entire loading history. This is normally called
 I0.5 Simple and Partial1y Restrained Connections 311

a rigid or fixed connection. Figures I 0.3e through h show examples of beam-to-column

connections that are usually treated as FR connections. Although they may show some
relative rotatio n between members. they have sufficient stiffness to justify ignoring this
rotation.
Figure I 0.3e shows a connection with a web plate shop welded to the colun111 flange
and field bolted to the beam web. The beam flanges have been beveled in the shop and are
field welded to the column. Although the beam web is not continuous!~ connected to the
column. it has been repeatedly demonstrated that this connection can adequately transfer
the full plastic moment of the beam to the column. Most of the moment strength is derived
from the flange connections, which is equal to the flange force times beam depth. The small
amount of moment in the web connection and local strain hardening in the flanges add to
the connection's ability to reach the full plastic moment of the beam. Th1s connection is
generally known as the pre-Northridge connection because it was the ::.tandard connection
for seismic applications prior to the 1994 Northridge, California earthquake. Because its
performance under the seismic load of that event was not as favorable as expected. it is no
longer used in seismic resisting frames. However, it is still used to resist moments due to
gravity and wind loads.
Figure l0.3f is similar to Figure l0.3e except that the beam frames into the web of
the column. To ensure that this connection has adequate ductility it is important to extend
the flange connecting plates beyond the column flange and to design these plates a little
thicker than the beam flange. Extending the connecting plate reduces the possibility of a tri-
axial stress condition near the column flange tips. Thickening the plate reduces the average
ten ion stress in the plate. lt also facilitates welding to the beam flange.
The connectio n illustrated in Figure l0.3g is a fl ange plate connection. As with the
pre- iorthridge connection, the web is connected to transfer the beam shear force only. The
flange force is fi rst transferred to the top and bottom plates and then into the column fl ange.
This connection is shown as a bolted connection but it is also possible to fabricate this as a
welded connection. For fully welded connections, special care should be taken to address
erection issues due to the requirement for field welding.
Figure 10.3h is an extended end plate connection. For this connection, a plate is shop
welded to the end of the beam and then bolted to the column fl ange. Although very popular
with some fabricators, others tend to avoid it. lt must be fabricated with special care so that
the end plates are parallel with each other. Also, it is not a very forg iving coru1ection and
can make erection difficult and expensive.

10.5 SIMPLE AND PARTIALLY RESTRAINED CONNECTIONS

A frame with PR connections must be analyzed accounting for the actual moment-rotation
characteristics of the connection. These connections are now referred to as partialfy
restrained connections but have historically been called semi-rigid connections. It is typ-
ically not possible to determine whether a connection should be classified as PR just by
looking at it. SeveraL connections that appear to be simple actually have the potential to
resist significant moment. ln the simple connection case, the analysis assumes that the con-
nections are pinned, and free to rotate. The rotation capacity of the connection must be
sufficient to accommodate the simple beam rotation of the beam to which it is connected.
There are basically rwo ways in which a simply connected frame can be des igned
to resist lateral loads and to provide stability for gravity loads. In one case, a positive
brac ing system is provided, such as diagonal steel bracing or a shear wall. In the second
case, lateral stabili ty is provided by the limited restraint offered by the connections and
members themselves. This type of connection is called a flexible moment connection.
Flexible moment connections are designed with a limited amount of moment resistance
312 Chapter I0 Connection Elements

accompanied by a significant amount of rotation. The connections are flexible enough to

rotate under gravity loads so that no gravity moments are transferred to the columns. At the
same time they are assumed to have sufficient strength and stiffness to resist the lateral loads
and to provide frame stability. This approach to frame design was addressed in Section 8.11.
Connection design for these flexible moment connections will fo llow the same approach as
other connections discussed later.
The design of PR connections requires that the frame be analyzed considering the
true semi-rigid behavior of the connections. In this case, the acntal M -e curve of the
connection must be known. The resulting analysis tends to be rather complex because
of the nonlinear behavior of the connection. Although there are currently no commercially
available computer programs for analysis of frames with PR cmmections. there are simplified
approaches that wi ll aid in the use of these connections.
Figure 10.3 shows examples of simple and PR connections. As mentioned earlier, it i<;
not normally possible to tell by a visual inspection whether a connection should be treated
as a PR connection. Figure 10.3a shows a double-angle connection also referred to as a
clip angle connection. This connection has been used extensively over the years. Tn fact. it
is usually considered the standard to which other simple connections are compared. Even
though it is readily accepted as a simple connection. it has been shown that under certain
circumstances it can be relied upon to resist some moment from lateral load.
Figure I 0.3b shows a single plate framing connection that is often referred to as a shear
tab. Care must be taken when designing these connections as s imple connections to insure
that the elements have sufficient flexibility to accommodate the simple beam rotation.
Figure 10.3c shows a seated connection and Figure 10.3d a stiffened seated connection.
Either can be bolted or welded and they are usually used to frame a beam into the web of a
W-shaped column section. Although they may appear to be stiffer than the standard double-
angle connection, they are designed to rotate sufficiently without transferring a moment to
the column so that they can be treated as simple connections.

10.6 MECHANICAL FASTENERS

The mechanical fasteners most conunonly used today are bolts. The Specification provide
for the use of common bolts and high-strength bolts . It also provides some direction for
cases where bolts are to be used in conjunction with rivets in new work on historic structures.
There are no provisions for rivets in new construction, however, because these connector<;
are no longe r used in buildings.

10.6.1 Common Bolts

Common bolts are manufactured according to the ASTM A307 specification as discussed in
Section 3.6.3. When used, they are usually found in simple connections for such element~
as girts, purlins, light floor beams, bracing, and other applications where the loads are
relatively small. Although permitted by the Specification, they are not recommended for
normal steel-to-steel connections and should not be used where the loads are cyclic or
vibratory, or where fatigue may be a factor.
Common bolts are also called machine, unfinished or rough bolts. They are identified
by their square heads and nuts and should have the grade designation 307 A or 307B on the
heads . They are available in diameters from 1/ 4 in. to 4 in.
These bolts are usually installed using a spud wrench. No specified pretension is re-
quir·ed. Because no clamping force is assumed, it is only necessary to tighten the nut
 10.6 Mechanical Fasteners 313

suffic iently to prevent it from backing off of the bolt. The design shear and tensile strength
are given in Specification Section 13, Table 13.2.

10.6.2 High-Strength Bolts

Three types of high-strength bolts are currently permitted in steel structures according to
Specification Section 13: ASTM A325, High-Strent:th Bolts .for Stmcmral Joints; ASTM
A490. Quenched and Tempered Alloy Steel Bolts for Srmct ural Joints: and F 1852, Twist
Off Type Tension Control Structural Bolt/Nut/Washer Assemblies. Fl852 bolts have the
strength charactetistics of A325 bolts. Since publication of the Specification. ASTM has
issued ASTM F2280, Standard Specification for Twist OjfType Tension Comrol Structural
Bolt Nut/Washer Assemblies, Steel. Heat Treated, 150 ksi Minimum Tensile Strength. These
bolts have strength characteristics of A490 bolts. De tails of the material and other properties
of the~e bolts are described in Section 3.6.3. Tn most cases, the nominal strength of A490
bolts is 25% greater than that of A325 bolts because bolt strength is based on the tensile
strength of the bolt material. All three types of bolts can be used for simple. FR, or PR
connections and for both static and dynamic loading. Bolts have always been vel) popular
for field installation. Their use in the shop has increased considerably with the introduction
of automated equipment and the F 1852 tension con troll bolt.
A325 bolts are available in two types. Type I, manufactured from a medium-carbon
steel. is the most commonly used. It is available in sizes ranging from 1h in. through 11h in.
in diameter. Type 3 is a weathering ~teel bolt with corrosion characteristics similar to that
of ASTM A242, A588, and A847 steels. Type 3 bolts are also available from 1h through
11 2 in. in diameter. For 1h- to 1-in. bolts. F 11 = 120 ksi. whereas for bolts larger than 1.0
in. F11 = 105 ksi.
A-+90 bolts are also available as Type I and Type 3 and ·in sizes ranging from 1h in. to
1 ~ in. in diameteJ·. A ll A490 bolts have F11 = 150 ksi.
1

A325 Type 1 bolts are identified by the mark ·'A325" or by three radial lines 120 degrees
apart on the bolt head. Type 3 bolts have the designation "A325" underlined. A490 bolts
caf'l)' the symbol "A490" with the "A490" underlined for Type 3. Example bolt markings
are hown in Figure l 0.5. All bolts should also be marked with a symbol to designate the
manufacturer as shown in the figure.
Figure I0.6a shows the principle parts and dimensions of a high-stTength bolt: head,
~hank. bolt length. and tlu·ead length, whereas Figure 10.6b shows the principle parts of a
tenston control bolt.
Both A325 and A490 bolts can be installed with a spud wre nch or, in cases whe re
a clamping force is necessary, using an impact wrench. F l852 bolts are installed with
a mechanical device that simultaneously holds the bolt shank and nut and rotates them
relati,·e to each other. The end of the bolt twists off when the prescribed tensile force is
reached. insuring the required pretension.

ID© 0L 0L
A325
IS'!
~
325

A325
A490

M90
A490

A490
Type 3 Type I Type 3 Type I
Figure 10.5 Example Bolt Identification Markings from St. Louis Screw and BoiL Company.
314 Chapter 10 Connection Elements

-F- - H -Boltlength

(a) High-,trength bolt (b) Tension control bolt

Figure 10.6 Bolt Definitions.

10.6.3 Bolt Holes

Because the hole into which a bolL is insened will impact the strength of the bolts in place.
it is important to address the hole requirements at this point. The Specification defines four
types of bolt holes that are pe1mitted in steel construction: standard, oversize, short slot,
and long slot. Table I0.2 shows the nominal hole dimensions for each of these types and
for bolts from 'h in. diameter up. Figure 10.7 shows the four hole sizes for a ·%-in. bolt.
Standard holes or short-slotted holes transverse to the direction of load are the standard
to be used unless one of the other types is permilled by the designer. This is because the other
arrangemenrs wi 11 adversely affect the final bolt strength. A standard hole has a diameter Lhat
is 1ft 6 in. greater than the bolt diameter to accommodate placement of the bolt. Short-slotted
holes hU\,e this same dimension in one direction but are elongated in the other direction to
assist in tit-up of the connection parts. Any slot longe r than a short slot should be classified
as a long slot, even if it is not the full length of a long s lot as shown in Table I0.2.
Oversize holes and long-slotted hole~ a re specified when the increased tolerance is
needed to accomplish the actual connection. If a design includes other than standard holes.
the requirements of Specification Section 13.2 for washers come into play. For the examples
in this book, only standard holes will be used.
ln addition to prescribing the size of bolt holes, the Specification gives minimum
and maxi mum hole spacing and edge distances. Figure 10.8 shows a plate with holes
dimensioned with the standard variable names used in the Specification. The minimum
hole spacing. s. for standard, oversized, or slotted holes must not be less than 2 2h times the
bolt diameter. A spacing or 3 diameters, 3d, is preferred. ft will be shown later that even
at a minimum spacing of 3d, bolt strength may be less than what it could be if the spacing

Table 10.2 Nominal Hole Dimt!nsions. in.

Hole dimensions

Bolt Standard Oversize Short slot Long slot

diameter (dia.) (dia.) (width x length) (width x length)
11
'h 9
/16 'Is 9
/16 X /16 9/16 X I'/~
11 11 9
% /16 '';,6 "/16 X 7/H /16 X 1 /16
Y~ ':Y1n I'JI 6 'J,r,
1
X I
1
"/16
7
x 1 /s
1 1 15
7/s 15/16 I '/,6 '/16 x 1 /s /16 X 2"fl6
1 1
I 1 /!6 l 'f.l 1 /!6 X 1'/16 11/16 X 2 1h_
1
::::. 1 /s d + 1
/16 d +'!16 (d + 1
/16) x (d + "fx) (c/ + 1
/16) X (2.5 X d)
 10.7 Bolt Limit States 315

(a) Standard (b) Oversized (c) Short sloHcd td l Long slotted

Figure 10.7 Hole Sizes for a"% in. Diameter Bolt.

were just a little bit greater. The maximum spacing of bolts in a connection 1s 12 times the
thid.ness of the connected pan or 6 in. This maximum is not a strength requirement but
rather one lhat is intended to keep a connection together and prevent any potential moisture
build-up between the elements.
The minimum edge distances, Le. specified are intended to facilitate construction and
are not strength related. Table I0.3 shows the minimums from Specification Table J3.4.
Because these dimensions will be shown to directly impact bolt strength, it is critical to
prO\ ide edge distances that are compatible with the required sLrength of the connection. The
table gives different edge distances for sheared and rolled edges. The use of these values
witt depend on the type of connecting ele ment being used. such as a plate that might have
been sheared or an angle that has a rolled toe. The maximum edge distance is the same as
the max imum spacing and for the same reasons.

10.7 BOLT LIMIT STATES

Three basic limit states govern the response of bolts in bolted connections: shear through
the .;hank or threads of the bolt, bearing on the material being connected, and tension in the
bolt.
Cases where load reversals are expected or fatigue is a factor have an additional limit
'tate to prevent slip in the connection. This limit state applies only to connections that are
cla))ified as slip-critical.

10.7.1 Bolt Shear

The most common application of bolts in connections is to resist shear. Shear through the
:.hank of the bolt is the means whereby the load, P, in Figure 10.9a is transferred from one
plate to the other. In this case, the bolt is sheared along one plane. Thus, it is said to be a
holt in ~in~le shear. The an·angement in Figure l0.9b shows two side plates connected to a
cemral plare. In this case, the load, P, is transferred from the center plate to the side plates

-'--.-----------------~
L~
- ,. --+--0 0 0

Figure 10.8 Hole Spacing, Guage, and Edge

Distances.
316 Chapter l 0 Connection Elements

Table 10.3 Minimum Edge Distance." in .. from Center of Standard Hole/J to Edge of
Connected Pan Copy1ighr @ American Institute of Steel Construction. Inc. Reprinted with
Permission. All rights reserved .

At rolled edges of plates, shapes.

Bolt diameter (in.) At sheared edges or bars. or thermally cut edges'
'h % :.;4
% 11/s 7/s
% l '/~ l
7/8 Jlh'i 1
1
/s
J l'l/ 11/4
1'/s 2 11/2
11/4
1
2 /4 1%
Over 11/4 1% X d 11/4 X d
0
Lesser edge distance' are permitted to be used provided provisions of Section 13.10. as appropriate. are satisfied.
''For oversized or ~lotted holes. see Table J3.5.
' All edge distance-. m !his column are permilted to be n~ducc:d 1/s in. when the hole is at a point where required
strength does not e-..ceed 25% of the maximum strength in the e lement.
dTJ1ese are pcmlilled to be 1v4 in. at the ends of beam connection angles and shear end plates .

and the bolt i!!> therefore loaded in double shear. A bolt in double shear has twice the shear
srrength as a bolt in single shear.
For rhe lim it state of bolt shear. the nominal strength is based on the tensile strength
of the bolt and the location of the shear plane with respect to the bo lt threads. Section J3.6
provide. rhar

and

<P = 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)

where
F11 = shear stress, F11 .., from Specification Table J3.2
A, = area of the bolt shank
The information in Table I 0.4 is taken from Specification Table 13.2. Each high-strength
fastener has two descriptions : The first is for cases where the threads are not excluded

(a) Single-shear failure of bolt (b) Double-shear failure of bolt

(c) Tear out failure of plate (d) Bearing failure of plate

Figure 10.9 Bolt Failme Modes.
 10.7 Bolt Limit States 317

Table 10.4 Nominal Stress of Fasteners and Threaded Parts. ksi (MPa)
\ ominal shear stress
Nominal tensile in bearing-type
stress. F,, connections, Fm··
Description of fasteners ksi ksi

A307 bolls 45 24
A325 or A325M bolts. when threads are not excluded from shear planes 90 48
A325 or A325M bolts, when threads are excluded from shear planes 90 60
A490 or A490M bolts. when threads are not excluded from shear planes 11 3 60
A490 or A490M bolts, when thread:. are excluded from shear planes 11 3 75
Threaded parts meeting the requirements of Section A3.4. whe n threads are 0.75F" OAOFII
not excluded from shear planes
Threaded parts meeting the requirements of Section A3.4, when threads are 0.75F11 0.50F 11
excluded from shear plane~

from the shear plane and the second is for when the threads are excluded from the shear
plane. Because in every case. the area of the boll shank is used to determine the nominal
strength. the reduced area when the shear plane passes through the threads is accounted for
b~ reducing the nominal shear stress. When threads are excluded from the shear plane, the
bolt~ are called either A325X or A490X bolts. l n these cases, F11'" = 0.5F11 • When tlu-eads
are not excl uded from the shear plane, the bolts are referred to as either A325N or A490N
bolt~. In these cases, F11 ,. = 0.4F11 • On ly one value is provided for A307 bolts and that value
1.., based on the assumption that the thJeads occur in the shear plane.
C nJess the designer can be sure that the final connection will result in the bolt threads
being excluded from the shear plane, it is usually best to design the connection for the worst
La.<..e of threads included in the shear plane.

10.7.2 Bolt Bearing

The available strength for the limit state of bearing is specified in Section 13.10. Because
the material strength of a bolt is greater than that of the material it is bearing on, tl1e
on I~ bearing check is for bearing on the material of the connected parts. The Specification
prO\ 1'ion COJh iders two limit states for bearing strength at bolt holes: the limit state based
on ~hear in the material being cOJmected as shown in Figure 10.9c, and the limit state of
matenal cru'>hi ng as shown in Figure 10.9d.
When the clear distance from the edge of the hole to the edge of the part or next hole
is less than 2 umes the bolt diameter, the limit state of shear in the plate material, also
referred to as 1car out . will control. In this case, failure occurs by a piece of m aterial tearing
out of the end of the co1mection as shown in Figure 10.9c or by tearing between holes in
the direction of force. The nominal strength for this failure mode, R11 , is provided by shear
along the two planes. From statics

R11 = (shear strength) (2 planes) (clear distance) (material thickness)

Rn = 0.6F11 (2Lc)f = l.2F11 L cl

318 Chapter I0 Connection Elements

where
0.6F11 = ultimate shear strength of the connected material, ksi
1= thickness of the material, in.
L, = clear edge distance, measured from the edge of the hole
to the edge of the material or the next hole

If the clear distance exceeds 2d, bearing on the connected material will be the controlling
limit state. a:. :,hown in Figure 10.9d. In this case, the limit state is that of hole distortion
and the calculated bolt strength will be

Rn = 2.4dtF11
where
d = bolt diameter
t = connected part thickness
F11 = tensile strength of the connected part

These two expressions are provided in Specification Section 13.10 in a sing le expression as

(10.1)

If deformation at the bolt hole is not a design consideration at service loads, both of these
limit state:, may be increased so that

(10.2)

\Vhen bolts are used in a connection with long slots and the force is perpendicular to the
slot. bolt strength is reduced such thar

(10.3)
As wa- rhe case for bolt shear, the resistance and safety factors for the limit state of bolt
bearing a re

cf> = 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)

10.7.3 Bolt Tension

For the limit state of bolt tension, strengrh is directly based on the tensile strength of the
bolt material. Section 13.6 provides that

and

<b = 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2 .00 (ASD)

where
F11 = tensile stress, F111 • from Specification Table 13.2
Ab = area of the bolt shank

Table 10.4 shows the nominal tensile stress, F, 1 , for bolts taken from Specification Table
J3 .2. Note that there is no distinction for the location of the shear plane, because the bolt is
loaded axially and the limiting stresses occurs over the net tensile area. The area of the bolt
shank is again used and the nominal tensile stress is given as 0.75 F11 •
 10.7 BolrLi mitStates 319

EXAMPLE 10.1 GOAL : Determine the available bolt shear strength.

Bolt Shear Strength
GIVEN: (a) a single 3/ 4 -in. A325N bolt.
(b) a single 7/g-in. A490X bolt.

SOLUTION Part (a) a si ngle % -in. A325N bolt

Step 1: Determine the bolt shank area.

2
-rrd 2
'IT(O. 75) .
Ah =
4 = 4
= 0.442 m.2

Step 2: Determine tl1e nominal shear StTess.

For an A325 bolt

F,. = 120ksi

and for the threads included (N)

F,,. =OAF,= 0.4(120) = 48 ksi

Step 3: For LRFD, <l> = 0.75 and the design strength is

I <J>r, = 0.75(48)(0.442) = 15.9 kips I

Step 3: For ASD, Q = 2.00 and the allowable strength is

I
~ = (48)(0.442) = 10.6 kips
Q 2.00

Part (b ) a single -~~ -in. A.f90X bolt

Step 1: Determine the bolt shank area.

- 'Tid2 - 1T(0.875)2 - 0 60 =
Ab - - - - . I tn.
4 4

Step 2: Determine the nominal shear stress.

For an A490 bolt

F,. = l50 ksi

and for the threads excluded (X)

F,,. = 0.5 F11 = 0.5(150) = 75 ksi

320 Chapter 10 Cmmection Elements

Step 3: For LRFD. <P = 0.75 and the design strength is

<t>r11 = 0.75(75)(0.601) = 33.8 kips

Step 3: For ASD. Q = 2.00 and the allowable strength is

l'n (75)(0.601) .
-
Q
=
2.00
= 22.5 kips

Manual Table 7-1 provides single-bolt strength values for a wide range of bolt sizes and
strengThs .

EXAMPLE 10.2 GOAL: Determine the available shear and bea1ing strength for a four-bolt connection.
Lap Splice Connection
Strength GIVEN: A lap joint using 1h -in. A36 plates is g iven in Figure I0.1 0. Use (a) 7j 8 -in. A325X bolt~
and (b)- ,-in. A325N bolts.

SOLUTION Part (a! , -in. A325X bolts

S tep 1: Detennine the nominal shear strength.

F"' = 0.5( 120) = 60 ksi

A,, = 0.60 1 in. 2
1'11 = (60)(0.60 1) = 36.1 kips

Step 1: For LRFD, the design shear strength for a s ingle bolt is

d>r" = 0.75(36.1) = 27.1 kips

Step 3: Forth~ four bolts in shear

<j>R, = 4(27 .1) = 108 kips

I
I
0 0 I
I
> I
p- I "' ---- p
I
I
0 0 I
I
I

1.5 in.-l I
I 2.5 Ill.
[- 1.5 in. Figure 10.10 Lap Joint for Example
10.2.
 l 0.7 Bolt Lirnit States 321

Step 2: For ASD, the allowable shear strength for a single bolt is

~ = (
36 1
' ) = l8.lki s
Q 2.00 p

Step 3: For the four bolts in shear

-R"
Q
.
= 4( 18.1 ) = 72.4 kipS

S tep -t: Determine the nominal beanng strength.

The clear distance from the bolt hole to the end of the member

Lc = 1.5- ( ~ )u/ 8 + II 16) = 1.03 < 2d = 2(7 8l = 1.75 in.

and between holes in the direction of force

L, = 2.5 - (7/ R+ 1/ 16) = 1.56 < 2d = 2(7/8) = 1.75 in.

In both cases, because the clear distance is less than two bolt diameters. tear-out comrols.
Thus. for each end bolt

r11 = 1.2(58)(1.03)(0.5) = 35.8 kips

and for eacb interior bolt

rn = 1.2(58)( 1.56)(0.5) = 54.3 kips

Step 5: For LRFD, the design bearing strength for four bolts in beaii..ng (tear out)

<jJR 11 = 0.75(2(54.3) + 2(35.8)) = 135 kips

Step 5: For ASD, the allowable bearing strength for four bolls in bearing (tear out)

R11 _ (2(54.3) + 2(35.8)) _ k.

- - - 90.l IpS
Q 2.00

Step 6: Determine the final connection strength.

The connection strength is the lowest value of s trength for the limit states of bolt shear
or bolt bearing; thus, the final connection bolt strength is

For LRFD

<jJR11 = I 08 kips for the limit state of bo lt shear

322 Chapter 10 CotmectiOn Elements

For ASD

~· = 72.4 kips for the limit state of bolt shear

7
Part (b) / 8 -in. A325\T bolts
Step 1: Determine the nominal shear strength.
Fm = 0.4( 120) = 48 ks i
A11 = 0.601 in 2
r, = !-1-8)(0.601) = 28.8 kips

Step 2: For LRFD, the design shear stTcngth for a single bolt is

<j>r , = 0 75(28.8) = 2 1.6 kips

Step 3: For the four bolts in shear

<bR, = 4(21.6) = 86.4 kips

Step 2: For ASD. the allowable shear strength for a single bolt is
r, (28.8) .
n =
2.oo = 14.4 kips

S tep 3: For the four bolts in shear

R,
Q = 4( 14.4) = 57.6kips

Step 4: Determine the nominal bearing strength.

For bearing. the location of the threads is not a factor; thus, the bearing strength is again
135 kip for LRFD and 90.1 kips for ASD. and the connection bolt strength is still controlled
by bolr shear.

Step 5: For LRFD. the design stre ngth is

<j>R11 = 86.4 kips

Step 5: For ASD , the allowable strength is

R" .
Q = 57.6klps
 10.7 Bolt Limit States 323

EXAMPLE 10.3 GOAL: Derennine the available strength of the bolts in the burr splice connection shown in Figure
Butt Splice Connection LO.ll.
Strength
GIVE:\: L" ,e YJ-in. A490N bolts and A36 plates.

SOLUTION Step 1: Detem1ine bolt nominal shear 'trength.

F111 = 0.4( 150) = 60 ksi

rib = 0.442 in.2
r, = (60)(0.442) = 26.5 kips

Step 2: For LRFD. determine the design shear strength.

For a single bolt in single shear

<j:>r, = 0.75(26.5) = 19.9 kips

For the four bolts in double shear

<DR,. = 4(2( 19.9)) = 159 kips

Step 2: For ASD, determine the allowable shear strength.

For a single bolt in single shear
26 5
0!_ = ( · ) = 13.3 kips
Q 2.00
For the four bolts in double shear

~· = 4(2( 13.3)) = 106 kips

Step 3: Determine the no1ninal strength for bearing.

With the arrangement of plates shown. the bearing strength is controlled by the middle
plate with a thickness of 1h in. For bearing. detem1ine the clear distance from the bolt hole

I I 2 in.
3fs in.
p--+ Tt : I I I I t: I
_l_

3fs in.
+- p
I I
0 0 I I 0 0
I I
p- ... I
I
I
I
~ p
I I
0 0 I I 0 0
I I

J 1/
4 in.~ 3 in.
~I 1f4 in

Figure 10.11 Butt Joint for Example I0.3.

324 Chapter I0 Connection Elements

ro the end of the member

L,. = 1.25- G )<3/4 + II 16) = 0.844 < 2d = 2(3/4) = 1.50 in.

and between holes in the direction of force

L,. = 3.0 - (3/4 + 1/ 16) = 2.19 > 2d = 2(3/4) = 1.50 in.

Thus. the cleat· distance is less than two bolt diameters for the end bolt and tear-out
controls. But, between holes the clear distance is greater than two bolt diameters and
bearing controls.
Thu . for each end bolt

r11 = 1.2(58)(0.844)(0.5) = 29.4 kips

and for each interior bolt

r 11 = 2.-H3/ -l)(0.5)(58) = 52.2 kips

Thus. for the four bolts in bearing (tear-out), the nominal strength is

R 11 = (2(29.4) + 2(52.2)) = 163 ki ps

Step -l: For LRFD, the design bearing strength is

<j>R11 = 0.75( 163) = 122 kips

Step 4: For ASD, the allowable strength for bearing is

R11 163 .
-Q = -2 .00 = 81.5 ktps

Step 5: Determine the final connection strength.

The connection strength is determined by the lowest of bolt shear strength or bolt
bearing strength: thus, the final connection strength based on the Iimit state of bolt bearing is

For LRFD

<j> R, = 122 kips

For ASD

R,
- = 8 1.5 kips
Q
 10.7 Bolt Limit States 325

10.7.4 Slip
The limit state of slip is associated with connections that are referred to as slip-critical. Slip-
critical connections are permitted to be designed to prevent slip either as a serviceability limit
state or at the required strength limit state. They should be used only when the connection
is subjected to fatigue or the connection has oversized holes or slots parallel ro the direction
of load. In any case, the connection must also be checked for strength as a bearing type
connection by the methods discussed in the previous sections. The nominal strength of a
single bolt in a sli p-critical connection is given in Specification Section J3.8 as
R11 = J.LD"hscThNs
where
J.L = mean s lip coefficient = 0.35 for Class A surfaces with other values found in
Specification Section J3.8
D11 = 1.13
hsc = 1.0 for standard-size holes with other values found in Specification Section J3.8
Nr = number of slip planes
Tb = minimum bolt tension specified
For connections in which slip prevention is a serviceability limit state
cj) = 1.00 (LRFD) Q = 1.50 (ASD)
and for connections in which slip prevention is required at the strength level
cj) = 0.85 (LRFD) Q = 1.76 (ASD)
Detailed use of the slip-critical connection is not addressed here. Examples of slip-critical
connection design can be found in the AISC Manual Companion CD, Section II.

10.7.5 Combined Tension and Shear in Bearing-Type Connections

When bolts are subjected to simulta neous shear and tension, Specification Section J3.7
provides a nominal tensile s!Tess modified to include the effects of shearing stress, F/r 1 , to
be used in determining the nominal bolt tensile strength such that
R11 = F,; 1 Ab
and
cj) = 0. 75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)

When the required stress in either shear or tension is less than or equaJ to 20% of the
corresponding available stress, the effects of the combined stresses can be ignored. If both
required stresses exceed this 20% limit, the modified tensile stress is given as
I Fill -r
Fill = 1.3FIII- - .~ •. :::Fill
Fn-
where
F111 = nominal tensile stress when only tension occurs
Fn•·
Fn = available shear stress, cj}F11 ,. for LRFD or Q for ASD
F111• = nominal shear stress when only shear occurs
f,. = required shear stress. either for LRFD or ASD
326 Chapter 10 Connection Elements

10.8 WELDS
Welding is a process of joining steel by melting additional me tal into the joint between
the two pieces to be joined. The ease with which various types of s-teel can be joined by
welding, without exhibiting cracks and other flaws, is called weldahility. Most structural
steels used today accept welding without the occurrence of unwanted defects. The American
Welding Society (AWS) defines weldability as "the capacity of a metal to be welded under
fabrication conditions imposed, into a specific, suitably designed structure and to perform
satisfactorily in the intended service.''
Weldability depends primarily on the chemical composition of the steel and the thick-
ness of the material. The impact on weldability of the various chemical elements in the
composition of steel was discussed in Chapter 3.

10.8.1 Welding Processes

For structural steel. the four most popular welding processes and their abbreviations as
designated by AWS are

Shielded !\leta! Arc (SMAW)

Submerged Arc (SAW)
Gas Shielded Metal Arc (GMAW)
Flux Cored Arc (FCAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is one of the oldest welding processes. It is often
called manual or stick welding. Figure l 0.1 2a is a sche matic re presentation ofth is welding
process. A high voltage is induced betwee n an electrode and the metal pieces that are to be
joined. The electrode is the source of the metal introduced into the joint to make the weld.
lt is called the consumable electrode. When the welding operator strikes an arc between
the electrode and the base m etal, the resulting flow of current melts the electrode and the
base metal adjacent to it. The electrode is coated with a special ceramic material called flux.
This flux protects the molten metal from absorbing hydrogen and other impUiities during
the welding proce ·s. When the metal cools, a permanent bond exists between the electrode

Electrode coating
Electrode Flux Lube

Molten
Flux pool
Base

(a) SMAW (b) SAW

Figure 10.12 (a) Shielded Metal A rc Welding; (b) Submerged Arc Welding.
 I0.8 Welds 327

material and the base material. Because the flux cools at a different rate than the metal. it
separates from the weld and is easily removed from the joint.

Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

Suhmer[fed Arc Welding (SAW) is an automatic or semi-automatic proce:,s that is used
primaril) when long pieces of plate are to be joined. It is shown schematically in Figure
I 0.1 2b. SAW welds must be made in the near flat or horizontal position. The flux is a granular
material introduced through a flexible tube on top of the e lectric arc. It is an econom ical
process for applications in which repetitive and automated fabrication procedures lend
efficiency to the work.

Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding (GMAW) is a process in whic h a continuous wire is red
into the joint to be welded . The molten metal is protected from the atmosphere by gas
su1Tounding the wire. When used in tl1e field, it is necessary to ensure that wind does not
blow the gas away from the joint. This is the method often referred to as MIG welding for
its use of inert gasses.

F lux Cor ed Arc Welding

Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) is also a continuous wire process, except that the wire is
essentially a thin hollow tube, filled with flux that protects the metal as the wire melts. It
can be arranged as a semi-automatic process, and exceptionally high production rates can
be attained.

10.8.2 Types of ·welds

Four basic types of welds are used in steel construction, including fillet welds, groove welds,
plug welds, and slot welds. Fillet and g roove welds are shown in Figure 10.13. Plug and
slot welds fill a hole or s lot with weld material to attach one piece to another.
Figure J 0.13a shows a fillet weld. The leg of the weld is measured along the interface
between the weld metal and the base metal. The tlu-oat of the weld is the shortest dimension
of the weld. Because most fillet welds are symmetricaL with a 45-degree surface, the throat

-15"

(a) Fillet weld

Leg
dimen,ion Backup bar
(b) Complete penetration groo\'e weld
t (c) Partial penetration groove weld
Figure 10.13 Fillet and Groove Welds in Section.
328 Chapter I 0 Connection Elements

Fillet
"elds

Hori10ntal po"uon Vertical position Overhead position

Figure 10.14 Terminology for Fillet and Groo\c Weld Positions.

is 0.707 times the leg dimension as shO\\ n. The size of a filler weld is given by its leg
dimension. in increments of 1/16 in.
A groove weld can be either a complete joint penetration groove weld (CJP), as shown
in Figure I 0.1 3b. or a partial joint penetration groove weld (P1P). as shown in Figure I 0. L3c.
Both type~ of groove welds have been prequalified by AWS. Th is prequalification means
that certain weld configurat ions. including the root opening. R; the angle of preparation, a:
and the <!ffective thickness. S. are deemed to be practical to build and wi ll carry the intended
load. AWS specifies provisions for prequalifying any weld configuration if circumstances
indicate that it is practical. These prequalitied complete and partial joint penetration groove
weld<; are shown in detail in Manual Table 15-2. The configurations shown in Figure .10.13
are schematic representations.
Both fillet welds and groove welds can be laid down in a variety of different positions
depending on the orientation of the pieces to be joined. The tenninology fo r these positions
is shown in Figure I 0.14.

10.8.3 Weld Sizes

Specification Section 12 addresses effective areas and sizes for welds. The effective dimen-
sions of groove welds are given in Specification Tables 12.1 and 12.2. The effective areas
of fillet welds are gi\en in Specification Section J2.2. The minimum sizes for fillet welds
are based on the thinner of the parts being joined and are given in Specification Table J2.4.
The maximum size of fillet welds for material less than 1/-1-in. thick is the thickness of the
material. whereas for material 1j,.-in. thick or greater. the maximum size is the material
thickness less 1/1 6 in.

10.9 WELD LIMIT STATES

The onJy limit state to be considered for a weld is that of rupture. Yielding of the weld metal
will occur but it occurs over such a short distance that it is not a factor in connection behavior.
Strain hardening occurs and rupture takes place without excessive yielding deformation.
The ultimate tensile strength of an electrode may vary from 60 to 120 ksi, depending
on the specified composition. AWS classifies electrodes accord ing to the tensile strength of
 10.9 Weld Limit States 329

Table 10.5 Matching Weld Electrodes for Commonly Used Steels

Steel Minimum SAW matching
Group specification yield strength electrode strength
1 A36 36 E60 or E70
A 53 35
A500 Gr A 33
A500 Gr B -12
A501 36
A529 ..Q

ll A572 Gr42 42 E70

A574 Gr 50 50
A588 50
A61 8 46--50
A9 13 50
A992 50
1\' A852 70 E90

the '' eld metal and indicates electrode strength as FExx. Tn this notation, theE represents
the electrode and the XX represents the tensile strength. Thus, a typical electrode used to
weld .-\992 steel would have a strength of 70 ksi and be designated as an E70 electrode.
.-\\\'S and AISC specify that for a panicular grade of structural steel, as indicated by
yield ... rrengrh. there is a matching electrode. Table 10.5 shows the matching electrodes for
common!~ used steels. Both organizations furthe r speci fy that the steel can be joined by
welding only with the match ing electrode or one that is no mo re than one grade higher. This
i~ to encou rage y ielding in the base metal before it occurs in the weld.

10.9.1 Fillet Weld Strength

For a fi Uet weld as shown in Figure 10.13a, load is transferred by shear through the throat
of the \\eld and the weld rupture strength is a function of the properties of the electrode.
Shear -,.trength provisions for welds are found in Specification Section J2.4 and Table J2.5
\\here

Rn = F,..An·

<!> = 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)

and

F.. = nominal strength of the weld metal per unit area= 0.6F£xx
4,. = effective area of the weld
Fn-.; =weld e lectrode classification number, the weld strength

Because the limit state of all fillet welds is one of shear ruptme through the throat, the
effecti\'e area of the weld is the width of the weld at the throat, 0.707w, times the length of
the weld. L. o that

A,..= 0.707wL
330 Chapter 10 Connection Elements

The resulting nominal weld strength is

R11 = 0.6F~:.xx(0.707wL)

For the most commonly used electrode, FExx = 70 ksi, the design strength for LRFD
can be determined as
<!>R, = 0.75(0.6(70))(0.707wL) = 22.27w/

and the allowable strength for ASD can be determined as

R11 = (0.6(70))(0.707wL) = _ wl
14 85
Q 2.0

It is convenient in design to use the fillet weld strength for a fillet weld with a 1/win. leg,
which gives

Design strength for LRFD

1
<j>R 11 = 22.27w/ = 22.27 ( / ) (1.0) = I .392 kips per / 16 of weld per in. of length
6

Allowable strength for ASD

-Rn = 14.85w/
Q
. = 14.85 ( -
16
1)
(1.0) .
= 0.928 ktps per 1j 16 of weld perm.
.
ol• length

Therefore, a 1/ 4 -in. fillet weld has a design strength of 1.392 x 4 (sixteenths) = 5.57 kips
per inch of length and an allowable strength of 0.928 x 4 (sixteenths)= 3.71 kips per inch
of length.
When an in-plane load is applied to a fillet weld at an angle other than along the length
of the weld, more strength is available than given by these calculations. The Specification
provides an alternative for the weld nominal stress, based on the angle of the load to the
longitudinal axis of the weld. Thus

F,.. = 0.60FEXx(I .O + 0.5 sinl.5 0)

where
e= angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis
This strength equation is intended to be used for welds or weld groups in which all elements
are in line or parallel. When welds with different orientations are combined in the same
joint, defonnarion of these different welds must be accounted for. Specification Section
J2 provides two alternate approaches for combining welds that are nor in line or parallel.
The simplest case is for concentrically loaded fillet weld groups consisting of elements
that are both longitudinal and transverse to the direction of the applied load. For this case,
the nominal weld strength is taken as the larger of the simple sum of the welds without
considering orientation, given by

R 11 = R\1', +R...,
 10.9 Weld Limit States 331

or
R11 = 0.85 Rwt + 1.5R 11 . ,

where
R.,, = nominal strength of the longitudinally loaded weld without considering the angle
of load
R", = nominal strength of the transversely loaded weld w ithout considering the angle
of load

EXAMPLE 10.4 GOAL: Determine the available strength of the three welds g iven in Figure I 0.15.
Weld Strength and
Load Angle GIYE:'\: J
The welds are 4 -in. welds, 8.0 in. lo ng. and loaded (a) along the length of the weld.
(b) tran-.,er~elyto the weld. and (c) at a -l5-degree angle to the weld. Use E70 electrodes.

SOLUTION Part (a ) Weld loaded along its length

Step I: Detennine the number of 1j 1, units for the given weld.
A % -in. weld is twelve 1j 16 -in. units across the leg.
Step 1: O<!termine the strength of the weld when loaded a long its length.
T he strength values already discussed can be used because the weld is loaded along its
length.

For LRFD

<I>R" = 8.0( 12)(1.392) = 134 kips

For ASD

!!.!:_ = 8.0(12)(0.928) = 89.1 kips

Q

Part !b) Weld loaded at 90 degrees to the weld length

Step 1: Determine the nominal weld strength using the a lternate strength equation to account for
the angle of load.

F.,. = (0.60Fexx)(l.O + 0.5 sin L58)

= (0.60Pt:xx )( 1.0 + 0.5 sin 1.5 (90)) = (0.60FEXX )(1 .5)

Therefore, the strength of the weld is increased by 1.5 over what it is when the load is along
the weld. Thus

~------'- p
8T~1n . ..,._ p <:~i!> -p

~-Sin.--] _l__ 45°

(aJ (b) (c)

Figure 10.15 Welds for Example l 0.4.

332 Chapter I0 Connection Elements

Step 2: For LR FD. the design strength i~

d>R. = 1.5( 134) = 201 kips

Step 2: For AS D. the allowable strength i~

R
~· = !.5(89. 1) = 134kips

Part (c) Weld loaded at 45 degrees to the welu

Step 1: Detem1ine the nominal weld strength using the alternate strength equation to account for
the angk of load.

F.. = (0.60F£x.d( 1.0 - 0.5 sin 1 '(45)) = (0.60FExx)( l.30)

Therefore. the strength of the weld i~ increased by 1.30 over what it is when the load is
along the weld. T hus

I Step 2: For LRFD. the design strength is

<PR, = 1.30(1341 = 174kips

S tep 2: For ASD, the allowable strength is

R,
Q = 1.30(89.1) = 116 kips

EXAMPLE lO.Sa
GOAL: Determine the de,ign mength for C-shapcd welds.
Weld Strength and Load
Angle by LRFD
GIVEN: A C-shaped weld group is shown in Figure I 0.16 to attach a tension plate to a gusset.
Use E70 electrodes and a %-in. '~cld.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the design strength for the two 2.0-in. welds paraUcl to the load.

<I>R,.t = 2(2.0){ 14)( 1.392) = 78.0 kips

Step 2 : Determi.n e the de~ign sn·ength for the 6.0-in. weld transverse to the load.

¢R" 1 = 6.0(14)(1.392) = 117kips

 I0.9 Weld Limit States 333

- p

Figure 10.16 C-Shaped Weld for Example I0.5.

tep 3: Determine the connection design strength by adding the strength based on length of the
weldls.

<hR, = 78.0 + 117 = 195 kips

tep 4: Determine the design strength considering the added contribution of the transverse welds
while reducing the contribution of the longitudinal welds so th<H

<f>R11 = 0.85(78.0) + I. 5( 117) = 242 kips

rep 5: Determine the weld strength by se lecting the largest from Steps 3 or 4.

<f> R, = 242 kips

EXAMPLE lO.Sb
GOAL: Detennine the design strength for C-shaped welds.
Weld Strength and Load
Angle by ASD GnE": A C-shaped weld group is shown in Figure 10.16 to attach a tension plate to a gusset.
Cse E~O electrodes and a 7/ 8 -in. weld.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the allowable strength for lhe two 2.0-in. welds parallel to the load.

nR..,, = 2(2.0)(14)(0. 928) = 52.0 ktps

.
Step 2: Determine the allowable strength for the 6.0-in. we ld transverse to the load.

R~, = 6.0(14)(0.928) = 78.0 kips

Step 3: Determine the connection allowable strength by add.ing the strength based on length
of the welds.
R,
Q = 52.0 + 78.0 = 130 kips
334 Chapter I 0 Connection Elements

Step 4: Determine the allowable strength considering the added contribution of the transverse
welds while reducing the contribution of tbe longitudinal welds so that

~· = 0.85(52.0) + 1.5(78.0) = 16 1 kips

Step 5: Detemune the weld strength by selecting the largest from Steps 3 or 4.

Rn
- = 161 kips
n

10.9.2 Groove Weld Strength

A groove weld can be either a complete or partial joint penetration weld as shown in F igures
I 0.1 3b and c. T he complete joint penetration grove weld (CJ P) is not designed in the usual
sense because the weld metal is always stronger than the base metal when properly matching
electrodes are used. T herefore, the strength or the base metal controls the design.
In the case of a complete joint penetration groove weld, the nominal strength of the
tension joint is the product of the yie ld strength of the base material and the cross-sectional
area of the c;mallest piece joined. The nominal so·ength of a partial joint penetration groove
weld in a tension joint is similar except that the full cross-sectional area of the joined pieces
is not effective. ln this case, AWS defines an effective throat dimension, S, which is a
function of the configuration of the bevel as shown in Figure 10.13c and Manual Table 8-2.

10.10 CONNECTING ELEMENTS

The plates, angles, and other elements that go into making up a connection are called
connecting elements. They, along with the region of the members actually involved in
the connection, are treated in Specification Section J4. T here are provisions for tension,
comp ression. shear, and block shear. T here are no special provisions for connecting elements
in flexure.

10.10.1 Connecting Elements in Tension

Although the Specification addresses tension in connecting e lements in Section J4. 1, it does
not alter the basic tension provisions found in Specification Chapter D. This means that two
limit states are to be considered. the limit state of yielding and the limit state of rupture.
Again. for the tension limit states. the resistance and safety factors are different for the two
limit states so any comparison of strength must be made at the design or allowable strength
level. The design strength is given by <j)R, and the allowable strength by R11 jQ, as has been
the case throughout the Specification. For the limit state of yielding of connecting elements

R, = FyAg
<j) = 0 .90 (LRFD) Q = 1.67 (ASD)

For the limit state of rupture of connecting elements

cp = 0 .75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)

 I 0.10 Connecting Element~ 335

The definitjon of terms are the same as for all other tension members previously considered
except for the requirement that the effective net area, Ae, for bolted splice plates may not
be taken greater than 0.85Ag, regardless of the area deducted for holes.

10.10.2 Connecting Elements in Compression

Most connecting e lements in compression are relatively short and have a fairly small s len-
derness ratio. ln addition. determination of the appropriate effective length factor requires
appl ication of significant engineering j udgment, usually amounting to making an educated
guess for an appropri ate factor. With this in mind, and in order to simplify connection design
some\\ hat. the Specification provides, in Section J4.4, a simple relation fo r the compres-
si,·e '>lrengrh of connecting elements if the slenderness ratio is less than 25. For this case,
P = F A ~ and the resistance and safety factors are the same as for other compression
members as

<j> = 0.90 (LRFD ) &1 = L.67 (ASD)

lf the slenderness ratio of the compression element is greater than 25, the element must be
destgned according to the column provisions of Specification Chapter E.

10.10.3 Connecting Elements in Shear

\!ember design for shear requires the consideration of the limit states of shear yielding and
-,hear buckling. Connecting elements and the portion of members affected by the connection
must be checked forthe limit states of shear yielding and shear rupture. Shear yielding occurs
on the gross area of the e lement whereas shear rupture occurs on a section containing holes.
Thu~. for shear yielding of the element

R11 = 0.6FyAg
<j> = I .00 (LRFD) Q = L.50 (ASD)

The resistance and safety factors for this case are the same as those for the spec ial case of
rol led I-shaped members g iven in Specification Section G2. I.
For the limit state of shear rupture

R11 = 0.6F11 A111•

<j> = 0.75 ( LRFD) &1 = 2.00 (ASD)

\\here
-\ = net area subjected to shear
As\\ a-.. the ca::.e for tension rupture, the net area is determined by removing the area of holes
from the gro' ' area.

10.10.4 Block Shear Strength

The limit -..tate of block shear rupture can occur on the connectin g e lements or the affected
mem ber;. It I ' a complex failure mode that combines shear and tens ion failures into a single
mode o f failure. Block shear was discussed in Section 4.7 as it pertained to tension members
because it 1:-. a maJor facto r in deter mining tension member strength. It can also be a factor
in derennining the mength of a beam end reaction, depending on the connection geometry.
Thus, it is re peated here. The nominal strength for the limit state of block shear rupture is

R11 = 0.6F11 A111• + UbsF 11 A111 :S: 0.6FyA.F + U11sF11 A111

336 Chapter 10 ConneLiion Elements

Beam

Sh.:M
Jr.: a

Tensile
area

~T
(al (bl

Figure I 0.17 E\ample Block Shear Failure.

where
A g,· = gros o;;hear area
A,, = net tension area
A,,. = net shear area
U1" = 1.0 for uniform tension stress distribution and Ubs = 0.5 for nonuni form tension
stress
The resi ranee and safety factors for the limit state of block shear rupture are again
<I>= 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)

Figure I0.17 sbows a single-angle tension member attached to a gusset plate and a coped
beam end with the holes located in a single line. The tension area and shear area arc identified
for each and the area that would tear out is shaded.

(a) Welded angle (b) S ingle-row beam (c) Angle ends (d) Gusset plates
\!nd connections
Cases for which Ubs = 1.0

(c) Multiple-row beam

end connec tions

Cases for which Ubs = 0.5

Figure 10.18 Block Shear Tensile Stress Distribution.

 I 0.10 Connecting Elements 337

A review of the block shear equation given on page 336 shows that the expected failure
mode will always include tension rupture whereas the shearfailure mode will be the smaller
of the shear rupture or shear yield. As noted on page 336, the tension stress disu·ibution factor.
Uils · is a function of the variation of the tension stress over the tension area. Figure l 0.18
shows several clements and the corresponding assumed tensi le stress distribution. The only
case identified by the Commentary where the tensile stress distribution is not unifom1 is
that of a coped beam with two rows of bolts. as shown in Figure I0. 18e.

EXAMPLE 10.6 GOA L: Detem1ine the block shear design strength and allowable strength for a coped beam.
Block Shear Strength
G I VEN: A coped W16x40. A992 beam end is shown in Figure 10.19. Assume that the beam has
,tandard holes for %-in. bolts.

SOLUTION Step I: Determine the gross and net shear areas and net tension area for the beam.
Remember from the discu~sion of net area for tension members that for net area. an
additional 1/ 16 in. must be deducted to account for any hole damage from the punching
operation.

A 8 , = 11 .0(0.305) = 3.36 in. 2

A,, = 111.0 - 3.5(5/8 + l/8)1(0.305) = 2.55 in. 2
A 111 = [4.25- 1.5(5/8 + l/8)J(0.305) = 0.953 in. 2

Step 2: Determ ine the shear yield and rupture strength and the tension rupture stre ngth.
For this geometry. the tensile ~tress distribution is nonunifoml; therefore. u!J.I = 0.5.
Shear Yield = 0.6(50)(3.36) = I0 l k ips
Shear Rupture = 0.6(65)(2.55) = 99.5 kips
Tension Rupture = 0.5(65)(0.953) = 31.0 kips
Step 3: Dctennine the nominal block shear strength.
Because shear wpturc is less than shear yield. combine the she<U' rupture with the tensile
rupture. Thus

R11 = (99.5 + 31.0) = 131 kips

3 in.
1 1/~ in. - --<

I )
-'-
3 111.
-.-
::Ill.
0 0
I
I

I
l

r"'
I

I- 0 0
I
area
;>-
3 in. I
I

-'- 6I
3 in. • 0
I
I
_l_ -{)--6

'-----y----J
Tension area Figure 10.19 Coped Beam End for Example I0.6.
338 Chapter I 0 Connection Elements

Step 4: For LRFD. the design strength i~

<I>R, = 0.75( 131) = 98.3 kips

Step 4: For ASD, the allowable strength is

Rn (131) .
Q = 2 _00 = 65.5 ktpS

10.11 PROBLEMS
l. Develop a table showing the nominal shear strength for 8. Determine the available strength of the ';4 -in. A325-X bolts
A325-N bolts for the follov. ing ~izes: ' \. :; .~ . / 8 • and I in. in the lap splice shown for Problem 7. with two 1h-in. A36
2. Develop a table shovving the nominal shear strength for plates. Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable
A325-X bolts for the foliO\\ ing ~iLe~: 'l~ . >;.~. 7/ 8 • and 1 in. strength by ASD.

3. Develop a table showing the nominal shear strength for 9. Determine the available strength of the 7/H-in. A325-N bolts
A490-N bolts for the following sizes: % . 3/ 4 • 7/g. and I in. in the lap splice shown for Problem 7. with two ~2 -in. A36
plates. Derennine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable
4. Develop a table showing the nominal shear strength for
strength by ASD.
Y
A490-X bolts for the following size~: 5k 4 . 7/g. and I in.
10. Determine the available strength of the 7/H-in. A490-N bolts
5. Develop a table showing the design \.hear strength for A325-
in the lap splice shown with two % -in. A36 plates. Detem1ine (a)
N. A325-X, A490-N. and A490-X bolt~ for the following sizes:
design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD.
%. 3/4 . 7/s. and
I in.
6. Develop a table showing the allowable 1>hear strength for
A325-N. A325-X, A490-N, and A490-X bolts for the fo llowing
sizes:% .%.%. and I in.
7. Determine the available strength of the %-in. A325-N bolts
in the lap splice shown wirh two 1/2-in. A36 plate'i. Derctmine
(a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable strength b) ASD.
2inT-
2ini .._!>

1/! in.-1
0 0
I
I
0 0
I
I
I
I
I

!--1
<--

1/2 in.
-
3 Ill. I
~.

.) Ill. 3 ln.
PlO.lO

2in+ I
I 11. Determine the available strength of the 7/ 8-in. A490-X bolts

-
0 0 0 I
I in the lap splice shown for Problem 10 with two % -in. A36
3in.- ~
I ...
I plates. Determine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allow-

2in± 0 0 0 I
I
I
able strength by ASD.
12. Determine the available strength oft he j 4 - in. A325-N bolts
L 1/4 in.--J
3m. 3111.
l-1 tj4 in. in the butt splice shown with two 1h -in. side plates and a l-in.
main plate. Use A36 plates. Determine (a) design strength by
Pl0.7 LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD.
 I0. 11 Problem~ 339

1/2 in. 1/ 2 in.

~F±~~ ====-c:::::::::==================::::::::r---------"}
I in.

I I
0 0 0 0 0 0

-
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I I
0 0 0 I I 0 0 0
I I
I I J I l I
1 1/4 in.--j I
I
II I .I I II
I
II I 1 -J I/4 in.
3111. 3111. 3 111. 3 111.

I 1/4 in.
Pl0.12

13. Determine the available strength of the four 3/ 4 -in. A325-N IS. Determine the available strength of the six % -in. A325-N
bolts in the single L3 x 3 x 1h A36 when the bo lts are placed as bolts in a 7- x % -in. A36 plate when the bolts are placed as
shown. Determine (a) design sn-ength by LRFD and (b) allow- shown. Detem1ine (a) design stre ngth by LRFD and lbl allow-
able strength by ASD. able strength by ASD.

0 0
1 1/~ in.

0 0
I
- 0 0 0 0
- PlO.lS
3 in. 3 in.

16. Determine the available strength of the eight YJ-in. A490-

N bolts in a WT6 x 20, A992 steel plate\\ hen the bolts are placed
as shown. Dete mline (a) design strength b) LRFD and (b) al-
lowable strength by ASD.
P10.13

14. Detem1ine the available strength of the tlu·ee 'l4 -in. A325-N
bolts in the single 1Ax3x Y~ A~6 \\hen the bolts are placed as
--.f- t -0 0 0 0

--
shown. Dete rmine (a) design "trength b) LRFD <Jnd (b) allow-
ab le strength by ASD. 5 1/ 2 in. ::::::: ::::: :::: :>
l
_.__-t-O 0 0

-- Pl0.16
3 in. 3 in. 1 3 in. 1

17. Determine the available strengU1 o f two % -in. welds that

Pl0.14 are loaded para llel to their length, are 10 in. long, and are made
340 Chapter lO Connection Elements

from E70 electrodes. Determine (a) design strength by LRFD 24. Determine the available block shear strength for a coped
and (b) allowable strength by ASD. W21 x 182, A992 beam with holes for 3/ 4 -in. bolts as shown. De-
18. Determine the available strength of two 1/.1-in. welds that telmine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable strength
are loaded parallel to their length. are 8 in. long. and made from by ASD.
E70 e lectrodes. Determine (a) clesiJ:,rn strength by LRFD and
(b) a llowable strength by ASD.
19. lfrhe welds of Problem 17 were loaded at the ir centroid and U__
at 90 degrees to the weld length. determine (a) design strength I 1/4 in.
0 0
by LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD. 3 in.
20. If the welds of Problem 18 were loaded at their centroid and 0 0
at 45 degrees to the weld length, detem1ine (a) de ign strength 3 in.
0 0 W2lxl82
by LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD.
3 in.
21. Three 1!4-in. welds are grouped to fom1 a C and are loaded
at their centroid. Detem1ine the available weld strength if the
single transverse weld is 9 in. and the two longitudinal welds are
each 3 in. Use E70 electrodes. Determine (a) design strength by
l 1/J in.
0

w 0

LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD.

P10.24
22. Repeat Problem 21 with the transver1>e weld at 3 in. and
the two longitudinal welds at 9 in. each. Detennine (a) design
strength by LRFD and (b) allowable strength by ASD. 25. Detem1ine the available block shear strength for a coped
23. Detennine the available block shear strength for a coped W24x l..f6. A992 beam with holes for :Y4 -in. bolts as shown. De-
Wl6x26, A992 beam with holes for :YJ-in. bolts as s hown. De- termine (a) design strength by LRFD and (b) allowable strength
teJmjne (a) design strength by LRFD a nd (b) allowable strength by ASD.
by ASD.

U__
1 1/2 in.
0 ----,.-
3 in.
0--lf-
3 in.
0--lf- W24xl46
3 in.
O----'L-

~2in.

Pl0.23 Pl0.25
Chapter 11

American Airlines Terminal, JFK International

Airport
Photo courte'y Steven Ranke!. PE.

Simple Connections
11.1 TYPES OF Sl\IPLE CONNECTIONS
Thi' chapter addresses two types of connections, simple beam shear connections and sim-
ple bracing connections. The connecting elements and the connectors required for these
connections have already been discus:-;ed in Chapter I 0. The limit states that control the
connection have also been discussed individual ly, although their link to connection de-
<;ign may not yet be completely clear. Connection design is a combination of element and
connector selection with a checking of all appropriate limit states. The goal is to obtain
a connection with suflkient strength and the appropriate stiffness to carry the load in a
manner consistent with the model used in the structural analysis. ln addition to these simple
shear connections, beam bearing plates and column base plates will be discussed.
The limit states to be considered for a particular connection depend on the connection
element~. the connection geometry. and the load path. They will be identified in the following
sections m. each connection type is considered. A summary of the potential limit states at this
time. hm' e\·er. may prove useful. For bolts. the limit states of tensile rupture, shear rupture,
bearing and tear-out. as well as slip. will be considered. For welds. the only limit state to be
con~itlered i-. shear rupture. although weld group geometry will add some complexity to that
con~ideration. For connecting elements. the limit states are tension yielding and rupture,
comprec;sion buckling. and shear yielding and rupture.
Table 11.1 list~ the sections of the Specification and parts of the Manual discussed in
this chapter.

341
342 Chapter II Simple Connections

Table 11.1 Sections of Specification and Pans of Manual Found in this Chapter

Specification

83 .13 Gross and Net Area Determination

12 Welds
J3 Bolts and Threaded Parts
J~ Affected Elements of Members and Connecting Elements
JIO Flanges and Webs with Concentrated Forces

Manual

Part 7 Design Co nsiderations for Bolts

Part 8 Design Considerations for Welds
Part 9 Design of Connecting Elements
Parr JO Design o f Simple Shear Connections
Part 14 Design of Beam Bearing Plates, Column Base Plates, Anchor Rods, and Column Splices
Part I5 Design o f Hanger Connections, Bracket Plates, and Crane-Rail Connections

11.2 SIMPLE SHEAR CONNECTIONS

A significant variety of potential connection geometries are associated with the various
types o r members to be connected. Five of the most commonly used simple shear con-
nections are described in the following sections with design examples fo llowing. These
connections are shown in Figures 11.1 a through e as: double-angle, single-angle, single-
plate commonly called a shear tab. unstiffened seated, and stiffened seated· connections.
Pan I 0 of the Manual includes many tables that can simplify connection design; how-
eYer. the examples presented here show the required calculations when necessary lo im-
proYe understanding. Once a calculation is sufficiently demonstrated, the Manual tables are
used.
Se\ era! design considerations apply to all of the shear connections to be discussed and
in some case~ to other types of connections. It is helpful ro address these before dealing with
the specific connection. The first issue to consider is the location of the hinge within the
connecti ng elements. It is critical that this hinge can actually occur in the real connection,
because the analytical model of the connection assumes it behaves as a hinge or pin. The
location of the hinge determines what forces and moments, if any, the individual elements
must be designed for. In all cases. the binge is located at the most fiexible point within the
connection. This may be at the face of the supporting member or at some other point with in
the connection. Several general design guidelines help insure that the connection behaves
as desired. In most case~. this means that the hinge occurs at the face of the supporting
member.
For double-angle connections, angle thickness should be limited to a maximum of%
in. The bolts in the outstanding legs, those connecting to the supporting member, should
be spaced at as wide a gage as possible and for welded outstanding legs, the vertical welds
should be spaced as far apat1 as possible. These characteristics insure that the connection
behaves as a simple connection through bending of the outstanding legs.
For simple beam connections, the permitted tolerance for beam length must be consid-
ered. Although this tolerance is not normally a consideration for member design, it becomes
impottatlt when the detai ls of connecting members are considered. Beam length tolerance
 I 1.2 Simple Shear Connections 343

Two angk;.

(a) Double angle

A
v
J ingle plate

~
@
@
@
>
@
'

r-
@

A
y

(b) Single angle (c) Shear tab

II It
It II

'v- II

{ -. -·
I I
I
--I

Alternate
clip
position
A
..,.
( Seat

l ,- Stiffner
Optional
,,:I trim lines
~
(d) Unstiffen~d ~.:ut (e) Stiffened seat
Figure 11.1 Simple Shear Con ne\:tion~.
344 Chapter 11 Simple Connections

is± 1j 4 in . To accommodate this, the beam is assumed to be held back 1h in. from the face
of the supporting member. ln addition, when considering the edge distance from a bolt hole
to the end of the member. the distance used in calculations should be taken as 1j 4 in. less
than that actually derailed.
For welded connections. when a weld would end in the air, as would be the case for
the welds on a shear tab. the effective length of the weld used in the calculations is the weld
length less twice the weld size.
Tt is also helpful to remember the considerations for hole sizes. First, standard holes
are sized 1/ 16 in. larger than the bolt to be inserted. Then, when cunsideting net sections
for the limit states of tension rupture or shear rupture. Specification Section B3.13 re-
quires that an additional 1/J 6 in. be deducted to account for any material damage resulting
from the hole-punching process. When a clear distance is calculated for tbe limit state
of bearing. specifically the tear-out portion or the bearing check. the actual hole size is
used.
These design considerations are used in the examples to follow.

11.3 DOUBLE-ANGLE CONNECTIONS: BOLTED-BOLTED

A double-angle shear connection, as shown in Figure I I .I a. is perhaps the most com-
mon simple "hear connection used in steel construction. It is a fairly simple connection to
fabricate and also a fairly easy connection for erection. When double-angle connections
are Lo be installed back to back, there may be some problems, particularly when the sup-
porting member is a column web. In the case of attachment to a colunm web, the safety
requirements of OSHA call for special attention. One solution is to stagger the double an-
gles. This connection can easily accommodate variation in beam length within acceptable
tolerances.
The double-angle shear connection must be checked for the following limit states,
grouped according to the elements that make up the connection: bolts, beam web, angles,
and upporting member:

1. Bolts
a. Shear rupture
2. Beam
a. Bolt bearing on beam web
b. Shear) ielding of the web
c. Block shear on coped beam web
d. Coped beam flexural strength
3. Angles
a. Bolt bearing on angles
b. Shear rupture
c. Shear yield
d. Block shear
4. Supporting member
a. Bolt bearing

Each of these limit states has been addressed previously in this book. In the examples that
follow. these limit state checks are combined into a complete connection design .
 11.3 Double-Angle Connections: Bolted-Bolted 345

EXAMPLE ll.la
GOAL: Design a bolted-bolted double-angle shear connection for an W 18 x 50 beam.
Bolted-Bolted
Double-Angle Shear GIVEN: The WJ8x50 beam must provide a required strength, R., = 83.0kips. The beam is
Connection by LRFD A992 and the angles are A36. The beam flange is coped 2 in. Use 7/ 8 in. A325-1\ bolts in standard
holes in the legs on the beam web and short slots on the outstanding legs. The basic starting
geometry is given in Figure I 1.2.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the number of bolts required based on the shear rupture of the bolts.
From Manual Table 7 -I. the design strength per bolt is

<j>r, = 21.6 kips

Because the bolts are in double shear. the tota l number of bolts required is
83.0
N = - - = 1.92
2(2 1.6)
Therefore, LTY two bolts.
Step 2: Check the bolt bearing on the web.
For the two-bolt connection. the top bolt is I .25 in. from the beam cope and the
second bolt is spaced 3.0 in. from the first. Determine the clear distances for euch of
these bolts.
For the top bo lt
I
L .. = 1.25 - 2.(7/8 + 1/16) = 0.781 < 2(7/8) = 1.75
Thus. tear-out controls and the nominal bolt strength is

R11 = 1.2(0.781)(0.355)(65) = 21.7 kips

For the second bolt

Lc = 3.0- (7/8 + 1/16) = 2.06 > 2(7/8) = 1.75

Therefore. bearing controls, and the nominal bolt strength is

R, = 2.4(7/8)(0.355)(65) = 48.5 kips

Thus, for the two-bolt connection. the design strength is

cjJR, = 0.75(2 1.7 + 48.5) = 52.7 < 83.0 kips

Therefore. the two-bolt connection will not carry the load.

1in.-
- 4'10.

1--
.,- '.m.
.J
• •' I

]1/~ in.
I
I
I
! 3 in .
I
I
I •13in. Wl8x50

'
I
I

I in. -j ~~/~in. t,. = 0.355 in.

Figure 11.2 Connection Geometry for Example 11.1.

346 Chapter I I Simple Connections

Step 3: Dete1mine the number of bolts required considering bearing.

Adding a third bolt spaced at 3.0 in., as shown in Figure 11.2, gives a connection
design ~trength for bolt bearing of
<t>R,. = 0.75(21.7 + 2(48.5)) = 89.0 > 83.0 kips
Step 4: Consider the outstanding legs of the angles.
A similar calculation should be made for the bolts on the outstanding legs of the
angles that connect to the supporting member. In this case, the bolts are in single shear
but there are twice as many bolts so the load per bolt is half of the load in the bolts in
the beam web. 1f the supporting member thickness is at least one-half of the beam web
thickness and the strengths are the same, the bolts in the supporting member will be
satisfactory. This is the assumed ca~e for this example.
Step 5: Evaluate the minimum depth of the connection.
The beam web connection should be at least half the depth of the beam web measured
as the distance between the fillet'\. T. given in Manual Table 1-1. This requirement
i~ w prevent twisting of the simple supports. For this beam, T = 15 1(2 in. so that
the minimum angle depth should be 73/ 4 in. Thus. the 8 1h-in. long angle will be an
acceptable connection depth.
Step 6: Check shear yield of the beam web.
This is a check that should be carried out during the beam design process. At the
point of connection design it is too late lO be finding out that the beam will not be
adequate. From Manual Table 3-2

<j:>V,, = 192 kips > 83.0 kips

Step 7: Check the beam web for block shear.
The equations for block shear are found in Specification Section J4.3 and were
presented in Section 10.10.4.
First calculate the required areas. remembering to account for the beam length
tolerance in the tension area calculation.

A., = ( ~
1.7:J- I(7
+ J )) (0.355) =
2 8 8
0.444 .tn.-,

A8,. = 7 .25(0.355) = 2.57 in. 2

A.,,. = (
7.25- 2.:J -(7S + 8I)) (0.355) = 1.69m.- .,
Conside-r shear yield and shear rupture and select the least nominal strength. thus
0.6F\'A8 ,. = 0.6(50)(2.57) = 77. 1 kips
0.6F,,A,.. = 0.6(65)(1.96) = 65.9 kips
Selecting the shear rupture term and combining it with the tension rupture term gives a
connection block shear design strength. recalling that U"·'· = 1.0 for the case of uniform
tensile stres~ distribution, we have

<t>R,. = 0.75(65.9 + 1.0(65)(0.444)) = 71.1 < 8J.Okips

Thus, the given three-bolt connection is not adequate with block shear being the critical
limit state to this point in our calculations.
Step 8: Revise the connection to meet the block shear strength requirements.
Consideration could be given to increasing the number of bolts and thereby in-
creasing the length of the connection. However, because bolt shear required only two
bolts, this would not be a particularly economical solution. If the connection were to
be lowered on the beam end so that 1he distance from the center of the top bolt to the
edge of the cope were 2.5 in., the connection would have more block shear strength.
 11.3 Double-Angle Connections: Bolted-Bolted 347

Thus, the new shear areas become

A 8 ,. = 8.5(0.355) = 3.02 in.2

A111• = (8.5 - 2.5(7/8 + 1/ 8))(0.355) = 2 .13 in.::
and the nominal shear yield and rupture strengths become

0.6F,.A8 ,- = 0.6(50)(3.02) = 90.6 kips

0.6FuA,v = 0.6(65)(2. 13) = 83. 1 kips
The resulting block shear design strength is

<!>R, = 0.75(83.1 + 1.0(65)(0.444)) = 84.0 > 83.0 kip-.

Step 9: Check the flexural strength of the coped beam.
It is a good idea to check this limit state during the initial de ign of the beam. It
should be anticipated tl1at a coped connection will be required during the de ign tage
and it is at that stage that a change in beam section can most ea ily be accommodated.
Flexural strength of the coped beam is not addressed in the Specification directly
but is covered in Part 9 of the Manual. The moment in the coped beam is taken a~ the
shear force times the eccentricity from the face of the support to the edge of the cope.
taken as 4.5 in. in this example.
M,. = 83.0(4.5) = 374 in.-kips
To determine the flexural strength of the coped beam, the net section modulus is taken
from Manual Table 9-2. With the depth of the cope,

d" = 2.0 in. , S,e = 23.4 in. 3

1

For flexural rupture, <!> = 0.75 and

M, =F S
11 11, 1 = 65(23.4) = 1520 in.-kips

<!>M, = 0.75(1520) = 1140 in.-klps > 374 in.-klps

For flexural local buckling, <!>= 0.9 and

The critical stress is given in Manual Part 9 as

I,.)2fk
Fcr =26,2l0 hu(
For this example
2c 2(4)
f = - = - = 0.444
d 18

h")L65 =2.2 (16.0)1.65

k=2.2 ---;; ( 4 =21.7

and
0 355
Fe:,= 26.21o( · )\o.444)(21.7) = 124ksi > F,- = 50ksi
16.0
Thus
M 11 = 50(23.4) = 1170 in.-kips

<!>M, = 0.9(1170) = 1050in.-klps > 374 in.-kips

So the coped beam has sufficient ftexural strength.
348 Chapter 1 1 Simple Connections

Step 10: Check bolt bearing o n the A36 angle.

Assume a 5/win. angle and maintain the 1.25-.in. end cl istan~.:e as shown in Figure
11.2. The other bolts are spaced as orig inally shown at 3.0 in.
For the top bolt
I
Lc = 1.25 - 2(7/ 8 + 1/16) = 0. 781 < 2(7/8) = 1.75

Again. tear-out controls and the nominal bolt strength is

5
R,. = 1.2(0.781) ( ) (58) = 17.0 kips
16
For the ~econd and third bolt

Lc = 3.0 - (7/ 8 + 1/ 16) = 2.06 > 2(7/8) = 1.75

and bearing controls. giving a nominal bolt streng th of

5
f?,. = 2.4(7/ 8>( ) cs8) = 38.1 kips
16
Thu~. for Lhe three-bolt connection. the design strength is

cpR 11 =0.75( 17.0 +2(38 .1))=69.9 kipS> -83.0

- =4 1.5 klpS
0 0

2
T herefore. the three-boll connection in the angles is more than adequate.
Step 11: Check the angles for shear rupture.
The net area of the angle on the vertical shear plane is

Am· = (8.5 - 3(7/8 + 1/8)) (J65) = l. 72 ln.-

0 ,

a nd the design strength is

cpV,, = (0.75)(0.6F"A 111.) = (0.75)(0.6(58)( 1.72)) = 44.9 > 41.5 kips

So the angle is adequate for shear mpture.

Step 12: Check the angles for shear yield.
The gross area of the angle on the vertical shear plane is

A 8 ,. ( 5)
= (8.5) J6 = 2.66 m .- 0 '

and the design strength is

<P 11, = ( l.0)(0.6F,.Ag) = ( 1.0)(0.6(36)(2.66)) = 57.5 > 41.5 kips

So the ang le i<; also adequate for shear yield.
Step 13: Check the angles for block s hear.
The equations for block shear in the angle are the same as those for the welt and as
presented in Section I0.1 0.4.
First calculate the required areas,

~(7/8 + l /8))
5
A111 = ( 1.0- ( ) = 0.1 56 in 2
16
?5 ( J6
A 8 ,. -- 7 ·- 5 ) -
- ?-·-7
? 111. 2
0

5
A111• = (7.25 - 2.5(7/8 + 1/ 8))( ) = 1.48 in. 2
16
 11.3 Double-Angle Connections: Bolted-Bolted 349

1 111. ~
I
~ 1-- I in.
• - If~ in.

11/4 in.

3;.
11/o~ in.
0 t
0
in.
0

5ft 0 in. angle Figure 11.3 Final Connection Design for Example I I. I.

Consider shear yield and shear rupture and select the least nominal strength, thus

0.6F, Ag,. = 0.6(36)(2.27) = 49.0 kips

0.6F., A111• = 0.6(58)( 1.48) = 51.5 kips
Selecting the shear yield term anti combining it with the tension rupture term gives a
connection block shear design strength, again U11, =
1.0 for this case o f uniform tensile
stress distribution, of

<j>R, = 0.75(49.0 + 1.0(58)(0.156)) = 43.5 > 41.5 kips

Step 14: Present the final connection design.

The three-bolt connection. revised as shown in Figure 11 .3. is adequate

to cany the imposed load of 83.0 kips.

EXAMPLE ll.lb
GOAL: Design a bolted-bolted double-angle shear connection £or an Wl8x50 beam.
Bolted-Bolted
Double-Angle Shear
GIVEN: TheW L8x50 beam must provide a required strength. R" = 55.0 kips. The beam is
Connection by ASD A992 and the angles are A36. The beam flange is coped 2 in. Use 7/s in. A325-N bolts in standard
holes in the legs on lbe beam web and short slots on the outstanding legs. The basic starting
geometry is given in Figure I 1.2.
350 Chapter 11 Simple Connections

SOLUTTON Step 1: Determine the number of bolts required based on the shear rupture of the bolts.
Fro m Manual Table 7-l , the allowable strength per bolt is
1'11
Q = 14.4kips

Because the bolts are in double shear. the total number of bolts required is

55.0
N= - - = 1.91
2(14.4)

Therefore, try two bolts.

Step 2: Check the bolt bearing on the web.
For the two-bolt connection. the top bolt is 1.25 in. from the beam cope and the
second bolt is spaced 3.0 in. from the first. Determine the clear distances for each of
these bolts .
For the top bolt

I
L, = 1.25- 2"(7/8 + 1/ 16) = 0.781 < 2(7/8) = 1.75
Thu~. tear-out controls and the nominal bolt strength is

R, = 1.2(0.781 )(0.355)(65) = 21.7 kips

For the second bolt

L, = 3.0- (7/ 8 + 1/ 16) = 2.06 > 2(7/8) = 1.75

Therefore. bearing controls. and the nominal bolt strength is

R, = 2.4(7 / 8)(0.355)(65) = 48.5 kips

Thus. for the two-bolt connection. the allowable strength is

R, + 48.5)
Q
= (21.72.00 =35.1<55.0kips

T herefore, the two-bolt connection will not carry the load.

Step 3: Detenn ine lhe number of bolts required considering bearing.
Adding a third bolt spaced at 3.0 in., as shown in Figure 11.2 gives a connection
allO\\ able '>trength for bolt bearing of

R" (21.7 + 2(48.5)) 9 .

- - - - - - = 5 .4 > 55 kilps
2.00
Step 4: Cons ider lhe ouht<tnding legs of the angles.
A similar calculation should be made for Lhe bolts on the outstanding legs of the
angles that connect to the supporting member. ln this case, the bolts are in sing le shear
but there are twice a~ many bolts so the load per bolt is half of the load in the bolts in
Lhe beam web.lf the supporting member thickness is at least one-half of the beam web
thickness and the .>trength!. are the same, the bolts in the supporting member will be
satisfactory. This is the assumed case for this exm11ple.
Step 5: Evaluate the minimum depth of the connection.
The beam web connection should be at least half the depth of the bem11 web measured
as the distance between the fillets. T, given in Manual Table 1-1. This requirement
is to prevent twisting of the simple supports. For this beam, T = 15 1/2 in. so that
Lhe minimum angle depth should be 7% in. Thus, the 8 1h -in. long angle will be an
acceptable connec tion depth.
 11.3 Double-Angle Connections: Bolted-Bolted 351

Step 6: Check shear yield of the beam web.

This is a check that should be canied out during the beam des ign process. At the
point of connection design it is too late to be finding out that the beam will not be
adequate. From Manual Table 3-2
v
~ = 128 kips> 55.0 kips

Step 7: Check the beam web for block shear.

The equations for block s hear are found in Specification Section J4.3 and were
presented in Section J 0.1 0.4.
First calculate the required areas, remembering to account for the beam length
tolerance in the tension area calculation,
. '
A,= ( 1.75- I (7/8+1/8)) (0.355)=0.444m.-
2
A8,, = 7.25(0.355) = 2.57 in. 2
A 111• = (7 .25 - 2.5(7/8 + 1/8))(0.355) = 1.69 in.~

Consider shear yield and shear rupture and select the least nominal strength, thus
0.6F,. A 8 , = 0.6(50)(2.57) = 77.1 kips
0.6FuA 111• = 0.6(65)(1.96) = 65.9 kips
Selecting the shear rupture term and combining it with the tension rupture term gives
a connection block shear allowable strength, recalling that Ub., = 1.0 for the case of
uniform tensile stress distribution, we have
Rn = (65.9 + 1.0(65)(0.444)) = 47 .4 < SS.Ok:ips
Q 2.00
Thus, the given three-bolt connection is not adequate with block shear being the critical
limit state to this point in our calculations.
Step 8: Revise the connection to meet the block shear strength requirements.
Consideration could be given to increasing the number of bolts and thereby in-
creasing the length of the connection. However, because bolt shear required only two
bolts. this would not be a particularly economical solution. If the connection were to
be lowered on the beam end so that the distance from the center of the top bolt to the
edge of the cope were 2.5 in., the connection would have more block shear strength.
Thus, the new shear areas become
Ax., = 8.5(0.355) = 3.02 in.2
A 111, = (8.5 - 2.5(7/8 + 1/8))(0.355) = 2.13 in?
and the nominal shear yield and rupture strengths become
0.6r:,.A 8 ., = 0.6(50)(3.02) = 90.6 kips
0.6F,A,v = 0.6(65)(2.13) = 83.1 kips
The resulting block shear allowable strength is
Rn _ (83. 1 + 1.0(65)(0.~4)) _ _ O SS Oki
~ - 2.00 - ) 6 · > · ps
Step 9: Check the flexural strength of the coped beam.
Tt is a good idea to check this limit state during the initial design of the beam. It
should be anticipated that a coped connection will be required during the design stage
and it is at thaL stage that a change in beam section can most easily be accommodated.
Flexural strength of the coped beam is not addressed in the Specification directly
but is covered in Part 9 of the Manual. The moment in the coped beam is taken as the
352 Chapter I l Simple Connections

shear force times the eccentricity from the face of the support to the edge of the cope.
taken as 4.5 in. in this example.

Mn = 55.0(4.5) = 248 in.-k.ips

To detennine the flexural strength of the coped beam, the net section modulus is taken
from Manual Table 9-2. With the depth of the cope,

d, = 2.0 in.. s,."' = 23.4 in. ~

For flexural rupture. r.l = 2.00 and

M, = F,S,.c, = 65(23.4) = 1520 in.-k.ips

1520
-M, = ( - -) = 7 6o·m.- k.Jps > 24 s·m.- ki ps
Q 2.00
For flexural local buckling, Q = 1.67 and

The critical stress is given in Manual Part 9 as

For tltis example

2c 2(4)
f
.
= -d = -
18
= 0.444
16 0)
65
k = 2.2 (
1 )
~)
1.
= 2.2
(
--i- 1.65
= 21.7

and
2
Fer= 26.210 ( -0.355)
- (0.444)(21.7) = 124 ksi > F, =50 ksi
16.0
Thus

M, = 50(23.4) = ll70in.- kips

M, (1170) . . . .
Q = l. = 701 m.-kips > 248 m.-k1ps
67
So the coped beam has sufficient flexural strength.
Step 10: Check bolt bearing on the A36 angle.
Assume a 5/ 16-in. angle and ma.intain the 1.25-in. end distance as shown in Figure
11.2. The other bo lts are spaced as originally shown at 3.0 in. For the top bolt
I
Lc= 1.25-2(7/ 8+1/16)=0.78 1 <2(7/ 8)= 1.75

Again, tear-out controls and the nominal bolt strength is

R, = 1.2(0.781)(
5
16
)css) = 17.0kips

For the second and third boll

Lc = 3.0- (7/8 + 1/16) = 2.06 > 2(7/8) = 1.75

 11.3 Double-Angle Connections: Bolted-Bolted 353

and bearing controls, giving a nominal bolt strength of

5
R,. = 2.4(7 /8) ( ) (58) = 38. t kips
16
Thus, for the three-bolt connection, the allowable strength is

R" = (17.0 + 2 (38.1)) = 46.6 kips> 55.0 = 27.5 kips

Q 2.00 2
Therefore. the three-bolt connection in the angles is more than adequate.
Step 11: Check the angles for shear rupture.
The net area of the angle on the vertical shear plane is
5
A,.. = (8.5 - 3(7/8 + l/8))( ) = 1.72 in?
16
and the allowable strength is

V, _ (0.6F, A,v) _ (0.6(58)(1.72)) _ _ ,,:

- - - 29.9 > 27 .) 1.\JpS
Q 2 .00 2.00
So the angle is adequate for shear rupture.
tep 12: Check the angles for shear yield.
The gross area of the angle on the vertical shear plane is
5
A8,, = (8.5)( ) = 2.66 in. 2
16
and the allowable strength is
V, = (0.6FyA8 ) = (0.6(36)(2.66)) = 38 .3 > 27 .5 kips
Q 1.50 1.50
So the angle is also adequate for shear yield.
Step 13: Check the angles for block shear.
TI1e equations for block shear in the angle are the same as those for the web and as
presented in Section IO.J 0.4.
First caJculate the required areas

A,,= (1.0 - ~(7/8 + L/8))C56 ) =0. 156in.

2

A~,.• = 7.25(2_)
16
= 2.27 in.2
5
A 111• = (7.25 - 2.5(7/8 + 1/ 8))(
16
) = 1.48 in.2

Consider shear yield and shear rupture and select the least nominal strength, thus

0.6F:,.A8 ,, = 0.6(36)(2.27) = 49.0 kips

0.6F;,A 111• = 0.6(58)( 1.48) = 51.5 kips

Selecting the shear yield term and combining it with the tension rupture term gives a
cormection block shear allowable su·ength, again Ub,- = 1.0 for this case of uniform
tensile stress distribution, of
R, = (49.0 + 1.0(58)(0.156)) = 29.0 > 27 .5 kips
Q 2.00
354 Chapter I I Simple Connections

Step 14: Present the final connection design.

The three-bolt connectjon, revised as shown in Figure 11.3, is adequate to

carry the imposed load of 55.0 ldps.

11.4 DOUBLE-ANGLE CONNECTIONS: WELDED-BOLTED

The double-angle shear connection can also be constructed by combining welding and
bolting. In this case the angles are welded to the beam web, as shown in Figure 11.4. The
limit states to be considered are:
1. Bolts
a. Shear rupture
2. Weld
a. Rupture
3. Beam
a. Shear yielding of the web
b. Block shear on coped beam web
c. Coped beam flexural strength
d. Web strength at the weld
4. Angles
a . Bolt bearing on angles
b. Shear rupture
c. Shear yield
d. Block shear

The limit states that were not considered for the bolted-bolted connection from Section
1 1.3 are those associated with the weld. These include block shear of the beam web as a
result of the welded connection; weld rupture, which is influenced by the eccentricity of
the force on the weld group; and the strength of the beam web at the weld.
Block shear for a welded connection differs only slightly from block shear for a bolted
connection. The difference is in the lack of holes to be deducted when determining the net

Two angles

Figure 11.4 Welded-Bolted Double-Angle Connection.

 11.4 Double-Angle Connections: Welded-Bolted 355

:·"l
I
I

I
+
I

Figure 11.5 C-Shaped Weld Group.

area. Thus, the net shear area and gross shear area are the same. As a result, yielding is the
controlling shear term in the block shear equation for this type of welded connection.
Weld rupture is a much more complex limit state to incorporate in this type of con-
nection design. Chapter 10 discussed the strength of a weld loaded at its centroid and at
any angle. The welds in the double-angle connection are loaded parallel to the length on
one s ide of the angle and perpendicular to their lengths on the other two sides. Unfor-
tunately, these welds are not loaded through their centroid so the simplified approach to
combining them, previously shown in Chapter 10, cannot be used. T he Manual uses the
instantaneous center of rotation method to determine weld strength in cases like this. This
approach accounts for the loading at an angle to the weld as well as the eccentricity of the
load to the weld group. Figure 11.5 shows a C-shaped weld with the geometric variables
labeled. In the typical connection design, the geometry can be set and Manual Table 8-8
can be used to dete1mine the weld group strength. The application of this table is shown in
Example 11.2.
The beam web strength at the weld is also a bit difficult to calculate. The usual approach
i to determine the total strength of the weld and then proportion that force to the web based
on a one-inch length of web and one-inch length of weld. This, too. is illustrated in Example
11.2.

EXAMPLE 11.2 GOAL: Detem1ine the available strength of the welded-bolted connection shown in Figure 11.6a.
Welded-Bolted
Double-Angle Shear GIVEN: Determine the desig n strength and allowable strength of the connection shown in Figure
Connection I 1.6a for the three new limit states discussed for the welded-bolted double-angle connection.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the nominal strength for the limit state of block shear.
For the tens ion area, the length i~ found by taking the 3-in. angle leg and subtracting the
1
/2-in. setback and the 1/~-in. potential beam tolerance. Thus.

A 111 = 2.25(0.255) = 0.574 in. 2

1
For the gross shear area. the angle is 8.5 in. long and set down from the cope /2 in. Thus
A g,. = 9.0(0.255) = 2 .30 in 2

The refore, with Ub.• = 1.0, the nominal block shear strength is
R 11 = 0.6(50)(2.30) + (1.0)(65)(0.574)·= 106 kips
356 Chapter L l Simple Connections

2 in. 3- 1/2 -1/4 = 2.25 in.

H
W l 4x26

A992

1..,=0.255 in.
~=r
+
e.g.
8.5 in.

I
1114 in. 3{16-iu. weld

~L3x3x5/16X0 ft-81{2 in. -j 3in. ~

(a) (b)

Figure 11.6 Connection for Example 11.2.

Step 2: For LRFD , the design strength is

<j>R11 = 0.75(106) = 79.5 kips

Step 2: For ASD, the allowable strength is

R, ( 106)
- = - - = 53.0 kips
Q 2.00

Step 3: Determine the nominal strength for the limit state of weld rupture.
The geometry of the weld is given in Figure l l .6b. The angle is 8.5 in. lo ng so the weld
length is L = 8.5 in. The leg of the angle is 3.0 in. and the weld length is kL = 3.0- 1h in.
setback - 1/ 4 in. under run = 2.25 in. Thus

k = 2 '25 = 0.265
8.5
From Manual Table 8-8. the location of the weld centroid can be determined. Enter the table
with k = 0.265 and interpolate for x from the values at the bottom of the table, which yields
x = 0.0466. Wilh this, the weld centroid is determined as

xL = 0.0466(8.5) = 0.396 in .
The eccentricity of the force is then determined as

_ e., _ (3 .0 - 0.396) _
a-- - - 0. 306
L 8.5
 I I .4 Double-Angle Connections: Welded-Bolted 357

Using this value for a and the previously determined value for k. the value of C can be
determined from the table as C = 2.59. As indicated in the table. the nominal strength of
the weld group is then

where C has been determined above. C 1 represents the electrode strength and is I .0 for the
E70XX electrodes used here. D is the number of sixteenths-of-an-inch in the fillet weld size
and Lis the defined length of the weld group. Thus. for this weld

R, = (2.59)( J .0)(3)(8.5) = 66.0 kips for each angle

Step 4: For LRFD the design strength of a single angle is

cj>R, = 0.75(66.0) = 49.5 kips for each angle

Or. for the double angle connection

cj>R, = 2(49.5) = 99.0 kips

Step 4: For ASD the allowable strength of a single angle is

-R,
Q
(66.0)
=- . .
- = 33.0 k1ps
2.00
tor each angle

Or. for the double angle connection

R, .
-n = 2(33.0) = 66.o k1ps

Step 5: For LRFD determine the desjgn rupture strength for the beam web at the weld.
The design rupture strength of the 3/ 16 -in. weld of unit length on both sides of
the web, using the weld design strength determined in Chapter J0. is 2(3)(1.392) =
8.35 kips. Using the strength determined above. the effective length of the weld is
99.0/ 8.35= I I .9 in.
The design rupture strength of a unit length of the beam web is

<!>(0.6F11 / 11 ) = 0. 75(0.6(65)(0.255)) = 7.46 kips

Therefore. the beam web design rupture strength at the weld is

cj>R11 = ( I 1.9)(7.46) = 88.8 kips

358 Chapter I I Simple Connections

Step 5: For ASD. determine the allowable rupture strength for the beam web at the weld.
The allowable rupture strength of the :Ywin. weld of unit length on both sides of
the web. using the weld design strength determined in Chapter 10, is 2(3)(0.928) =
5.57 kips. Using the strength determined above. the effective length of the weld is
66.0/ 5.57 = I 1.9 in.
The allowable rupture strength of a unit length of the beam web is
(0.6F.t..,) = (0.6(65)(0.255)) = _ kips
4 97
Q 2.00
Therefore, the beam web allowable rupture strength at the weld is

<IJR11 = ( 11 .9)(4.97) = 59.1 kips I

Step 6: Determine the controlli ng limit state for the three limit states considered in this example.
Th~ connection is limited by the limit state of block shear.

Step 7: For LRFD, the design strength is

<bR11 = 79.5 kips

Step 7: For ASD, the allowable strength is

nR,. = s3.o k1ps.

.

11.5 DOUBLE-ANGLE CO NNECTIONS: BOLTED-WELDED

This connection i shown in Figure ll. 7 where the angles are bolted to the beam web and
welded to the . upporting member. The beam has a cope on the tension flange to permit the
beam to be inserted in the space between the double angles like a knife being inserted into

~========2L=3=x=3=lx;/,,;xQ ft-8'h /o.\ 1-'-1

Wl4x26
o- I ~·n----i

?" A992
0 81h in.

r., = 0.255 in.

2 in . ~j_
..1__,----' '----rr--< Rerum ar Top
(
l/4 in.
f
Figure 11.7 Double-Angle Bolted-Welded Connection for Example 11 .3.
 11.5 Double-Angle Connections: Bolted-Welded 359

its sheath. This connection might be used on a beam-to-column flange connection but it
wou ld not be used as a beam-to-girder connection because of the interference of the girder
flange.
For this connection, the new limit state of weld strength on the out~tanding legs of the
angles must be considered. In addition. consideration must be given to the fiexuraJ strength
of the coped beam with the tension flange removed.
The '>trength of the weld on the outstanding leg of the angle is determined by an elastic
method that assumes a uniform shear stress on the weld and a linearly varying tension stress
over the lower 5/6th of the angle. The resulting weld stress is then determined by taking
the square root of the sum of the squares of the tension and shear stresses. Part I 0 of the
t-.lamml gives the resulting weld strength as

1.392DL ] (LRFD) and -R11 = 2 [ 0.928DL ] (ASD)

<j>R11 = 2
[ j I+
12.96e
L-
1
2
Q J I+
12.96e
?
L-
2

where Lis the len gth of the angle and e is the width of the outstanding leg.

EXAMPLE 11.3 GOAL: Determine the available strength of the welds for a bolted-welded double angle connection.
Bolted- Welded
Double-Angle Shear GIVEN: The bolted-welded double angle connection is shown in Figure 11 .7. Assume 1/4-in. welds
Connectiou with a 1/2-in. return on top as shown.

SOLUTION
Step 1: For LRFD. determine the design strength.
With the given information. D = 4. L = 8.5 in.. and e = 3.0 in.: thus

<I>R, = 2[ Jl.391~D~e~
1 + --,-
L-
l = 2[ l.3921(:)~:(:~2 l
I + ----::--
(8.5) 2

I <I>R, = 58.5 kips I

Step 1: For ASD. determine the allowable strength.

l
With the given information, D = 4 . L = 8.5 in., and e = 3.0 in.: thus

R,.= 2 [ 0.928DL l= 2 [ 0.928(4)(8.5)

Q j 1 + 12.9~e
2

1
+ 12.96(3)2
L- (8.5)2

R,. .
- = 39.0klps
Q
360 Chapter II S imple Connections

11.6 DOUBLE ANGLE CONNECTIONS: WELDED-WELDED

The double-angle welded-welded connection is not a p~micularly common connection be-
cause it requires field welding. If it is desirable for a particular situation, however. the limit
c;rates are those that have already been discussed. The procedures are the same and all
potential limit state~ must be checked.

11.7 SINGLE-ANGLE CONNECTIONS

The si ngle-angle connections shown in Figure 11.1 b illustrate a bolted-bolted connection
and a bolted-welded connection. In both cases. the connectio n is shown on a beam-to-
girder connection. This is a particularly efficient connection because it eliminates erection
problems when transverse beams frame into a girder at the same point on opposite sides of
the girder web. ft is also efficient because it has fewer parts than the double-angle connection.
This connection i:. g rowing in popularity with both fabticators and erectors. It aids in erection
efficiency becauo;;e the beam can be installed from one side with the angle pre-attached to
the girder. The disadvantages of this connection arc that the components, such as angles,
bolts, and weld-;. are larger than for the double-angle connection. For this connection, the
bolts in Lhe beam web are in single shear and. if the controlli ng limit state were bolt shear,
it would require rwice as many bolts than if it were a double-angle connection. Because all
of the beam force must pass through only one angle. the angle likely needs to be larger.
Greater \\ eld ~ize and weld length is also required. However, the single angle is still the
bl!st choice in many situations. particular]) when limit states like block shear might control
the '>lrength of the connection.
The ....ingle-angle connection easily behaves as a simple .~hear conJlection, as it is mod-
eled in anaJy<;iS, because it is more flexible than the prev iously considered double-angle con-
nection~ . Because of this increased flexibility. however. this connection is not recommended
for laterally unsupported beams that rely on their end connections for lateral stabili ty.
The limit states LO be checked for the single-angle connection are the same as those
for the Llouble-angle connection with some modifications and additions. The m ajor mod-
ifications have to do with the eccentricities induced in the connecting elements. For the
supported beam. as long as there is only one row of bolts. no eccentricities are considered
and this ponion of the connection is treated a~ for the double-angle connections. For the
outstanding leg. the bolts or welds must be designed to account for the connection eccen-
tricity. This eccentricity also adds the limit states of flexural y ielding and flexural ruprure
for the outstanding leg of the angle.
Figures I 1.8a and b <.how how the eccentricity is measured for a bo lted and a welded
outstanding leg. Note that the eccentJicity is measured, in both cases. from the center line
of the suppmted beam web. Figures 11.8c and d illustrate. with a bold line, the location and
cross section for the moment in the angle for the limit states of flexural yielding (Fig ure
1 1.8c) and flexural rupture (Figure l l.8d).
The limit state of flexural yielding is calculated based on the plastic moment of the
element. Thus. the plastic sectiou modulus for the angle leg w ithout holes, Z = 1P L 2 / 4. is
used and the nominal moment strength is g iven as

For the flexural yielding limit state, cp = 0.9 and Q = 1.67.

For the limit state of flexural rupture, the plastic section modulus of the net section is
needed. This can be either determined by calculation or obtained from Manual Table 15-2.
 11.7 Single-Angle Connections 361

'21 \\eld
Return >----rT--,.
I

To)
L
0 I
I

I
I

l
I

0 I
0 I

I
I I
Center !me nr \\ eb Center line of Web Center line of Web Center lin of Web
tal (b) (c) (d)

figure 11.8 Smgle-Angle Connection Eccentricities.

The resulting nominal moment strength is then

M, = R,ea = F" Z,e 1

For the flexural rupture limit state,~= 0.75 and S1 = 2.00.

To account for the eccentricity of the load on the bolt group, an equ ivalent number
of boh;; must be determined. This can be accomplished using Manual Table 7-7 and is
tllu ... rrated in Example 11.4. To account for the eccentricity on the weld group, Manual
Table 8-1 1 can be used. This table is for an L-shaped weld group with the welds on only
two ,ides. The top of the leg is kept free to insure sufficient rotation capacity. Application
of thi-, mble is also demonstrated in Example 11.4.

EXAMPLE 11.4a
GOAL: Determine the design strength or a bolted-bolted and a bolted-welded single-angle
Single-Angle Shear ,-onnection.
Conn ection by LRFD
Gl\c~ : A single-angle connection is shown in Figure 11.9 for the bolted outstandi ng leg
.:..t-e (Figure 11.9b) and the welded outstanding leg case (Figure 1!.9c). The angle is A36 steel.
3 : x 3 1h x 3/s x 12 in. The bolts are .Y-1-in. A325N, the weld is 3/ 16 in. E70X:X. and the beam is
a\\ 16x3l. A992 steel.

:!1/.; in. 21/4 in. 31hin.

j-- ] 1/4 in.
jl

'
:In --1
I I H
!

at 3 1n.
0

0 1 12 in.
W l 6x31

<
0
3 at 3 in.
1
12 in.

l
0

' 0 I fw =0.275 in.

!
I '
1 /~ tn. l'hin.

(~1 1 (b) (c)

Figure J 1.9 Single-Angle Connection for Example 11.4.

362 Chapter I I Simple Connections

SOLUTION Part (a) Consider first the connection to the supported beam.
Step 1: Determine the bolt shear rupture strengt h.
From Manual Table 7- 1, </>r11 = 15.9 kips. Therefore, for the four bolls, the design
shear strength is
<f>R11 = 4(15.9) = 63 .6 kips
Step 2: Determine the bolt bearing strength on the angle.
The bottom bolt is 1.5 in. from the bottom of the angle with the remaining bolts
spaced at 3.0 in. Determine the clear distances for each of the bolts.
For the bottom bolt
J
Lc = 1.5 - 2(3/ 4 + I/ 16) = 1.09 < 2(3/ 4) = 1.5

Thus. tear out controls and the nominal bolt strength is

R 11 = 1.2( 1.09)(0.375)(58) = 28.4 kips

For the other bolts

Lc = 3.0 - (3/ 4 + 1/ 16) = 2. 19 > 2(3/ 4) = 1.5

Therefore, bearing controls, and the nominal bolt strength is

R" = 2.4(3/ 4)(0.375)(58) = 39.2 kips

Thus, for the four-bolt connection, the design strength is

<f>R" = 0.75(28.4 + 3(39.2)) = l 10 kips

Step 3: Determine the bolt-bearing strength on the beam web.
Because the clear distance is greater than two times the bolt diameter

R, = 2.4(3/ 4)(0 .275)(65) = 32.2 kips

and
<t>R, = 0.75(4(32.2)) = 96.6 kips
Step .t: Determine the shear yield strength of the angle.

AR = 12.0(0.375) = 4.50 in.2

<f>Vn = 1.0(0.6(36))(4.5) = 97.2 kips
Step 5: Detem1ine the shear rupture strength of the angle.

A,... = ( 12.0 - 4(3/ 4 + l/ 8))(0.375) = 3.19 in.2

</>V11 = 0. 75(0.6(58))(3.19) = 83.3 kips
Step 6: Determine the block shear strength of the angle.
First calculate the required areas

A 111 = ( 1.25 - ~(3/4 + 1/ 8))(0.375) = 0.305 in.2

A8 , = 10.5(0.375) = 3.94 in.2

A,...= ( LO.S- 3.5(3/ 4 + 1/ 8))(0.375) = 2.79 in.2
Consider shear yield and shear rupture and select the least strength, thus

0.6FyAg, = 0.6(36)(3.94) = 85.1 kips

0.6F11 A111• = 0.6(58)(2.79) = 97.1 kips
 I l.7 Single-Angle Connections 363

Selecting the shear rupture term and combining it with the tension rupture term. with
U b< = I .0 for this case of uniform tensile stress distribution, g ives

<j>R" = 0.75(85. 1 + 1.0(58)(0.305)) = 77.1 kips

Step 7: Determine the design strength of the Jeg attached to the supported member.
The design strength is controlled by bolt shear where

<j>R" = 63.6 kips

Part (b) Consider the bolted outstanding leg.

Step 8: Check the eccentric shear using Manual Table 7-7 to account for the eccentricity on
the bolt group.
The eccentricity of the load on the line of bolts is the bolt distance from the angle
heel plus one half of the beam web. thus

0.275
e, = 2 .25 + - 2
- = 2.39 in.
For the four-bolt connection with bolt spacing of 3.0 in., Manual Table 7-7 gives the
effective number of bolts as C = 3.12. Therefore

<j>R" = 3.12(15.9) = 49.6kips

The strength of the bolts in the outstanding leg wiU be less than that in the leg on the
supported beam because the outstanding leg must accommodate an eccentricity that
is not present in the leg on the beam. Therefore, there really was no reason to have
checked the bolt shear on the beam, except that it will be needed when the welded
connection is checked.
Step 9: Determine the flexural yielding strength of the outstanding leg.
The plastic section modulus is determined forthe rectangle formed by the length and
thickness of the angle, and the nominal moment strength is determined by multiplying
the plastic section modulus by the yield stress, thus

(0.375)( 122 ) 3 . 3
Z = =I .5 m.
4
and

M, = 36( I3.5) = 486 in.-kips

Because the moment is the shear force times the eccentricity

,1-R _ <I>Mu _ 0.9(486) _ k" .

'I' 11 - - - 183 lpS
e 2.39
Step 10: Determine the flexural rupture strength of the outstanding leg.
The net plastic section modulus is determined for the rectangle less the holes.
Although this can readily be calculated, it can also be obtained from Manual Table
15-2 where Z"''' = 9.56 in. 3 . Thus

M, = 58(9.56) = 554 in.-kips

and
<j>M, 0.75(554)
<j>R" = - - =
e 2.39
= 174 k1.ps
364 Chapter I I Simple Connections

Step 11: Determine the controlling limit state strength for the bolted outs[anding legs.
For the bolted outstanding leg, the strength is conuoiJed by the eccentric shear of
the bolt~ where

<l> R" = 49.6 kips

Becau e this is less than the value for the leg attached to the beam. this is the strength
of the bolted-boiled single-ang le connection.
Part (c) Con~ider the welded o utstanding leg.
Step 12: Determine the eccentric weld rupture strength.
~lanua l Table 8-10 will be used to determine the eccentric weld rupture strength.
The \\ eld for the single-angle connection is applied to the bottom edge of the angle.
not the top. This insures that the angle is sufficiently flexible to behave as a simple
connection a<; modeled. Manual Table 8- 10 shows this weld on the top but this does not
impact the use of the table because the geometry is the same whether the ho rizontal
v. eld is at the top or bottom of the connection.
Based on the dimensions given in Figure 11.9c, L = 12.0. kL = 3.5. thus
J. = 0.292. The weld is a 3/win. weld with E70 electrodes. From the table, interpolating
between k = 0 .2 and 0.3. yields x = 0.0336. Therefore, the eccentric ity is
r..
e.I. = kl + 2- -xi
0.275
e.r = 3.5 +~- 0.0336(12.0) = 3.23 in.

and
(/ = .e,L. :. . = -3.23
12.0
= 0.269
With a double interpolation berween k = 0.2 and 0.3 and n = 0.25 a nd 0.30, the
coefficient C is determined as
c = 2.17
Therefore. the no minal weld strength is

R11 = CC 1 DL = 2. I 7( 1.0)(3)(12.0) = 78.1 ki ps

And the design strength is

<j>R, = 0.75(78.1) = 58.6 kips

Step 13: Determine the design strength for the limit state of liexural yielding.
For the limit state of ftexural yielding of the ang Le the strength is determined as was
shown for the bolted outstanding leg. thus

<j>R, = 183 kips

Step 14: Dete1mine the controlling limit state's strength for the welded outstanding legs.
For the welded outsland ing leg, the design strength is controlled by eccentric shear
on the weld where

I <l>R, = 58.6 kips I

Because this is less than the value for the leg attached to the beam, this is the design
strength of the bolted-welded single-angle connection.
 11.7 Single-Angle Connection), 365

EXAMPLE 11.4b
GOAL: Determine the allowable strength of a bolted-bolted and a bolted-welded single-angle
Single-Angle Shear
connection.
Connection by ASD
GIVEN: A single-angle connection i:o. shown in Figure I 1.9 for the bolted outstanding leg
case (Figure 11.9b) and the welded outsranding leg case (Figure 11.9c). The angle is A36 steel.
3ih x 3ih x 3/ 8 x 12 in. The bolts are %-in. A325N, the weld is ';i6 in. E70XX. and the beam is
a Wl6x31. A992 steel.

SOLUTION Part (a) Consider first the connection to the supported beam.
Step 1: Determine the bolt shear rupture strength.
From Manual Table 7- I. -~ = 10.6 kips.
. Therefore for the folll· bolts. the allowable
Q
shear strength is

R,
Q = 4( I 0.6) = 42.4 kips
.

Step 2: Determine the bolt bearing strength on the angle.

The bottom bolt is 1.5 in. from the bouom of the angle witb the remaining bolts
spaced at 3.0 in. Determine rhe clear distances for each of these bolts.
For the bottom bolt
I
Lc = 1.5- -(3/4
2
+ 1/ 16) = 1.09 < 2(3/4) = 1.5
Thus. tear out controls and the nominal bolt strength is

R11 = 1.2( 1.09)(0.375)(58) = 28.4 kips

For the other bolts

L, = 3.0- (3/4 + 1/16) = 2.19 > 2(3/4) = 1.5

Therefore. bearing controls, and the nominal bolt strength is

R, = 2.4(3/4)(0.375)(58) = 39.2 kips

Thus, for the four-bolt connection, the allowable strength is
R11 = (28.4 + 3(39.2)) = 73 _0 kips
Q 2.00
Step 3: Detennine the bolt-bearing strength on rhe beam web.
Because the clear distance is greater than two limes the bolt diameter

R11 = 2.4(3/4)(0.275)(65) = 32.2 kips

and
R, (4(32.2)) k'
Q ;:: 2.00 = 64.4 ' ipS

Step 4: Determine the shear yield strength of the angle.

Ag = 12.0(0.375) = 4.50 in.~

V, _ (0.6(36))(4.5) _ k.
-- - 64. 8 ipS
Q 1.5
366 Chapter I I Simple Connections

Step 5: Determine the she<tr rupture strength of the angle.

A 111• = (12.0 - 4(3/ 4 + 1/ 8))(0.375) = 3.19 in 2

V, _ (0.6(58))(3. I 9) _ k'
- - - 55 .5 tps
Q 2.00
Step 6: Determine the block shear strength of the angle.
First calculate the required areas

Am = (1.25- ~(3/4 + 1/ 8))(0.375) = 0.305 in. 2

As•· = 10.5(0.375) = 3.94 in. 2

Am = (10.5- 3.5(3/ 4 + l / 8))(0.375) = 2.79 in 2

Co n-.iuer shear yield and shear rupture and select the least strength. thus

0.6F,.A 11,. = 0.6(36)(3.94) = 85.1 kips

0 6F11 Am, = 0.6(58)(2.79) = 97.1 kips

Selecting the shear rupture term and combining it with the tension rupture term, with
U1, = 1.0 for this case of uniform tensile stress distribution. gives
R, (85.1 + 1.0(58)(0.305)) .
- = = 51.4 kips
Q 2.00
Step 7: Determine the allowable strength of the leg allached to the suppot1ed member.
The allowable strength is controlled by bolt shear where

R, .
- = 42.4kips
Q

Part (b) Consider the bolted outstanding leg.

Step 8: Check the eccemric shear using Manual Table 7-7 to account for the eccentricity on
the bolt group.
The eccentricity of the load on the line of bolts is the bolt distance from the angle
heel plus one half of the beam web. thus
0.275
ex = 2.25 + - 2 - = 2.39 in.
For the four-bolt connection with bolt spacing of 3.0 in .. Manual Table 7-7 gives the
effective number of bolts as C = 3.12. Therefore
R" .
Q = 3. 12(10.6) = 33 . 1 ktps

The strength of the bolts in the outstanding leg will be less than that in the leg on the
supported beam be cause the outstanding leg must acconunodate an eccenh;city that
is not present in the leg on the beam. Therefore. there really was no reason to have
checked the bolt shear on the beam. except that it will be needed when the welded
connection is checked.
Step 9: Determine the flexural yielding strength of the outstanding leg.
The plastic section modulus is determined for the rectangle formed by the length and
thickness of the angle, and the nominal moment strength is determined by multiplying
the plastic section modulus by the yield stress, thus

Z = (0.375)( 122) = 13.5 in.3

4
 11.7 Single-Angle Coru1ecrions 367

and

M11 = 36( 13.5) = 486 in.-k.ips

Because the moment is the shear force times the eccentticity

M,
= (486) = 122ki s
Qe 1.67(2.39) p
Step 10: Determine the flexural ru pture strength of the outstanding leg.
The net plastic section modulus is determined for the rectangle less the holes.
Although this can readily be calculated, it can also be obtained from Manual Table
15-2 where Z 11e1 = 9.56 in. 3 . Thus
M, = 58(9.56) = 554 in.-kips
and
R, M, (554)
- =- = = 116 kips
Q Qe 2 .00(2.39)
Step 11: Determine the controlling limjt state strength for the bolted outstanding legs.
For the bolted outstanding leg, the strength is controlled by the eccentric shear of
the bolts where

R" .
Q = 33. 1 ktps

Because this is less than the value for the leg attached to the beam, this is the strength
of the bolted-bolted single-angle connection.
Part (c) Consider the welded outstanding leg.
Step 12: Determine the eccentric weld rupture strength.
Manual Table 8-10 will be used to determine the eccentric weld rupture strength.
The weld for the s ingle-angle connectio n is applied to the bottom edge of the angle.
not the top. Tllis insures that the angle is sufficiently flexible to behave as a simple
connection as modeled. Manual Table 8-1 0 shows this weld on the top but that does
not impact the use of the table because the geometry is the same whether the hmizontal
weld is at the top or bottom of the connection.
Based on the dimensions given in Figure 11.9c, L =
12.0, kL = 3.5. thus
k = 0.292. The weld is a 3j 16-in. weld with E70 electrodes. From the table, interpolating
between k = 0.2 and 03, yields x = 0 .0336. Therefore. the eccentricity is
lw
e.,. = kl +
2 - xl
0.275 .
ex = 3.5 + ~ - 0 .0336(12.0) = 3.23111.

and
e, 3.23
C/ = ...:._ = - = 0.269
L 12.0
With a double interpolation between k = 0.2 and 0.3 and a = 0 .25 and 0.30, the coef-
ficient C is determined as

c =2.1 7
Therefore. the nominal weld strength is

R 11 = CCtDL = 2.17(1.0)(3)(12.0) = 78.1 kips

368 Chapter 11 Simple Connections

And rhe allowable strength is

R, = (?S.l) = 39.1 kips

Q 2.00
Step 13: Detem1ine the allowable strength for the limit state of liexural yielding.
For the limit state of flexural yielding of the angle the strength is determined as was
sho\\ n for the bolted outstanding leg. thus

nR" = 122 kips

Step 14: Derem1ine the controlling limit state·s strength for the welded outstanding legs.
For the welded outstanding leg. the a llowable strength is controlled by eccentric
shear on the weld where

nR" = 39.1 kips

.

Because this is less than the value for the leg attached to the beam. this is the allowable
strength of the bolted-welded single-angle connection.

11.8 SINGLE-PLATE SHEAR CONNECTIONS

The single-plate shear connection, also called a shear tab connection, is shown in Figure
11.1 c. It consists of a plate. shop welded to the support, and field bolted to the beam and
is imilar to the single-angle connection ''hen it comes to erection. The shear tab consists
of only a single-plate, which is about as simple as can be expected. It is welded to the
supporting member and must be bolted to the supported beam in order to accommodate the
required rotation. Even when bolted to lhe beam, this connection is stiffer than the single-
or double-angle connections and requires careful detailing to insure sufficient flexibi lity.
The behavior of this connection is similar to that of a double-angle connection except
that it achieves its rotation capacity through the bending of the tab and deformation of the
plate or beam web in bearing at the bolt holes. Because of the complexity of assessi ng some
of the limit <;tate"> for this connection, AISC has developed two design approaches including
a somewhat prescriptive approach for what is called the conventional c01~figu.ration and a
detailed limit states checking procedure for all others, which is referred to as the ex/ended
configuration.
The limit states that must be checked are the same fore itherconfiguration; theclifference
is that in the conventional configuration, physical limitations have been set so that most of
those limit states do not govern. The potential limit states are:

1. Bolts
a. Shear rupture
2. Beam
a. Bearing on the web
b. Shear yielding of web
3. Plate
a. Bearing on the plate
b. Elastic yield moment
c. Shear yield
 11.8 Single-Plate Shear Connections 369

d. Shear rupture
e. Block shear rupture
f. Buckling
g. Plastic flexural yielding with shear interaction
4. Weld
a. Weld rupture with eccentricity

Of these 11 limit states, those associated with flexure and buckling of the plate are new
to the discussion of simple connection design, and the weld rupture limit stare is treated a
little bit differently than those weld limit states already discussed.
The conventional configuration ofthe shear tab results in a connection that is very simple
to design. This is the type of connection that is treated here. For other config urations, the
detailed procedures are given in Part 10 of the Manual. The dimensional limitation of the
conventional shear tab require:

I. Only a single vertical row of bolts limited to 2 to 12 bolts

2. The distance from the bolt line to the weld line cannot exceed 3 1h in.
3. Only standard or short slotted holes can be used
4. The horizontal edge distance, Leh· must be at least 2db for both the plate and beam
web where db is the bolt diameter
5. The vertical edge distance must satisfy the Specification minimum from Table J3.4
6. Either the plate or beam web must have r :::; (db/2 + 1/t6)

Jfthe connection is additionally limited to a maximum of9 bolts. or Manual Table 10-9
is used, eccentricity can be ig nored. Once these limitations are satisfied. the connection
need be checked only for

a. Bolt shear rupwre

b. Bolt bearing
c. Block shear rupture
d . Plate shear yielding
e. Plate shear rupture

EXAMPLE 11.5a
GOAL: Determine the design strength of a conventional configuration shear tab connection.
Shear Tab Conventional
Configuration by LRFD GIVEN: The shear tab connection is given in Figure 11.10. The beam is a Wl6x50, A992
framing into the Aange of a Wl4x90. A992 column with an A36 1j 4 x4 1hx 12 plate. Use four
% -in. A325N bolts in standard holes .

SOLUTION Step l: Determine whether the given shear tab meets the limitations for the conventional con-
figuration.
Lim itations for the conventional configuration:
1. 4 bolts-is between 2 and 12
2. a = 3.0 in.-does not exceed 3 1h in.
3. Standard holes-standard or short-slotted are permitted
4. L,11 = 1.5 in.- at least 2dh = 1.5 in.
5. L, = 1.5 in. > 1.25 in. from Table 13.4

6. l ptme = !4 -
1 less than (db
2 + /r6
1 ) =
3
2 + 1/ 16)
( /4 = 7fl6
370 Chapter I I Simple Connections

A
v
_f
;; 1.5 in.
0
;; 3 in.
0
3 in. <

;; 0
3 in.
~ 0
/
I
I
~·

- f--
3 in.
llh in.

v
Figure 11.10 Shear Tab Connection for Example 11.5.

Step 2 : Determine the bolt design shear strength.

From Manual Table 7-1

<j>R11 = 4( 15.9) = 63.6 kips

Step 3: Determine the bolt design bearing strength on the plate.
For the top bolt
I
Lc = 1.5- 2(3/ 4 + 1/ 16) = 1.09 < 2(3/ 4) = 1.5

Thus, tear-out controls and the nominal bolt strength is

R 11 = 1.2( I .09)(0.250)(58) = 19.0 kips

For the other bolts

L ,. = 3.0- (3/ 4 + I / 16) = 2.19 > 2(3/ 4) = 1.5

Therefore, bearing controls, and the nominal bolt strength is

Rn = 2.4(3/ 4)(0.250)(58) = 26. l kips

Thus . for the four bolts, tbe design stTength is

<PR" = 0.75(19.0 + 3(26.1 )) = 73.0 kips

Step 4: Determine the bolt design bearing strength on the web.
For the beam web. the material is A992 and the web thickness is 0.380 in. Because
both the strength and thickness are greater than the comparable values for the plate, the
beam web does not control.
Step 5: Determine the design block shear strength of the plate.
Calculating the required areas

= ( 1.5- ~(3/4 + 1/ 8)) co.250) = 0.266 in.2

A 111

Ag, = 10.5(0.250) = 2.63 in. 2

A111• = ( I0.5- 3.5(3/4 + J/8))(0.250) = 1.86 in.1

Consider shear yield and shear rupture and select the least strength, thus

0.6FrAg,, = 0.6(36)(2.63) = 56.8 kips

0.6F,,A 111• = 0.6(58)( 1.86) = 64.7 kips
 ll.X Single-Plate Shear Connections 371

Selecting the shear yield term and combining it with the tension ru pture term gives a
connection design block shear strength. with U111 = 1.0 . of
<j>R, = 0. 75(56.8 + 1.0(58)(0.266)) = 54.2 kips
Step 6: Determine the design shear yield strength of the plate.
<I>R, = 1.0(0.6(36))( 12.0)(0.250) = 64.8 kips
Step 7: Determine the design shear rupture strength of the plate.
<j>R, = 0. 75( 12.0- 4(3/4 + I /8))(0.250)(58) = 92.4 kips
Step 8: Determine the design weld rupture strength.
The conventional configuration requires that the plate be welded to the supp011ing
member through a pair of fillet welds o n each side of the plate with the weld leg width,
w = 5/s tp. This develops the strength of e ither an A36 or an A992 plate and therefore
does not require any further limit states check.
Step 9: Determine the controlling limit ~tate and design strength of the connection.
The design strength i~ controlled by the I imil state of block shear rupture of the pla te
where

<j>R, = 54.2 kips

A check of Manual Table 10-9 shows that this is quite close to the tabulated value for
the 11.5-in. plate given there, as would be expected.

EXAMPLE ll.Sb
GOAL: Determine the allowable strength of a conventional configuration shear tab connection.
Shear Tab Conventional
Configuration by ASD GIVEN: The shear tab connection is given in Figure I 1.1 0. The beam is a W 16 x 50, A992
frami ng into the flange of a W14x90, A992, column with an A36 1/4x4 1hx 12 plate. Use fom
'1.1-in. A325N bolts in standard holes.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine whether the given shear tab meets the limi tations for the conventional con-
figuration.
Limitations ror the conventional configuration:
1. 4 bolts-is between 2 and 12
2. a = 3 .0 i n.-does not exceed 3 1h in.
3. Standard holes-standard or short-slotted are permitted
4. Le11 = I .5 in.-at least 2d1, = 1.5 in.
5. L,. = 1.5 in. > 1.25 in. from Table J3.4
'"'"/<' = 1/4- less thanC~, + 1/16) = c~ + 1/16) =
4
6. 7jl6
Step 2: Determine the allowable bolt shear strength.
From Manual Table 7-1
R,
Q = 4(10.6) = 42 .4k'IpS

Step 3: Detemtine the allowable bolt bearing streng th on the plate.

For the lop bolt
1
L,. = 1.5- (3/4 + ljl6) = 1.09 < 2(3/4) = 1.5
2
372 Chapter II Simple Connections

Thus. tear-out controls and the nominal bolt strength is

R11 = 1.2( I .09)(0.250)(58) = 19.0 kips
For the other bolts
L .. = 3.0- (3/ 4 + 1/ 16) = 2.19 > 2(3/4) = 1.5
Therefore bearing controls, and the nominal bolt strength is
R.. = 2.4(3/ 4)(0.250)(58) = 26.1 kips
Thus. for the four bolts, the allowable strength is
R11 _ t]9.0 + 3(26.1)) _ .
- - - 4 8.7k•ps
Q 2.00
Step 4: Determine the allowable bolt bearing :.trength on the web.
For the beam web. the material is A992 and the web thickness is 0.380 in. Because
both the strength and thickness are greater than the comparable values for the plate, the
beam \\Cb does not control.
Step 5: Dt!termine the allowable block shear strength of the plate.
Calculating the required areas

A, = ( 1.5- ~(3/-t. + 1/8)) (0.250) = 0.266 in. 2

Ag" = 10.5(0.250) = 2.63 in. 2

A111• = (10.5- 3.5(3/ 4 + 1/8))(0.250) = 1.86 in.2
Consider shear yield and shear rupture and select the least strength. thus
0.6FyA~,. = 0.6(36)(2.63) = 56.8 kips
0.6F,,A,. = 0.6(58)( 1.86) = 64.7 kips
Selecting the shear yield term and combining it with the tension rupture term gives a
connection allowable block shear strength. with Ub, = 1.0, of
R 11
- =
(56.8 + 1.0(58)(0.266)) .
= 36 . I kips
Q 2.00
Step 6: Determine the allowable shear yield strength of the plate.

Rn = (0.6(36))(12.0)(0.250) = 43 .2 kips
Q 1.5
Step 7: Determine the allowable shear rupture strength of the plate.
Rn ( 12.0- 4(3/4 + 1/ 8))(0.250)(58) .
- = = 61.6 kips
n 2.00
Step 8: Determine the allowable weld rupture strength .
The conventional configuration requires that the plate be welded to the supporting
member through a pair of fillet welds on each side of tbe plate with the weld leg width,
w = %t1,. This develops the strength of either an A36 or an A992 plate and therefore
does not require any further limit states check.
Step 9: Determine the controlling limit state and the allowable strength of the connection.
The allowable strength is controlled by the limit state of block shear of the plate with

R/1
Q .
= 36.1 kip~ I
A check of Manual Table I 0-9 shows that this is quite close to the tabulated value for
the 11.5-in. plate given there, as would be expected.
 11 .9 Seated Connections 373

11.9 SEATED CONNECTIONS

An unstiffened seated connection is show n in Figure 11.1 d and a stiffened seated connection
is shown in Figure 11.1 e. These cmmections are typically used to attach a beam to the web
of a column. They can also be used to add capacity to other types of existing connections
in a retrofit situation. Because of thei r s implicity, they are fairly easy coJmecrions to erecL
They have very few parts, a seat angle, a connection to the supporting member through
welds or bolts, a limited connectio n to the supported member, and a top connection to
insure stability of the beam. All of the force is transferred through bearing of the beam on
the sear and then through the connection of the seat to the supporting member. When the
seat lacks sufficient strength in bending of the top leg, it can be stiffened to produce the
stiffened seated connection.
The seat can be welded or bolted to the supp011ing member and is usually bolted
to the supported member. The connection to the supported member is nor designed
for a specific strength when only a vertical force is being transferred. The seated con-
nection performs excellenll y as a simple connection. It can rotate sufficient! y about
the bottom of the beam without imposing any sig nificant moment to the supporting
member.
The simplicity of this connection results in relatively few limit states to be checked.
Because the transfer of force betwee n the beam and seat is tlu-ough the bearing of the
beam on the seat, the limit states of beam web yielding and beam web crippling must be
checked. These limit states were introduced in Section 6.14. The outstanding leg of the seat
angle must be checked for the limit states of flexural yielding and shear yielding, and the
connection to the supporting member, bo lts, or welds must be checked for their appropriate
limit states . In summary, the potential limit states are:

1. Beam
a. Web yielding
b. Web crippling
2. Seat angle
a. Flexural yielding
b. Shear yielding
3. Connector
a. Bolt or weld shear

The nominal strength for the limit state of web yielding was discussed in Sections 6.14
and 7.4. If the strength equation for a force applied at the end of a member is rewritten
10 solve for the minimum required bearing length, it can be used for design. Thus, ti·om
Specificatio n Section J I 0.2, for the limit state of web local yielding

R"
Nmin = - - - 2.5k
F_l,t ...

For the limit state of web yielding, <!> = 1.00, and Q = 1.50.
Similarly. from Specification Section J I 0.3, fo r the limit state of web crippling, an
equation for the minimum required bearing le ngth can be determined. However, there are
three different strength equat ions, depending o n the relationship N jd. Because it is most
likely that N will be less than d/2 and very likely it wi ll be less than 0.2d. only Specification
Equation J 10-Sa is treated here. The other .situations can both be handled in the same way
if need be. Thus, rearranging Equation J I 0-Sa to solve for the minimum required bearing
374 Chapter ll Simple Connections

Supporting member
SupporLed
member

r
L

j--J~
Supporting member \ 1~
(a) (b)
Figure 11.11 Seated Beam Connection.

length for the limit state of web crippling yields, for Njd .::=:: 0.2

{;f ]( )
1.5
d RII t... . 'I
Nmin = 3 [ 0.40t,~. \ EFyt1 - I tw

For the limit tate of web crippling,<!>= 0 . 75. and Q = 2.00.

Because the unstiffe ned angle is a very flexible connection, the load levels usually
considered are quite low. This tends to result in very small minimum required bearing
lengths and. in some calculations, a negative minimum required bearing length. To offset
this potential problem, the minimum bearing length for seated connections is taken as k de! ·
A re\'iew of Manual Table 1-1 shows two values fork: kdes is a dimension used in design
calculations and is the smaller of the two values, kdet is a dimension normally used in
detailing and is used here because it is the larger of these two vaJues. These two ks are the
result of differences in production by different mills. They represent the extremes of the
values actually found and are selected within a calculation to give a conservative answer.
The outstanding leg of the angle must be capable of supporting the beam reaction
applied at an eccentricity from the critical section of the angle. This requires checking the
limit state of flexural yielding of the leg. The angle shown in Figure ll.lla is an unstiffened
seat angle. T he critical section for both flexure and shear is taken as 3/s in. out from the face
of the vertical leg. the radius of the fillet. The eccentricity is measured from this line to the
mid-point of the minimum required bearing length of the beam on the angle, N . Thus, the
eccentricity is
N N
e = 2 + 3/4- (ta + 3/ 8) = 2 + 3/8- la
The nominal beam reaction stre ngth, for the limit state of flexural yielding, is based on the
plastic section modulus of the seat leg of the angle. Thus

z = Lt~
4
and

M11 FyZ
Rn=-=-- =
e e e
Because this is based on flexural yielding,<!>= 0.9, and Q = 1.67.
 11.9 Seated Connections 375

For the limit state of shear yielding, the gross area of the angle leg at this same location
is used. Because this is beyond the angle fillet, the angle thickness is used to determine the
gross area and

Rn = 0.6F_vLta
For the limi{ state of shear yielding, <t> = 1.0 and Q = 1.5.
EXAMPLE 11.6a
GOAL: Design an unstiffened welded seated connection.
Seated Connection
Design by LRFD GIVEN: An unstiffened welded seated connection is shown in Figure 11.12. A W l6x 36 beam
is framing into a W 14x90 column. The beam has an LRFD required strength of V,. 35 kips. =
The beam and column are A992 and the angle is A36. From Manual Table 1- 1, k der = 11/s in.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the minimum required bearing length for web yielding.
R, 35/( 1.0) . I .
Nmin = --
F y fw
- 2.5k =
(50)(0.295)
- 2.5(0.832) = 0.293 Ill. < kder = 1 /H Ill.

Step 2: Determine the minimum required bearing length for web crippling, assuming that
Njd < 0.2

N - 15.9 [ 35/0.75 0.295 ] (0.430) I.S

- 1 -- - -0 726 < k
mm - -3- (0.40)(0.295i 29.000(50)(0.430) 0.295 - · tlet

Thus,N k det= =
1.125 in.and N / d = =
1.125/ 15.3 0.0735 < 0.2sothecorrectequa-
tion has been used and the bearing length is taken as the minimum required length of
1.125 in
Step 3: Determine the eccentricity to be used in calculating angle thickness.
Assume an angle thickness of 1/2 in.
N 1.125 3 1 .
e=
2 + 3/8-£ 11 = - -
2
+ S- 2 = 0.438m.
Step 4: Determine the m.inimum required angle thickness based on the limit state of flexural
yielding.

Center line of Web

1 - - - - W14x90

-1 1- lw = 0.440 in.

Wl6x36
b,= 6.99 in.
1 =0.430 in.
1
d= 15.9 in.
1• . = 0.295 in.
kdet =I in.~
kdes = 0.832 in.

L4x4xlhx 0 ft-8 in.

Figure 11.12 Unstiffened Seated Beam Connection for Example 11.6.

376 Chapter II Simple Connections

Assume an 8.0-in. long angle ~o that it extends beyond the beam flange on both sides
and

4(35/0.9)(0.438) 8 .
(36)(8.0) = 0.4 6 ln.

Step 5: Detem1ine the mi11imum angle thickness for the limit state of shear yielding
v, (35/ 1.0) 2 .
I min = 0.6F, L = 0.6(36)(8.0) = O. 03 tn.

Step 6: Check the selected angle thickness.

The 1h -in. angle provides a thickness greater than each of the minimums determined
in Steps-land 5. Thus. the 1f2-in . angle is adequate.
Step 7: Determine the required weld size.
Use Manual Table 8-4 to accou111 for the eccentricity.
The eccenu·icity for the weld is taken from the center of bearing to the face of the
supporting column which yields
3 1.125
e = ~ +- 2
- = 1.3 1 in.

Assuming an angle with a 4.0-in. outstanding leg.

e 1.3 1
a = -L = -4.0 = 0.328
From Manual Table 8-4. the coefficient i~ determined fork = 0 through interpolation as
C = 2.97, so the minimum weld is
Ru 35
0 3 93
""" = 4>CCt L = 0.75( 1.0(2.97)(4.0)) = ·
Therefore, the calculated minimum weld is 1j.,. in. and the angle is a 4 x 4 x 1/2, as shown
in Figure I I. 12.
Note: In addition to the seat angle. a top clip angle is needed to provide lateral
stability. This angle is not nom1ally designed to support any load and is usually a 1/4-in.
angle attached with two bolts to the beam and the supporting member.

EXAMPLE 11.6b
GOAL: Design an unstiffened welded seated connection.
Seated Connection
Design by ASD GIVEN: An unstiffened welded seated connection is shown in Figure I 1.1 2. A W 16 x36 beam
is framing into a W 14 x 90 column. The beam has an ASD required strength of Va ::::: 23 kips. The
beam and coluiTUl are A992 and the angle is A36. From Manual Table 1-1. = 11/ 8 in. k".,
SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the minimum required bearing length for web yielding.
R, . 1.5(23) . I .
Nmin = - - - 2.5k = ( - 2.5(0.832) = 0.259 111. < kd~, = 1/8 m.
F),tW (50 ) 0.295)
Step 2: Determine the minimum required bearing length for web crippling, assuming that
Njd < 0.2

15.9 [ 23(2.00) 0.295 ] (0.430) l.S

Nmin = - 3- (0.40)(0.295) 2 29,000(50)(0.430) - 1 0.295 = -0. 849 < kd.,
 I 1.9 Seated Connections 377

Thus, N = kdet = 1.125 in. and N I d = I. J 25I 15.3 = 0.0735 < 0.2 so the correct equa-
tion has been used and the bearing length is taken as the minimum required length of
1.125 in.
Step 3: Detem1ine the eccentricity to be used in calculating angle thickness.
Assume an angle thickness of 1/2 in.
N 1.125 3 I .
e= + 318 - t11 = - 2 - + S - 2 = 0.438 m.
2
Step 4: Determine the minimum required angle thickness based on the limit state of flexural
yielding.
Assume an 8.0-in. long angle so that it extends beyond the beam flange on both sides
and

4(1.67(23))(0.438) = 0.483 in.

(36)(8.0)

Step 5: Determine the minimum angle thickness based on the limit state of shear yielding.

. - ~- 1.50(23) -0 200"
lnun - 0.6F,. L - 0.6(36)(8.0) - . Ul.

Step 6: Check the selected angle thickness.

The 1/2-in. angle provides a thickness greater than each of the minimums determined
in Steps 4 and 5. Thus. the 1/2-in. angle is adequate.
Step 7: Determine the required weld size.
Use Manual Table 8-4 to account for the eccentricity.
The eccentTicity for the weld is taken from the center of bearing to the face of the
supporting column which yields
3 1.125
e = - + -- = 1.31 in.
4 2
Assuming an angle with a 4.0-in. outstanding leg
e 1.31
(/ = - = - = 0.328
L 4.0
From Manual Table 8-4, the coeffi cient is determined fork = 0 through interpolation as
C = 2.97. so the minimum weld is
0.R11 2.00(23) = _
0 3 87
"1; 11 = CC, L = ( 1.0(2.97)(4.0))
Therefore. the calculated minimum weld is 114 in. and the angle is a 4 x 4 x 1/2, as shown
in Figure 11.12.
Note: In addition to the seat angle, a top clip angle is needed to provide lateral
stability. This angle is not normally designed to suppo11 any load and is usually a '14-in.
angle attached with two bolts to the beam and the supponing member.

A <;ti ffened seated connection is shown in Figure L1.1 e, and a detail of the stif-fened
~eated connection is ~how n in Figure 11.11 b. Thi s type of connection is used when the loads
are too large to be supported by an unstiffened seat. The stiffener can be a single plate, the
stem of a Tee. or the back-to-back leg~ of a pair of angles. A plate on top of the stiffene r
provides for the bearing surface and the location of the bolts required to attach the beam
flange to the seat. The limit states for this connection are the same as for the unstiffened
378 Chapter ll Simple Connections

connection already discussed but also include the additional limit state of punching shear
in the supporting member.
Punching shear on a column web will not be critical if the following parameters are
met:
1. The simplified approach is applicable to columns in the following depths with weights
per foot no less than: Wl4x 43, W l2x40, Wl0x33, W8x24, W6x20, and W5x 16.
2. The width of the stiffener W is no greater than 7.0 in.
3. The beam is bolted, not welded. to the bearing p late at a point no greater than W/2
or 2'/s in. fro m the column face.
4. The top angle must have a minimum thickness of 1/ 4 in.

The eccentricit) of the beam reaction is taken as 0.8W when determining the strength of
the weld or bolt group connecting the seat to the supporting member. Part J0 of the Manual
provides table~ for the design of stiffened seated connections.

11.10 LIGHT BRACING CONNECTIONS

Bracing connections have as many potential , ·ariations as do the simple shear connections
discussed above. Figure 1 1.13a shows a bolted-welded tension brace connection and Figure
I l.l3b shows a welded-bolted tension brace connection. lt is also permissible to have a
welded-welded connection or a bolted-bolted connection although these are not illustrated
here.
The limit states for these connections have already been addressed. For the bolted-
welded connection, shown in Fig ure ll. l3a. they are:
1. Angles
a. Tension yielding
b. Tension rupture
c. Bolt bearing and tear-out
d. Block shear rupture
2. B olts
a. Shear rupture

I
I

w.p.r/

(a ) (b)

F igure 11.13 Light Bracing Connections.

 II.! 0 Light Bracing Connections 379

3. Gusset plate
a. Tension yielding
b. Tension rupture
c. Bolt bearing and tear-out
4. Welds
a. Weld rupture for combined tens ion and shear

For the welded-bolted connection, Figure ll.l3b, the limit states are:

1. Angles
a. Tension yielding
b. Tension rupture
2. Welds
a. Weld rupture
3. Tee stem
a. Tension yielding
b. Tension rupture
c. Block shear
d. S hear yielding
4. Tee flange
a. Flange bending
b. Shear yielding
c. Shear rupture
d. Bolt bearing and tear-out
e. Block shear
5. Bolts
a. Combined shear and tension
6. Column flange
a. Flange bending
b. Bolt bearing and tear-out
7. Column web
a. Web yielding

Although they appear to be simple connections, light bracing connections require checking
for quite a number of different limit states. Three of these limit states have not previously
been addressed ( 1) tension rupture and tension yield on the Whitmore Section, (2) limit state
of bolt rupture due to combined shear and tension, and (3) high-strength bolts in tension
with prying action.
Figure 11.14 shows a single-angle brace attached to a gusset plate with welds along
the sides of the angle. Research has shown that the distribution of stresses from the brace
through the welds into the gusset is such that the entire width of the gusset is not effective
if it exceeds the width defined by a 30-degree angle from the beginning of the connection
to the end of the connection. This widtJ1 is defined as the Whitmore Section. When the
gusset is w ider than the Whitmore Section, only the Whitmore Section can be considered to
resist the force and when the Whitmore Section is wider than the available plate dimension,
only the width of the plate at the connection end can be considered to resist the force. If
the connection is bolted rather than welded as shown, the Whitmore Section distribution
starts at the first bolt and proceeds to the last bolt in the connection. This is illustrated in
Example 11.7.
380 Chapter II Simple Connections

.,
I '
I ~

l'o·'',
....' _1__ ..........

critical
section
I _6

:30°, ~\~; /
;
"' - T

I
•'

Figure 11.14 Whitmore Section in a Gusset Pl,nc.

EXAMPLE 11.7 GOAL: Determine the available strength of a gu,~et plate connected to a double-angle brace.
Tapered Gusset Plate
Strength GIVEN: T he gus:.et plate portion of the connecll~m i-. shown in Figure 11 . 15. The brace is a double
angle bolted to a tapered gusset with the uimen-.Jons as shown in Figure 11.15b. The plate is A36
steeL

SOLUTION Step I: Determine the width of the plate at the location of the last bolr.
This is also the location of the \\ h1tmore Section. By proportions, as seen in Figure
11.15c

X 7.25
-=--
1.0 10.25

Therefore. x = 0.707 in. and the width of the plate at this location is W = 5.0 +
2(0.707)=6.41 in.
Step 2: Determine the width of the Whitmore Section using the geometry shown in Figure J l . l5d.

W = 2(6 tan(30 )) = 6.93 in.

Step 3: Determine the width to be used to detennine the plate strength.
Becau e the actual plate width at this location is less than the Whitmore Section. the
actual plate width is used to determine the strength of the plate.
Step 4: Determine the nominal strength for the limit state o f plate yielding.
The gros" area at the critical location is

A~= 6.41(0.5) = 3.2 1 in.1

and the nominalten,ilc strength is

1;, - (36)(3.2 1) = 11 6 kips

Step 5: For LRFD. the design tensile strength is

<~T.. = 0.9( 11 6) = 104kips

 II. I0 Light Bracing Connections 381

;;,:,,.. ,

-- T I
Sin . -

_!
T

[1/4 in.
3 in. 3in. 3in. 3in.
llhin.
(a) (b)

.r = 0.707 in.
"-j
+
- .--,"
I
7 in.
-t
<D 0 0
I 5 in.
I
3Af in. ! 300
....

LI --- - - - ~-----= - j_
I 3 - 11/.tin.
I ll. 3 Ill. 3 Ill. 3 in. 3 in.
(c) (d)

Figure 11.15 Tapered Gusset Plate for Example 11.7.

Step 5: For ASD. the allowable tensile strength is

( 116) .
T" = - -
1.67
= 69.5 kips

Step 6: Determine the nominal strength for the limit state of plate rupture .
The net area at the same location is

A,. = (6.41 - (3/4 + I /8))(0.5) = 2. 77 in.2 > 0.85A 8 = 0.85(3.2 1) = 2.73 i n.2
Therefore, using the maximum permitted net area for a connecting element, from Speci-
tication Section J4.l, the nominal tensile strength is

T., = (58)(2.73) = 158 kips

382 Chapter ll Simple Connections

Step 7: For LRFD. rhc design tensile strength is

1 <~T,. = 0.75(158) = 119kips 1

Step 7: For AS D. the allowable tensile strength is

T. (1-8)
___!: -- _ ) - -- 79.0 kips
Q 2.00

Step 8: Detem1ine the strength of the gusset plate based on the controlling limit state.
The de~ign strength oft he gusset is <1;>T,, = I 04 kips, based on the Limit state of yielding.
The allo'' able tensile strength of the gusset is T,,/ Q = 69.5 kips, based on t he limit state
of~ ielding.

EXAMPLE 11.8 GOAL: Determine the available strength of a gusset plale of uniform width.
Uniform Width Gusset
GIYE:\: Detennine the available strength of a g usset plate for the same situation as in Example
Plate Strength
I I. 7. e\~ept that the plate is a uniform width or 8.0 in. The plate is again A36 steel.

SOLUTION Step I: Detenninc the controlling width at the crit ical section.
The width of the plate at the location of the last bolt is given as 8.0 in.
The width of the Whitmore Section is determined using the same geometry as shown
in Figure 11.15d. which again yields

W = 2(6 tan(30 )) = 6.93 in .

In rhis ca'ie. the actual plate width is greater than the Whitmore Section so the WhiU110re
Settion \\ idth is used to determine the strength of the p late.
Step 2: Detem1ine the nominal tensile strength for the limit state of plate yielding.
The gro~-. area at the critical location is

A 11 = 6.93(0.5) = 3.47 in. 2

The nominal tensi le strength is

T,, = (36)(3.47) = 125 kips

Step 3 : For LRFD, Lhe design tensile StJ"engtll is

~T,, = 0.9( 125) = 113 kips

 II. JO Light Bracing Connections 383

Step 3: For ASD. the allowable tensile !'>trength is

T,, (125)
- = - - = 74.9 kips
Q 1.67

Step~: Determ ine the nominal :.trcngth for the limit state of plate rupture.
The net are<l at the ""me location is
A,= (6.93- (3/-l- I ~))(0.5} = 3.03 in. 2 > 0.85A~ = 0.85(3.47) = 2.95 in.<
Therefore. using the ma\lmum permirted net area for a connecting element
1;, = (58}(2.95) = 171 kips

tep 5: For LRFD, the ue\Ign o;trength i!>

d>T,, = 0.75(171) = 128 kips I

Step 5: For ASD. the allowable strength is

T,, = (I 7 J) = 85.5ki s
Q 2.00 p

~tep 6: Determine the strength of the gu~:-.et plate ba!.ed on the controlling limit state.
The design strength of the uniform-width gusset is limited to <f>T,, = 113 kips. again
based on the limit state of yielding. The allowable strength is T,, / Q = 74.9 kips based
on the limit state of yielding. Note that there is no advantage to using a plate wider than
6.93 in.

The ne:-..t limit state to address is high-strength bolrs in combined shear and tension. A bolt
1oad~d in combined shear and tension has a reduced capacity to resist shear in a bearing-type
.:onnecuon due to the presence of tension. ln a slip-critical connection. the tension reduces
the ..:ontact force and, rhus. lowers the shear required to cause the connection to slip. These
reduLiions must be accounted for in the design of connections where these combined lim it
'tate ... occur.
Te:--h have shown thalthe interaction of shear and ten~ ion in a bearing-type connection
can be fairly well predicted through an elliptical interaction curve. However, for simplicity.
the Specification has adopted three su·aight lines to approximate the ellipse. Both the ellipse
and 'traight line are shown in Figure I I .16. Section 13.7 gives two equations for this
interaction . one for ASD and one for LRFD. where the nominal tensile stress including the
effect!'> of -,hear-tension interaction is
I F,ll .
F,11 = l.3F,u - - - j,, :::: F111 (LRFD)
d>F,/1
I · QF,II
F111 = l .3F,,- --.f,. :::: F,,, (ASD)
Fm·
384 Chapter I I Simple Connections

\ 0.3$F111 Or
\ 0.3F11,/Q
\
ij>F,., or F111.10. ~

0 B
Rcq uired shear stress.;;,

Figure 11.16 Shear-Tension Interaction for Bolts.

where
F,11 = nominal tensile stress for tension alone from Specification Table 13.2
F111• = nominal shear stress for shear alone from Specification Table 13.2
f, = required shear stress
These two equations can be combined and written in terms of nominal strength if the required
hear ~rreso;. .f,., is combined with 4> and Q to give the nominal shear stress including the
effect of shear-tension interaction. Thus
I J,.
F, 11
• =~ (LRFD) or = Qj,. (ASD)

1.01-----..

0.3

0 0.3 1.0

Figure Il.17 Modified Shear-Tension Interaction for Bolts.

 II. I0 Light Bracing Connection 385

so that

F,,11 -_ 1.3F111 _ F;ll Fm,

'< _ F111
F;l\.
If this equation is then divided by F,;l' another form of the interaction equation results as

F,;, = 1.3- F,; 1, < 1.0

F,, Fm· -
This relationship is shown in Figure 11.17.
In a slip-critical connection, the shear-tension interaction equation serves a different
purpose. In this case. shear is assumed to be transferred by friction between the plies. The
strength of the connection, therefore, is a lineal' function of the force compressing the plies.
This force is the initial pretension, T/J, m.inus the applied load, T . The specified lip-critical
shear value is, therefore, reduced by the factor. (l - T I T!J). The actual reduction factor is
provided in Specification equation 13-5, again with one for ASD and one for LRFD.

EXAMPLE 11.9a
GOAL: Determine the strength of a connection using bolts in combined shear and ten ion al1CI
Bolts in Combined Shear
compare to the applied load.
and Temion by LRFD
GIVEN: An inclined hanger that supports a dead load of 10 kips and a live load of SO kip~ is
shown in Figure 11 . 18. The connection uses four 1.0-in. A32S-N bolts.

SOLU110N Step 1: Determine the required strength for the appropriate load combination.

R" = 1.2( 10.0) + 1.6(50.0) = 92.0 kips

Step 2: Determine the force assigned to each bolt in tension and shear.

Bolt Tension = sin(30°) ( -92.0- ) = 11.5 kips

4

Bolt Shear= cos(30°) ( 92.0) = 19.9 kips

4
11.5
Bolt Tensile Stress = fr = - - = 14.6 ksi
0.785

. 19.9
Bolt Shear Stress = j,. = _
0 785
= 25.4 ks1.
Step 3: Determine the reduced nominal tensile stress.
The nominal shear and tensile stress from Specification Table J3.2

F,11• = 48 ksi
F," = 90 ksi
and the nominal shear stress including the effects of tension-shear interaction is
25
F' = f ., = .4 = 33 .9 ksi
Ill' Q> 0.75
Thus

F,ll = J .3 F,ll - -~
I
. F,ll' = 1.3(90) -
I (~)
- (33. 9) = 53.4 ::: 90
F"'. 48
386 Chapter I I Simple Connections

Step 4: Check the design tensile stress vs. the required tensile stress.

[ <I>F,;, = 0.75(53.4) = 40.1 ksi > 14.6ksi

Thus. b: LRFD, the bolts are adequate.

EXAMPLE 11.9b
GOAL: Determine the strength of a connection using bollS in combined shear and tension and
Bolts itt Combined Shear
compare ro the applied load.
and Tension by ASD
GIVEN: An incli ned hanger that supports a dead load of 10 kips and a live load of 50 kips is
shown in Figure I I .18. The connection uses four 1.0-in. A325-N bolts.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the required strength for the appropriate load combination.

R0 = I 0.0 + 50.0 = 60.0 kips

Step 2: Detem1i.ne the force assigned to each bolt in tension and shear.

Bolt Tension = si.n(30 )C~· 0 ) = 7.50kips

Bolt Shear= cos(30 ) ( 60.0) = 13.0 kips

4

. 7.50
Bolt Tens1le Stress= .r, = - -
./I 0.7 85
= 9.55 ksi

13.0
Bolt Shear Stress = f.. = - - = 16.6 ksi
0.785

T
F igure 11.18 Connection for Example I I .9.
 I J .10 Light Bracing Connections 387

Step 3: Determine the reduced nominal tensile stress.

The nominal shear and tensile stress from Specification Table J3.2
F,11= 48 ksi
F," = 90 ksi
and the nominal shear stress including the effects of tension-shear interaction is

F~•. = 0..f,. = 2.00(16.6) = 33.2 ksi

Thus

F,lfI = l.3F,I , -~- F,,., =

F,/1'
1
1.3(90)- (00)
-
48
(33.2) = 54.8:::: 90
Step 4: Check the allowable tensile stress vs. the required tensile stress.

F' 54.8 . _ .
__!!!. = - - = 27.4 ks1 > 9.5.:> ks1
Q 2.00

Thus. by ASD, the bolts are adequate.

When high-strength bolts are installed with an initial pretension, they act as a clamp,
holding the two connected elements together. Figure 11. 19 shows a typical tension hanger
where the bolts are expected to carry the applied tension load. Any pretension from the bolt
actually causes a compressive force to develop between the connected parts. Application
of the applied load reduces the contact force but has little effect on the bolt tension, as
long as contact is maintained between the plates. Once the plates are separated. the initial
conditions have no influence and the bolt force must equal the applied load.
lfthe attached element, in this case the ftangeofthe Tee, is permitted to deform. as shown
in Figure 11.20, additional forces develop at the Lips of the flange. These additional forces,
q. are the result of prying action and are called the prying forces. There is a relationship
between the thickness of the flange and the prying force. When t is large, the plate does
not bend and no prying action takes place. When t is small. bending of the plate may be
extensive and the prying force may be large. Prying action may be completely eliminated in
a design by selecti ng a sufficiently thick plate, although this may not be a practical solution.
It may also be avoided if washers are used to keep the flange from coming in contact with
the support; however, this, too, is normally not desirable.

B B

~
2T
Figure ll.19 Hanger Connection with Bolts
in Tension.
388 Chapter II Simple Connections

Bolt force
Prying

,-1_, f
'
force q
r--A-.,

Figure 11.20 Tee Deformation with

Applied force Prying Action.

The details for design of this type of connection including prying action are given in
Part 9 of the Manual. It suggestes that the minimum plate thickness to eliminate prying
action be determined. If this is a reasonable thickness. no fUJther action is required. If this
thickness is not reasonable for the details of the design, a design that takes into account
prying action should be undertaken with a goal of having a reasonable combination of
strength and stiffness that results in an economical connection.
Figure 11.21 shows a WT section used as a hanger attached to the supporting member
with bolts. The dimensions given are u~ed to determine a relationship between the fiexural
strength of the flange and the applied load. The applied load is 2T so that the load per bolt
is T. It is not a simple matter to determine the actual moment in the flange but the design
approach gi,·en assu mes that b' will be a good representation of the moment arm so that the
moment i-; Mr = Tb' . It has also been found that the strength should be calculated in terms
of F11 rather than F,.. So, using a tributary width of plate associated with each bolt. p, the
nominal moment
2
1
M I I_- F:II P min
4

<I>= 0.9 (LRFD) Q = 1.67 (ASD)

Setting the required strength equal to the available strength yields the following equa-
tions

~.44T,,b' 6.66T,,b'
lmin = t
¥ pF,,
(LRFD) lmin = (ASD)

~ 2T Figure 11.21 Force Equilibrium Considering Prying

Action.
 I I. J 0 Light Bracing Connecti on~ 389

EXAMPLE ll.lOa
GOAL: Detem1ine whether the WT hanger connection is adequate without cons idering pr~ ing
Hanger Connectio1l by action.
LRFD
GfVEN: A WT9 x48 ..5 section. A992 steel. is used a~ shown in Figure 11.21 to carry a dead
load of 20 kips and a live load of 60 k.1p~. Four % -in. diameter A325 bolts are used in a 9-in. long
fitting.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the moment arm.//. based on the properties of the section.

r1 =0.870in.. t,. =0.535in .. b1 = ll.lin .. gage=4in .. p=9 2= -1-.5in.

b = ~gage-
2
1,.
= (4.0-20.535) = 1.73 in.

, dh % .
b = b- 2 = J.73 - 2 = 1.29 Ill.

Step 2: Determine the force per bolt.

J;, = 1.2(20.0) + 1.6(60.0) = 120 kips

120 .
Tr, = = 30.0 k1ps/bolt
4
Step 3: Detem1ine the minimum flange thickness to ignore prying action.

4.-l-4(30.0)( _ -- 0 . 766.Ill.
1.29)
lmm = _ ___;__ _ _
4.5(65)

Step 4: Compare the available thickness with the required thickness.

''"'"' = 0.766 in. < r1 = 0.870 in. ,

Because the actual liange thic"ness is greater than the minimum, the WT9 x -1-8.5 is
adequate without considering prying action.

EXAMPLE ll.lOb
GOAL: Determine whether the WT hanger connectio n is adequate without considering prying
Hanger Connection
action.
byASD
GIVEN: A WT9x48.5 section. A992 steel. is used as shown in Figure 11.21 to can·y a dead
load of 20 kips and a live load of 60 kips. Four 7/s-in. diameter A325 bolts are used in a 9-in. long
fitting.

SOLUTION Step J: Detem1ine the moment arm, b', ba~ed on the properties of the section.

t1 = 0.870 in .. r.. = 0.535 in.. b1 == ll.l in .. gage= 4 in .. p = 9/2 = 4.5 in.

b = gage- t,. = (4.0- 0.535) = 1_73 in.

2 2
7
8
b'==b- dl> = 1.73- / = 1.29in.
2 2
390 Chapter I J Simple Connections

Step 2: Determine the force per bolr.

r;, = 20.0 + 60.0 = 80.0 kips

80.0
Ta =4 = 20.0 kips/bolt

Step 3: Determine the minimum flange thickness to ignore prying action.

6.66(20.0)(1.29) = 0. in.
lmin = = 766
pF, 4.5(65)
Step 4: Compare the available thickness with the required thickness.

I fmin = 0.766 in. < fJ = 0.870 in. I

Because the actual flange thickness is greater than the minimum, the WT9x48.5 is
adequate without considering prying action.

11.11 BEAM-BEARL'lG PLATES AND COLUMN BASE PLATES

The connections discussed throughout this chapter transfer force through a series of con-
necring elements to a supporting member. Two other types of simple connections deserve
menrion here. the beam bearing plate and the column base plate. These plates transfer a
force through direct bearing from one member to another member or diJ:ectly to a support.
Although these plates are used in two very different applications, the actual behavior of
each i ~ quite similar.
For design of the plate, three properties must be determi ned: the width and breadth
which re ulr in an appropriate area, and the thickness. The area of the plate is determined
by assessing the limit states of the supporting member or material and those of the member
applying the force to the plate. The thickness of the plate is determined through the limit
state of fiexural yielding of the plate.
To determine rhe required plate thickness for either type of plate, two primary assump-
tions are made: ( I) the plate exerts a uniform pressure on the supporting material, and (2)
the plate is treated as a cantilevered strip that is l.O in. wide. For a bending cross section
1.0 in. wide with a th.ickness. 1,. the nominal fkxural strength for the limit state of yielding
is

For a uniform contact pressure between the plate and the supp01ting material, /p, and a
cantilever length./, the required moment strength for the cantilever is
 I I. 12 Problems 391

For LRFD, the required plate thickness can be obtained by setti ng the design moment equal
to the required moment where the required moment is obtained using f 11 , thus

<J>M, = Mr

<PP:v t~ = ful 2
4 2
which yields

lp = 1.491 [!:
yF;
Similarly, for ASD, using j~

M,
- = Mr
Q

F_,t~ fn1 2
4Q 2
which yields

fp = 1.831 rr:
yF;
The determination of the cantilever distance, 1, to be used in the case of a beam-bearing
plate or a column-base plate is addressed in Manual Part 14.

11.12 PROBLEMS
For Problems I Lhrough 6, use 5/ win. A36 angles, 3/4-in. A325-N 6. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a W8 x 40,
bolts in standard holes. and uncoped beams. A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of 8 kips and a live load
1. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a reaction of 24 kips. The supporting member is not critical. De-
W 18 x 50, A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of 15 kips sign by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
and a live load reaction of 45 kips. The beam is connected to the For Problems 7 through 12, use 5/win. A36 angles. % -in. A325-
flange of a Wl4x 109. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. N bolts in standard holes, and assume that the beams are coped
2. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a so that the edge distance is 11/ 4 in. Assw11e that the supporting
W27 x I 02. A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of 30 kips member is not critical.
and a live load reaction of 90 kips. The beam is connected to the 7. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a
web of a W36 x 135. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. W30x 191, A992 beam spanning 40ft and carrying a total uni-
3. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a formly distributed dead load of60 kips and live load of 180 kips.
W24x 146, A992 beam LO carry a dead load reaction of 25 kips Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
and a live load reaction of 75 kips. The beam is connected to the 8. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a
flange of a W 14x 132. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. WJ8x76, A992 beam to support a dead load reaction of 16
4. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a kips and a live load reaction of 48 kips. Des ign by (a} LRFD and
W l6x67, A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of 20 kips (b) ASD.
and a Live load reaction of 60 kips. The supporting member is 9. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a
not critical. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. W21 x 68, A992 beam spanning 20 ft and carrying a total uni-
5. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a formly distributed dead load of 28 kips and live load of 84 kips.
W l8 x 143, A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of 25 kips Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
and a live load reaction of 75 kips. The supporting member is 10. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a
not critical. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. W24 x 84, A992 beam to support a dead load reaction of 25
392 Chapter J 1 Simple Connections

kips and a Uve load reaction of 75 kips. Design by (a) LRFD and is coped so that the edge distance is 1 1/ 4 in. Design by (a) LRFD
(b) ASD. and (b) ASD.
11. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a 21. Design a welded-welded single-angle connection for a
Wl2 x87. A992 beam to support a dead load reaction of 14 coped WI6x67, A992 bean1 sparming 20ft and canying a to-
kips and a Iive load reaction of 42 kips. Design b) (a) LRFD and tal unifom1ly disrributed dead load of 12 kips a nd live load of
(b) ASD. 36 kips. A~sume the beam is coped so that the edge distance is
12. Design an all-bolted double-angle connection for a 11/ 4 in. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
Wl6 x 67, A992 beam spanning 20ft and carrying a total uni- For Problems 22 through 25, use a %-in. thick, A36, shear tab
fomlly distributed dead load of 23 kips and live load of 69 kips. and % -in. A325-N bolts. Assume that the supporting member is
Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. not critical.
For Problems 13 through 18, use 70-ksi welding electrodes and a 22. Design a shear tab connection for an uncoped W 18 x 50.
connection welded to the beam web being supported and bolted A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of 10 kips and live load
to the supporting member. Use ~1 6-in. A36 angles and :lj4-in. reaction of 30 kips.
A325-N bolts in standard holes. 23. Design a shear tab connection for an uncoped W27 x I02.
13. Design a welded-bolted double-angle connection for an A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of 15 kips and a live
uncoped W 18 x 50, A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of load reaction of 45 kips.
15 kips and a live load reaction of 45 kips. The beam is connected 24. Design a shear tab con11ection for a coped W2J x 68, A992
to the flange of a W14x 109. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. beam spanning 20 ft and carrying a total uniformly distributed
14. Design a welded-bolted double-angle connection for an dead load of 23 kips andl live load of 70 kips. Assume that the
uncoped W27 x I02, A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of edge distance ar the cope is 1 1/~ in.
30 kips and a live load reaction of90 kips. The beam is connected
25. Design a shear tab connection for a coped W 18 x76, A992
to the web of a W36 x 135. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
beam to carry a dead load reaction of J 0 kips and a live load
15. Design a welded-bolted double-angle connection for an reaction of 30 kips. Assume an edge distance of 11/ 4 in.
uncoped W24 x 146, A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of
26. Design a welded seated connection for a W16x26, A992
25 kips and a live load reaction of75 kips. The beam is connected
beam framing inro rhe web of a W 14x99 column. The seat must
to the flange of a W 14x 132. Design b~ (al LRFD and (b) ASD.
carry a dead load reaction of 6 kips and a Uve load reaction of
16. Design a welded-bolted double-angle connection for a 18 kips. Use an equal leg A36 angle and E70 electrode.
coped W18x76, A992 beam to support a dead load reaction
27. Design a welded seated connection for a W 18 x 40, A992
of 16 kips and a live load reaction of ~8 kips. Assume the beam
beam framing into the web of a W 14 x I09 column. The seat must
is coped so that the edge distance is 1 1/~ in. Design by (a) LRFD
carry a dead load reaction of 10 kips and a live load reaction of
and (b) ASD.
30 kips. Use an equal leg A36 angle and E70 electrode.
17. Design a welded-bolted double-angle connection for a
28. Design the connection for an A36 double-angle tension
coped W 12 x 87, A992 beam to suppon a dead load reaction
member connected to a uniform-width A36 gusset plate. The
of 14 kips and a live load reaction of 42 kips. Assume the beam
angles are 4 x 4 x 1h and carry a dead load of I 0 kips and a live
is coped so that the edge distance is 11/ 4 in. Design by (a) LRFD
load of 30 kips. The angles are connected to the gusset plate by
and (b) AS D.
a single line of'/4-in. A325-N bolts. The gusset plate is welded
18. Design a welded-bolted double-angle connection for a perpendicular to the axis of the member with welds from E70
coped W 16 x 67, A992 beam spanning 20 ft and carrying a total electrodes. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
uniformly distributed dead load of 23 kips and live load of 69
29. An inclined WT ha11ger is used to support a tension mem-
kips. Assume the beam is coped so that the edge distance is 11/ 4
ber carrying a dead load of 8 kips and a live load of24 kips. The
in. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.
force is applied at an angle of 45 degrees from the horizontal
For Problems 19 through 21, use 3/ -in. A36 angles and % -in.
8 and is transferred by four- A325-N bolts. Detennine whether
A325-N bolts in standard holes. the bolts have s ufficient strength to carry the applied load by (a)
19. Design a bolted-bolted single-angle connection for an W1- LRFD and (b) ASD.
coped Wl8x50. A992 beam to carry a dead load reaction of 8 30. A WT7x24, A992 steel is used as a tension hanger with
kips and a live load reaction of 24 kips. The beam is connected four %-in. A325-N bolts in the flanges similar to lhat shown in
to the web of a W360 x 150. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. Figure 11.2 1. The hanger must resist a dead load of I I kips and
20. Design a welded-bolted single-angle connection for a a live load of 33 kips. Determine whether prying action must be
coped W 12 x 87, A992 beam to supporr a dead load reaction included ro determine the connection strength by (a) LRFD and
of 7 kips and a live load reaction of 21 kips. Assume the beam (b) ASD.
Chapter 12

Orange County Convention Center

Photo counesy Walter P Moore

Moment Connections

12.1 TYPES OF MOMENT CONNECTIONS

Although they are called moment connections, these connection~ are expected to transfer
both shear and moment between the connected members. The moment connections defined
by the Specification are either Type FR (fully restrained) or Type PR (partially restrained).
The impact of these connection types on the behavior of a steel frame was discussed in
Chapter 8. Figure 8.18, shown here as Figure 12.1. shows three moment-rotation curves for
connections with distinctly different behavior. For full) re•mained connections, the moment
i<; transferred while the relative rotation of the members rem aim. Lero. For partially restrained
connections. the moment is transferred while some predictable relative rotation is permitted.
For the simple shear connection as discussed in Chapter 11. no moment is expected to be
transferred and the connection is assumed to rotate freely. The rigid and simple connection
behavior shown in Figure 12.1 illustrates that real connection behavior does not exactly
follow the ideal behavior demonstrated by the vertical axis for a rigid connection and the
horizontal axis for the simple connection.
Five moment connections that are common for connecting bemns framing into rhe
strong axis of columns are illusu-ated in Figure 12.2. For the first four examples, which

393
394 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

FR Cfully restrained)

Figure 12.1 Connection Behavior.

include the direct welded flange (Figure 12.2a), the welded flange plate (Figure 12.2b). the
bolted flange plate (Figure l2.2c), and the bolted Tee (Figure l2.2d), shear is transferred
through a web connection similar to those discussed in Chapter Ll whereas the moment is
transferred through the various flange connections. In the extended end plate connection.
Figure 12.2e. shear and moment are combined and transferred through the connecting plate
and bolts.

I A A A A A

lr'
~
I ~ @
@ @ @
@ ~ @ @
@ @ @
@ @ @
lr- lr- ..--
h
'II' ... .... '\!' .,.

(:I) Direct-welded tlange Cb) Welded !lange plate (c) Bolted tlnngc plate

p.
il'
@
@
@
@
@
II>

P>

(d) Bolted tee (e) Extended end plate

Figure 12.2 Moment Connections.
 12.2 Lim1t States 395

Because shear is resisted by the web of a wide flange beam. it is logical that the
shear force is transferred through the web connection to the supporting member. Similarly.
because the moment is resisted primarily through the flange of a wide flange beam, the
flange connections primarily transfer the moment to the supporting member. Because of
the moment resistance provided by the flanges, there is no need to consider eccentricity in
the design of the web shear connection. Thus, the web plate or angles are sized to resist
only shear, simpl ifying the connection design. The flange connection is designed to resist
the full moment, even though the Ranges do not actually carry this full moment. Through
strain hardening, and in combination with some moment strength of the web connection,
the flange connections are capable of developing tbe full moment.
The welded flange connection. Figure 12 .2a. is the most direct moment connection and
requires the fewest number of parts. The flanges are field welded to the supporting member
with complete joint penetration groove welds. The web connection is usually a single plate
welded to the column and bolted to the beam. Tn this an·angement, the flange force, P1 , is
determined by dividing the moment by the distance between flange midpoints. Thus
Mr
PJ= - - -
(d- lj)
The flange plated connections, Figure 12.2b and c, transfer the flange forces to the cor-
respondi ng plates through either bolt shear or weld shear. The plate force is then transferred
to the supporting member through welds. The flange plate connectors, bolts or welds. are
s ized to resist the force developed at the plate-flange interface. Thus
Mr
Pf = -
d
The bolted Tee connection, Figure 12.2d, is needed when the connection to the sup-
porting member must be bolted. Although this connection is not as clean and simple as the
flange-plated connections, it provides a solution for when there is a compelling reason to
require an all-bolted connection. The connection to the beam flange is treated as with the
flange plate connections and the connection to the support is treated similar to the tension
connection discussed in Chapter 11.
The extended end plate connection shown in Figure l2.2e represents a connection that
may take a variety of forms. The end plate is fully welded to the end of the beam and then
bolted to the support. The end plate must extend beyond the beam flange on the tension side
o that a minimum of four bolts can be symmetrically spaced with the flange located at the
bolt centroid. If an extended end plate connection is called upon to resist a moment that is
always in the same direction, it may be extended on only one side. However, if the moment
is expected to reverse, the plate must be extended beyond both the top and bottom flanges.
Table 12.1 lists the sections of the Specification and parts of the Manual discussed in
this chapter.

12.2 LIMIT STATES

The limit states that control the strength of these connections are the same as those that have
already been considered for the shear connections. Their specific application depends on
the complete connection geometry and the forces that the elements are expected to caJTy.
These limit states include
1. Bolts
a. Shear rupture
b. Tension
396 Chapter !:?. Moment Connections

Table 12.1 Sections of Specification and Pans of Manual Found in this Chapter

Specification

B~ Classification of Sections for Local Buckling

D3 Area Determination
Fl 3 Proportions of Beams and Girders
12 Welds
J4 Affected Elements of Members and Connecting Elements
J 10 Flanges and Webs with Concenu·ated Forces

Manual
Part7 Design Considerations for Bolts
Part 8 Design Considerations for Welds
Part 9 Design of Connecting Elements
Part 10 Design of Simple Shear Connections
Part 15 OP.~ig n of H::tnger r.onnections. Rracket Plates, ancl r.rane-Rail Connections

c. Shear-ten<;ion interaction
d. Bearing/tear out
2. Welds
a. Tension rupture
b. Shear rupture
3. Plates
a. Compression buckling
b. Ten~ion yielding
c. Tension rupture
d. Shear yielding
e. Shear rupture
f. Block shear
4. Beam
a. Flexure of reduced section
b. Shear yield
c. Shear rupture
fn addition to these limit states. which are all associated with the beam side of the
connection, the designer must consider the impact of the connection on the column to
which it is attached. These limit states include
5. Column
a. Flange local bending
b. Web local yielding
c. Web local crippling
d. Web compression buckling
e. Web panel zone shear

12.3 MOMENT CONNECTION DESIGN

D esign of moment connections is presented in two parts. First, examples are given for a
direct welded beam-to-column connection. a welded flange plate connection, and a bolted
flange plate connection. These examples treat the beam side of the connection without
considering the column to which the connection is attached.
 12.3 Moment Connection Design 397

This is followed with a discussion of the limit states associated with the column and
examples are given to illustrate that design process.

12.3.1 Direct Welded Flange Connection

The direct welded flange moment connection provides an FR connection with very few
connecting elements. As the name implies, the flanges are directly welded to the supporting
member, usually the flange of a column. These welds are either complete joint penetration
groove welds or a pair of fillet welds on each side of the beam flanges. The groove weld
provides a weld that can be made in the downward position for both flange:. whereas the
fillet welds require overhead welding on the bottom of each flange. The on!~ limit state to
consider for the flange connection is tension or shear rupture of the weld.
The web connection is usually made with a single plate, the same as the shear tab
simple connection discussed in Chapter I I. However, unlike the shear tab connection, the
web plate in this F R connection does not need to account for any eccentricity because the
flanges are designed to carry all of the moment. The limit tates for the web connection are
those previously discussed for the shear tab.

EXAMPLE 12.la
GOAL: Design a direct welded beam-to-column momeut connection.
Direct Welded Moment
Connection by LRFD GIVEN: A direct welded beam-to-column moment connection is shown in Figure 1.2..2a. The
beam is a W24x76 and the column is a WL4x 109. Bolts are % -in, A325-N and the electrodes are
E70. The shapes are A992 steel and the plate is A36. The required strength is M, = 500 ft-kips
and Vu = 60.0 kips.

SOLUTION Step 1: Obtain the beam and column properties from Manual Table 1-1.

Beam - W24x76 d = 23.9 in. b1 = 8.99 in.

/ 11• = 0.440 in. I1 = 0.68010.
Z = 200 in. 3

Column-WJ4xl09 d= 14.3in. bi = l-l.6in.

t.., = 0.525 in. r1 = 0.860 in.
Step 2: Check the flexural strength of the beam.
Tbis check should have been made during design of the beam. Because the beam
section is not reduced because of bolt holes in the flange. M r can be determined using
the gross section plastic section modulus as
o .9(50)(200) . . _ . .
<j>M" = <j>M1, = 12
= 750 lt-k1ps > ::> 00 ft-ktps

Thus, the flexural strength is adequate.

Step 3: Design the flange-to-column weld.
The flange-to-column weld can be either a complete joint penetration groove weld
(CJP) or fillet welds. CJP welds are used in this example. Because they will develop
the full strength of the beam flanges. no further calculations are needed.
Step 4: Design the web plate.
First consider the shear rupture of the bolts to determine the minimum number of
bolts required.
For a % -in. A325-N bolt, <j>r11 = 15.9 kips, therefore
60
Required number of bolts = --
15.9
= 3.77
398 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

Thus. try a four-bolt connection with bolt spacing of 3.0 in. and end distances of 1.5
in. Thus. L = 12.0 in.. which is greater than T / 2 = I0.4 in. Assume that the plate has
r= % in.
Step 5: Determine the bolt beruing strength.
For the last bo lt, determine the clear distance.
I
L , = 1.5 - 2:(3/4 + 1/ 16) = 1.09 < 2(3/4) = 1.5

Thus. tear-out controls and the bolt nominal strength is

R11 = 1.2( 1.09)(0.375)(58) = 28.4 kips
For the other bolts

Lr =3.0-(3/ 4 + l / 16)=2.19>2(3/ 4)= 1.5

Therefore, bearing will control, and the bolt JlOI11inal strength is

R11 = 2.4(3/4)(0.375)(58) = 39.2 kips

Thus. for the four-bolt connection. the des.ign strength is
Q>R,, = 0. 75(28.4 + 3(39 .2)) = 110 > 60.0 kips
Step 6: Check the plate for shear yield.

A8 ,. = (0.375)( 12.0) = 4.50 in. 2

Q>V,, = 1.0(0.6(36))(4.50) = 97.2 > 60.0 kips
Step 7: Check the plate for shear rupture.

A 11,. = ( 12.0- 4(3/ .f + 1/ 8))(0.375) = 3.19 in. 2

Q>V" = 0.75(0.6(58))(3.19) = 83.3 > 60.0 kips
Step 8: Check the block shear of the plate.
First calculate the required areas.

A 111 = (l.5 -~(3/4 + 1/8))(0375)= 0.398in.l

A8 ,. = 10.5(0.375) = 3.94 in. 2
A111• = ( 10.5 - 3.5(3 / 4 + l / 8))(0.375) = 2.79 in. 2
Consider shear yield and shear rupture and select the least stre ngth, thus
0.6F,.AK,. = 0.6(36)(3.94) = 85.lldps
0.6F.,A111 = 0.6(58)(2.79) = 97.1 kips
Selecting the sheru· yield term and combining it with the tension rupture term gives a
connection block shear strength. with Ubs = 1.0. of

Q>R" = 0.75(85.1 + 1.0(58)(0.398)) = 8 1.1 > 60.0 kips

Step 9: Check the beam web for bolt bearing.
Because the beam is not coped. there is no need to check the c lear distance for the
top bolt. Thus, for each bolt Lc = 2. 19 > 2ej4 ) = 1.5 in. so the bo lt nominal strength
based on bearing is

R, = 2.4(3/ 4)(0.440)(65) = 51.5 kips

and for the four-bolt connection the design strength is

Q>R, = 0.75(4(5 1.5)) = 155 > 60.0 kips

 12.3 Moment Connection Design 399

_j_
,....., O 1.5 in.
...__
@)
}.oin.
@ 0
:.
@ O ±.Oin.
@) .0 in.
h 0
1.5 in.
2in. 1-lf
v --j f- 1.5 in.
(a)
(b)
Figure 12.3 Connection for Example 12.1.

Step 10: Select the plate-to-column weld.

Based on a fillet weld on each side of the plate, with a weld design strength of 1.392
kips/in./sixteenth
60.0
D = = 1.80 sixteenths
(2( 1.392)(12.0))
T herefore. use a 3/ 16-in. weld, the minimum weld for the 3/ 8-in. plate. as given in
Specification Table J2.4.
Step 11: Final design.
F igure 12.3 shows the final design using

four %-in. A325N bolts in a 3 1/2- x 12.0- x %-in. plate

EXAMPLE 12.1b
GOAL: Design a direct welded beam-to-column moment connection.
Direct Welded Moment
Connection by ASD GIVEN: A direct welded beam-to-column moment connection is shown in Figure l2.2a. T he
beam is a W24x76 and the column is a Wl4x 109. Bolts are % -in., A325-N and the electrodes are
E70. The shapes are A992 steel and the plate is A36. The required strength is Ma = 333ft-kips
and Va = 40.0 kips.

SOLUTION Step 1: Obtain the beam and column propetties from Manual Table 1-I.

Beam - W24 x76 cl = 23.9 in. b1 = 8.99 in.

r.., = 0.440 in. r1 = 0.680 in.
Z = 200.0 in. 3

Column- WJ4x 109 d = 14.3 in. b1 = 14.6 in.

r.,. = 0.525 in . r1 = 0.860 in.
400 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

Step 2: Check the flexural strength of the beam.

This check should have been made during design of the beam. Because the beam
section is not reduced because of bolt holes in the tlange. M P can be detennined using
the gross section plastic section modulus as
M,
Q =
M
d' = (50)(200)
!.
67
( 1)
12
=499ft-kips > 333 rt-k.ips

Thu~. the flexural strength is adequate.

Step 3: De~ign the flange-to-column weld.
The flange-to-column weld can be eid1er a complete joint penetTation groove weld
(CJPl or fillet welds. CJP welds are used in this example. Because they will develop
the full strengt.h of tJ1e beam flanges, no further calculat.ions are needed.
Step 4: Design the web plate.
First consider tJ1e shear rupture of t.he bolts to determine the minimum number of
bolts r~quired.
For a :%-in., A325-N bolt. i'r = I 0.6 kips, !Jlerefore

040.0
Required number of bolts= - = 3.77
I 0 .6

Thus. try a four-bolt connection ""ith bolt spacing of 3.0 in. and end distances of 1.5
in. Thus, L = 12.0 in., which is greater than T /2 = I0.4 in. Assume that the plate has
t = ''IN in.
Step 5: Determine the bolt bearing strength.
For the last bolt, determi ne the clear distance.
• 1
L,. = 1.)- "2(3/4+ 1/ 16) = 1.09 < 2(3/4) = 1.5

Thus tear-out controls and the bolt nominal strength is

R11 = 1.2( 1.09)(0.375)(58) = 28.4 kips

For the other bolts

L,=3.0-(3/4+ 1/16)=2.19>2(3/4)= !.5

Therefore, bearing will control. and the boll nominal strength is

R" = 2.4(3/4)(0.375)(58) = 39.2 kips

Thus. for the four-bolt connection, the allowable strength is
(28.4 + 3(39.2))
nR" = 2
.00 = 73.0 > 40.0 kips

Step 6: Check dle plate for shear yieiJ.

A~,. = (0.375)(12.0) = 4.50 in.1

6 36 4
V" = (0. ( ))( .SO) = 64.8 > 40.0 kips
1.5
Step 7: Check the plate for shear rupture.
A,,.. = ( 12.0- 4(3/4 + I/8))(0.375) = 3.19 in?
v, (0.6(58))(3.19) - 55 - 40 0 k.i
Q = 2.00 - .:> > · ps
 12.3 Moment Connection Design 401

Step 8: Check the block shear of the plate.

First calculate the required areas.

A 111 = ( 1.5 -1 (3/4 + l /8)) (0.375) = 0.398 in.1

A 8 ,. = I 0.5(0.375) = 3.94 in 2

A,, = ( 10.5- 3.5(3/4 + 1/8))(0.375) = 2.79 in.:

Consider shear yield and shear rupture and select the least strength. rhus

0.6F,.Ax•· = 0.6(36)(3.94) = 85. I kips

0.6F,,A,,.. = 0.6(58)(2.79) = 97.1 kips
Selecting the shear yield term and combining it with the tension rupture term gives a
connection block shear allowable strength, with Ubs = 1.0, o f

nR, __ (85.1 + 1.0(58)(0.398))

_
2 00
_ OO .
_ 54.1 > 4 . k1ps

Step 9: Check the beam web for bo lt bearing.

Because Lhe beam is not coped, there is no need to check the clear distance for the
top bolt. Thus, for each bolt L ,. = 2.19 > 2(%) = J .5 in. so the bolt nominal l>trength
based on bearing is

R" = 2.4(3/4)(0.440)(65) = 51.5 kips

and for the four-bolt connection, the allowable strength is

R, = (4 (5 LS)) = 103 > 40.0 kips

n 2.00
Step 10: Select the plate-to-column weld.
Based on a fillet weld on each side of the plate, witb a weld allowable strength of
0.928 kips/in./sixteenth
40.0
D= = I .80 sixteenths
(2(0.928)( 12.0))
Therefore, use a 3/ 16-in. weld, the minimum weld for the % -in. plate. as given in
Specification Table J2.4.
Step 11: Final design.
Figure 12.3 shows the final design using

fou r ~4 -in .. A325N bolts in a 3 Y2 - x 12.0- x %-in. plate

12.3.2 Welded Flange Plate Connection

The welded flange plate connection replaces the directly welded flanges with plates that are
welded to the supported beam flange and to the supporting column. The web connection
is usually the typical single plate shear connection. To accommodate the plate-to-beam
flange weld, the top flange plate must be kept to a width at least 1.0 in. less than the beam
402 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

flange width and the bottom flange plate is at least 1.0 in. greater in width than the beam
flange width. Manual Figure 8- 11 provides minimum shelf dimensions for specific fill et
weld sizes.
The limit '> tate;., associated with the tension flange plate are yielding, rupture, a nd block
shear whereas tho<-e associated w ith the compression flange plate are yielding, local plate
buckling, and compression buckling. These limit states are evaluated in Example 12.2.

EXA~lPLE 12.2a
GOAL: De<.ign a welded flange plate beam-to-column moment connection.
Welded Flange Plate
.Homeut Connection
GIVEN: A \\elded flange plate beam-to-column moment connection is shown in Figure 12.2b.
byLRFD The beam is a W 18 x 50 and the column is a W 14 x 90. Bolts are Ja-in. A325-N and the electrodes
are E70. The shape<; are A992 steel and the plates are A36. The LRFD required strength is
M, = 250 ft-h.ip-.. and V, = 45 kips. Assume the mo ment will cause the top flange to be in tension
and the bottom flange ro be in compression.

SOLUTION Step 1: Obtain the beam and column properties from Manual Table 1-1.

Beam-W I8x50 d=l8.0in. b1 =7.50in.

t.. = 0.355 in. tr = 0.570 in.
Column- W 14x90 d = 14.0 in. b1 = 14.5in.
t ... = 0.440 in. r1 = 0.710 in.
Step 2: Determine the force to be carried in each flange plate.
Conservatively assume the moment arm is the depth of the beam. Thus
Mu 250(12) .
P, = - = - - - = 167klpS
d 18.0
S tep 3: Determine the minimum plate area based on the limit state of yielding.

P, 167 . ,
Ap = -
<j>F,
= 0 9 36 = 5.15 m.-
. ( )
The to p flange plate should be narrower than the beam flange to faci litate welding in
the down position. Therefore, try a % - x 6.5-in. plate. Ar = 5.69 in. 2
Step 4: Check the plate for tension rupture.
The shear lag factor. U, for a welded joint is given in Specification Table D3. 1 Case
4. Here it is nored thatthe lowest value for U is 0.75 . This value is used as a conservative
approach at this time. Thus

P, = UF,A" = 0.75(58)(5.69) = 248kips

and

<I>P, = 0.75(248) = 186 > 167 kips

Thus. the tension rupture limit state does not control regardless of the fi nal weld length.
Step 5: Select the fillet weld size based on weld rupture.
The minimum size weld for a 7/ 8 -in. plate attached to a 0.570-in. beam flange, based
on Specification Table J2.4. is 1/ 4 in. Therefore, determine the required length of a pair
of 1/"·in. fillet welds on the sides of the flange plate.

167
L = 2 (1.3 92(4 )) = 15.0 in.
 12.3 Moment Connection Design 403

r-lf2 in.

t---- 15.0 in. lf2 in. r·--- 16.5 in. ---lI

1 : I

6.5 in. : : : :: : :: : :: : : : : ] ::: : ::::::::::: : : ~

_L_ : I
I

lf2in.

(a) Top flange plate (b) Top flange block shear

y
/ plate 6112 in. x I ft-5 in. x 7fs in.

fL--

lr------

\ plate 8112 in. x 1 ft-2 in. x 5fs in.

A
y
(c) Connection geometry
Figure 12.4 Connection for Example J 2.2 .

This length appears to be reasonable for this connection. Thus, the top plate is 6.5- x
17.0- x %-in .. as shown in Figure 12.4.
Step 6: Consider the block shear rupture of the top Range of the beam.
Because the plate is welded to the flange, the critical shear limit state is shear
yielding. For the two blocks on each side of the web, as shown in Figw·e 12.4b, the
required areas are

Ag,. = 16.5(0.570) = 9.41 in .2

A,1 = ~(0.570) = 0.285 in.2

and the design strength is

<j>R, = 2[0.75(0.6(50)(9.4 I)+ 1.0(65))(0.285)] = 451 > 167 kips

Step 7: Determine the required compression flange plate.

This plate must be checked for local buckling and overall buckling. As a starting
point, assume that yielding will be the controlling limit state. Thus. the same area will
be required as for the tension plate. However, this plate should be wider than the bea m
flange so that the welds can again be placed in the downward position . Assume a plate
v. idth of 8.5 in. Thus
5. 15
lp = - - = 0.606 in .
8 .5
Select a %-in. plate for further consideration.
404 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

Step 8: Check the compression plate for local buckling.

Local buckling of the compression plate is checked with the wi.dth/thick.ness limits
from Specification TableB4.1. The width of plate between welds is treated as a stiffened
plate and the width that projects beyond the weld is treated as an unstiffened plate.
For the stiffened plate, Case 14

b 7.5 If
- = -06 = 12.0 < 1.49 - =42.3
f . 25 F_,.
For the unstiffened plate. Case 3

b 0.5 If
- = -6- = 0.80 < 0.56 - = 15.9
t 0. 25 F,.

So the plate strength is not limited by local buckling.

Step 9: Determine the compressive strength of the plate.
The plate is assumed to have a length for compression buckling of 2.0 in. from the
column flange to the end of the weld, as shown in Figure 12.4a. The effective length
factor is taken as 0.65, the value recommended in the Commentary for a fixed-fixed
column. Determine the slenderness ratio for this plate.

(0.625)2 = 0.180
12

KL = 0.65(2.0) = 7 _22
r 0.180
For compression elements that are part of connections, Specification Section 14.4 in-
dicates that, when the slenderness ratio is less than 25. Fa = F ,.. Thus, the selection
of this plate for y ielding, as was originally done, is conect and t.h e 8.5- x %-in. plate
is acceptable for the compression limit states.
Step 10: Determine the welds required to connect the flange plates to the column flange.
The force to be transferred is the same for both plates. A comparison of the plate
width with the column ftange width shows that they are compatible because each
plate is narrower than the column flange width, h1 = 14.5 in. In addition, the force is
perpendicular to the weld so the weld strength can be increased by 1.5. Thus. for fillet
\\ eldc; on both the top and bottom of the plate

D = 167 = 40.0
1.5( l.392)(2bp)
For the to p flange plate
..J.O.O
D = -6 .5- = 6.15 sixteenths. therefore use a pair of 7/win. welds

For the bottom flange plate

D = -~.
-
0 -
= 4.71 sixteenths. therefore use a pair of )/win. welds
8 .5
Step 11: Final design.
The web connection design that was demonstrated in Example I 2.1 a must also be
can·ied out here. The final geomeu·y for the welded flange plate connection is shown
in Figure 12.4.
 12.3 Moment COJUlection Design 405

EXAMPLE 12.2b
GOAL: Design a welded flange plate beam-to-column moment connection.
Welded Flange Plate
Moment Connection GIVEN: A welded flange plate beam-to-colunm moment connection is shown in Figw-e 12.2b.
byASD The beam is a Wl8x50 and the column is a W14x90. Bolts are 7; 8 -in., A325- N and the elec-
n·odes are E70. The shapes are A992 steel and the plates are A36. The ASD required strength is
Mt1 = 167ft-kips and Vn = 30 kips. Assume the moment will cause the top flange to be in tension
and the bottom flange to be in compression.

SOLUTION Step 1: Obtain the beam and column prope1ties from Manual Table 1-J .

Beam - Wl8x50 d = 18.0in. br = 7.50in.

t11• = 0.355 in. t1 = 0.570 in.

Colmru1- WJ4x90 d = 14.0 in. bf = 14.5 in.

lw = 0.440in. It= 0.710in.
Step 2: Determine the force to be carried in each flange plate.
Conservatively assume the moment arm is the depth of the beam. Thus
M, 167(12) .
P" = - = = I 11 kJpS
d 18.0
Step 3: Determine the minimum plate area based on the I imit state of yielding.
QPa 1.67( !11 ) . 2
A,=--= . =5. 15m.
Fy (36)
The top nange plate should be narrower than the beam flange to facilitate welding in
the down position. Therefore, try a%- x 6.5-in. plate. A,= 5.69 in. 2
Step 4: Check the plate for tension rupture.
The shear lag factor, U, for a welded joint is given in Specification Table D3.1 Case
4 . Here it is noted that the lowest value of U is 0.75. This value is usetl as a conservative
approach at this time. Thus
P,. = UF11 A, = 0.75(58)(5.69) = 248 kips
and
248
P,. = ( ) = 124 > Ill kips
Q 2.00
Thus, the tension rupture limit state does not control regardless of the final weld length.
Step 5: Select the fillet weld size based on weld rupture.
The minimum size weld for a 7/ 8-in. plate attached to a 0.570-in. beam Range, based
on Specification Table J2.4, is 1/ 4 in. Therefore, determine the required length of a pair
of 1/4 -in. fillet welds on the sides of the flange plate.

Ill 15 0.
L = 2(0.928(4)) = . m.

This length appears to be reasonable for this connection. Thus, the top plate is 6.5- x
17.0- x %-in., as shown in Figure 12.4.
Step 6: Consider the b.lock shear rupture of tbe top flange of the beam.
Because the plate is welded to the flange, the critical shear limit state is shear
yielding. For the two blocks on each side of the web, as shown in Figure I 2.4b. the
406 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

required areas are

A~,= 16.5(0.570)=9.41 in. 2

Am = i<0.570) = 0 .285 in. 2

and the allowable strength is

+ 1.0(65))(0.285) ]
-R,.
Q
= 2 [ (0.6(50)(9 .-ll)2.00 .
= 300 > lll kipS

Step 7: Detemune the required compression flange plate.

Thi-, plate must be checked for local buckling and overall buckling. As a starting
point. a:.stune that yielding will be the controlling limit s tate. Thus. the same area will
be reqUJred as for the tension plate. However, this plate should be wider than the beam
flange <;O that the welds can again be placed in rhe downward position. Assume a plate
width of 8.5 in. Thus

'r = -5.15
- = 0.606 in .
8.5
Select a %-in. plate for further consideration.
Step 8: Check the compression plate for local buckling.
Local buckling of the compression plate is checked with the width/thickness limits
from Specification Table B-.f-1. The width of plate between welds is treated as a stiffened
plate and the width rhat projects beyond the weld is treated as an unstiffened plate.
For the stiffened plate. Case 1-1.

-b = -6
1.5- = 12.0 < 1.49 ~
- = 42.3
I 0. l25 F,

For the unstiffened plate, Case 3

0.55 =0.80 <0.56 ~

-bI = 06 - = 15.9
. 2 F,.
So the plate strength is not limited by local buckling.
Step 9: Determine the compressive strength of the plate.
The plate is assumed to have a length for compression buckling of 2.0 in. from the
column !iange to the end of the weld. as shown in Figure 12.4a. The effective length
factor i~ taken as 0.65. the value recommended in the Commentary for a fixed-fixed
<.:olumn . Determine the slenderness ratio for this plate.

co.62W
-~ =0. 1 80
12

KL = 0.65(2.0) = 7 ??
,. 0.180 ·- -
For compression elements that arc part of connections, Specification Section J4.4 in-
dicates that, when the slendemess ratio is less than 25, f;., = F). Thus, the selection
of this plate for yieldi ng. a~ was originaUy done. is correct and the 8.5- x %-in. plate
is acceptable for the compression limit stales.
Step 10: Determine the welds requiJed to connect the ftange plates to the column flange.
The force to be transferred is the same for both plates. A comparison of the plate
width with the column flange width shows that they are compatible because each
plate is narrower than the column flange width. b 1 = 14 .5 in. In addition. the force is
 I 2.3 Moment Connection Design 407

perpendicular to the weld so the weld strength can be increased by 1.5. Thus, for fillet
welds on borh the top and bottom of the plate
III 39.9
D=------
! .5(0.928)(2h") bp
For the top Range plate
39.9 . . . .7 •
D = --- = 6.14 Sixteenths. there lore use a pa1r of {16-m. welds
6.)
For the bottom Oange plate

D = -39.9
- =
8.5
. . -
4.69 ~1xteenths. therefore uc;e a pa1r of ·'/16 -in. '' eld~

Step 11: Final design.

The web connection design that was demonstrated in Example 12.1 b must also be
carried out here. The final geometry for the welded flange plate connection is <;hewn
in Figure 12.4.

12.3.3 Bolted Flange Plate Connection

The bolted nange plate connection i~ similar to the welded flange plate connection e\cept
that the artachment of the plate to the beam flange i~ through bolts. The addition or bolts
to the beam tension flange means that a new limit state, the flexural strength or the beam
based on rupture of the tension flange, must be a!)scssed. The other limit states that re~ult
from the use of bolts have been described c:everal times and are applicable again here.
The bolted nange plate connection is an effective connection from the erection stand-
point. The plates can be shop-welded to the column nange and the beam inserted between
the plates and bolted in the field. To accommodate this lield erection process. the top plate
is usually set a bit high and a filler used once the beam is in place.
T he following example demonstrates the limit stale checks associated with the transfer
of the flange force. as was done for Example 12.2. The web connection will not be designed
because no new limit states are to be considered.

EXAMPLE 12.3a
GOAL: Design a bolted flange plate beam-to-column moment connection.
Bolted Flange Plate
Moment Connection
byLRFD GJ\ E:":: A boiled flange plate beam-to-column moment connection is shown in Figure 12.2c.
Thi' ~.-onncc.:tion i<; to be designed for the ~ame condition~ a~ those in Example 12.2a. The beam
i'> a\\' IS x 'iO anJ the column is a W 14x90. Bolts are ~8 - in.. A~25-N and the electrodes are E70.
The 'hapes are -\992 'teet and the plate j<; A36. The required slrength is M11 =250ft-kips and
I·., = 45.0 k1p~. \''-lllne the moment will cause the top llange to be 111 tension and the bonom
!lange to be in Cllmpre...,ion.

SOLUTION Step l: Dc.:tcrmme the beam ami L:olumn pwperties.

The member dimen,iorl'; <tre the <;ame a'> I hose given for Example 12.2a. Jn audiuon.
for theW 18x50. rrom Manual Table 1-1. S, = 88.9 in. 3
Step 2: Check the reduced beam section for Aexure.
Allhough the connection has not yet been designed. it is known that at a section
through the connection. there wil l be two boll holes in the tension flange. This may
408 Chapter I~ Momem Connection~

reduce the strength of the beam below rhe required strength. If that is the case, there
"ill be no reason to continue v. ith this connection design. Thus, the provisions of
Spect rication Section Fl3 must be applied for the limit state of rupture of the tension
tlange.
Determine the gross and net areas of the tension flange.

Ah = 7.5(0.570) = 4 .28 in. 2

11..~1 = (7.5- 2(7/8 + 1/8))(0.570) = 3.14in. 2
Che..:k the yield stress to tensile strength ratio to determine a value for Y1 .
F, 50
- = - = 0.76 < 0.8
F, 65
There tore. for all A992 shape!>. Y1 = 1.0 and for this W l8x50 beam with a pair of
hole-. tor "/s-in. bolts

F,/\. 1~ = 50(-l-.28) = 214 kips

F11 A,., = 65(3.14) = 204 kips
BeL..Juse F,,A111 < Y1 F, J\liP the nonunal moment strength is limited by Specification
Equation F 13-l to

F,A1, 204 ( I )
M, = - . .
At~
-s, = -4.28
( 88.9) -
12
=353ft-kips

and

cpM 11 = 0.9(353) = 318 > 250 fl-kips

So the flexural strength is adequate.

Step 3: Check the flange plate for tension yield.
The flange plate will like ly be similar to the one used in Example J2 .2a. Try a
7 1/4- x 3k in. plate

A ~ = 7.25(0.750) = 5.44 in.~

cpR 11 = 0.9(36)(5.44) = 176 > 16 7 kips

Step~: Check the plate for tension rupture.

A 11 = (7 .25 - 2(7 /8 + I/8))(0. 750) = 3 .94 in.1

cpR 11 =0.75(58)(3.94)= 171 > 167kips
So the plate si1.e is adequate based on tension.
Step 5: Determine the number of bolts required based on the bolt shear rupture.
First con<;ider the shear rupture of the bolts to determine the minimum number of
bolts required.
For a 7js-in. bo lt. from Manual Table 7-1. cpr11 = 21.6 kips, therefore
. 167
Reqwred nw11ber of bolts= - - = 7.73
21.6
Thus. try an eight-bolt connection with bolt spacing of 3.0 in. and end distances of at
least twice the bolt diameter so that the full bolt strength can be used.
Step 6: Determine the bolt bearing strength on the plate.

R11 = 2.4(7/8)(0.7 50)(58) = 91.4 kips

Thus. for the eight-bolt connection in the plate, the design streng th is

cpR 11 = 0. 75(8)(9 I .4) = 548 > 167 kips

 12.3 Moment Connection Design 409

-j _ lf!in.
.
I 3/4 10. -
1
3 in. 1 3 in. 3 in.
• . , . •
1
I •

1
r- 13/4 in.
!
: 0- 17/g in.
-
- ----....,
L---=~~_:-~~~-_:-~=
1--------------
1
-- 1_
31/_1 in.!
: <;>----o--o---o- 17/Rin.

(a) (b)

Figure 12.5 Connection for Example J 2.3.

Step 7: Determine the bolt bearing strength on the beam flange. again assuming that all bolts
have sufficient dear distance to be controlled by bearing.

R, = 2.4(7 /8)(0.570)(65) = 77.8 kips

Thus. for the e ight-bolt connection in the beam nange. the design strength i~

cj>R, = 0.75(8)(77.8) = 467 > 167 kips

The assumption of an end distance of 2dh is no t a problem because if only six bolts
were considered. the limit state of bolt bearing would still not be c ritical.
Step 8: Check the plate for block shear rupture.
Check the plate for block shear using the ge()metry shown in Figure 12.5. Because
there are two possible block shear failure patterns. o ne with the center portion fail ing
in tension and the other with the two outside portion~ failing in tension. the worst case
must be identified. The critical tension area for block s hear w ill be the one associated
with the least tension width. In this case it will be for the middle 3 1h in.-\ection and
the c ritical net tension area is

A111 = (3.5- (7/8 + 1/8))(0.750) = 1.88 in.J

and the shear areas arc

A ~, 10.75(0.750) = 8.06 in.2

A, = ( I0.75 - 3.5(7 /8 + 1/8))(0. 750) = 5.-W in."
Consider the shear yield and shear rupture and select the least ~Lrength. thus

0.6F,A~,. = 0 .6(36)(8.06) = 174 kips

0.6F,,A 111• = 0.6(58)(5.44) = 189 kip~
Selecting the shear yield term and combining it >A ith the tension rupture rerm g ives a
connection design block shear strength. with Uh, = 1.0. o f

<!>R, = 0.75( 174 + 1.0(58)( 1.88)) = 212 > 167 kips

Step 9: Check the beam nange for block shear.

In this case. the beam weh prevents a block shear failure in the middle portion so
check the sum of the two outer portion!..

A111 = 2(2.00 - ~(7 /8 + I /8)) (0.570) = 1.71 in.~

410 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

and the shear areas are

A~,.= 10.75(0.570) = 6.13 in.2

A111, = (I 0.75 - 3.5(7/8 + 1/8))(0.570) = 4.13 in.2

Con~1der the shear yield and shear rupture and select the least strength, thus

0.6FrAH = 0.6(50)(6.13) = 184 kips

0.6F,,A111 = 0.6(65)(4.13) = 161 kips

Selecting the shear rupture term and combining it with the tension rupture term g ives
u connection design block shear strength. with U1,; = 1.0. of

<j>R11 =0.75(161 + 1.0(65)( 1.7 1))=204> 167kips

Step 10: Check the compression plate for local buckling.
Tr~ the same plate as was used for the tension plate using the geometry given in
Figure l2.5a.
Check the plate for local buckling in a similar fashion to what was done for the
welded plate. In this case, the stiffened plate width is the distance between the bo lt
lines and the unstiffened width is from the bolt line to the free edge. Thus
For the stiffened plate

-" = -
I
3.5
-
0.750
= 4.67 < ff
I .49 -
F ,.
= 42.3
For the unstiffened plate

b 1.875 ~
- = - - = 2.::l0 < 0.56 -
I 0.750 F,
ff = 15.9
.

So the plate strength is not limited by local buckling.

Step 11: Check the compression plate for buckling over its length.
The distance from the column ftange to the first bolt is taken as the buckling length
of the plate. thus. L = 1.75 + 0.50 = 2.25 in. Assuming the effective length factor of
a fixed-fixed column. k = 0.65. is appropriate
2
(h2 ;0.750
r= VT2 = l 2 =0.2 17 in.

and
KL 0.65(2.25)
- = = 6 .74 < 25
,. 0.217
Thus. Frr = F,. and the strength is the same as for the tension yield limit state.
Step 12: Determine the welds required to connect the flange plates to the column flange.
The force to be transferred is the same for both plates. A comparison of the plate
width with the column flange width shows that they are compatible because the plates
are narrower than the column flange width, b1 = 14.5 in. In addition, the force is
perpendicular to the weld so the weld srrength can be increased by 1.5. Thus. for fi lle t
welds on both the top and botto m of the plate
167 40.0
D= ----~-----
1.5( 1.392)(2bp) bp
For both flange plates
40.0
D = --- = 5.52 sixteenths
7.25
therefore. use a pair of~8 -in. welds which exceeds the mini mum for this plate thickness.
 I 2.::1 Moment Connection De-..ign ~11

Step 13: Consider the web connection.

T he same web shear connection as was used in rhe welded flange plate connection
could be used in this connection.
Step 14: Final design.
The Aange plate~ ofthil> connection are 13- x 7 1/:.- x ·Y4 -in. v. ith e1ght %-in.. A325N
bolts, a:s shown in Figure 12.5a and b.

EXAMPLE 12.3b
GOAL: Design a bolted Aangc plate beam-to-column moment connection.
Bolted Flange Plate
Moment Connection GIVEN: A bolted flange plate beam-to-column moment connection is shown in Ftgurc 12.2c.
byASD This connection is to be designed for the same condition~ as those in Example 12.2b. The beam
is a W l8x50 and the column is a Wl4x90. Bolts are ~s-in .. A325-N and the electrode-. are E70.
The shapes arc A992 srcel and the plate is A36. The required strength is Ma = 167 ft-1-..ip,_ and
V" = 30.0 kips. Assume the moment will cause the top flange to be in tension and the bottom
flange to be in compression.

SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the beam ami column propetties.

The member dimensions are the same as those given for Example 12.2b. [n addition.
for the Wl8x50, from Manual Table 1-1 . S, = 88.9 in.'
Step 2: Check the reduced beam section for flexure.
Although the connection has not yet been designed. il is known that at a ~ection
through the connection. there will be two bolt holes in the tension nange. Thi:. may
reduce the strength of the beam below the required strength. ff that is the case. rhere
will be no reason to continue with this connection design. Thus, the prm i'ion-. of
Specification Section Fl3 muM be applied for the limit state of rupture of the tension
flange.
Determine the gross and net areas of the tension flange .
A111 = 7.5(0.570) = 4.28 in. 2
Aft, = (7 .5 - 2(7/8 + I /8))(0.570) = 3.14 in. 2
Check the yield stress to tensile strength ratio to determine a value for Y,.
F 50
--'-1 = - = 0.76 < 0.8
F, 65
TI1erefore. for all A992 shapes. Y, = 1.0 and for this Wl8x50 beam with a pair of
holes for ~~-in . bolls
F, A18 = 50(4.28) = 214 kip~
FuAJ;1 = 65(3. 14) = 204 kips
Because F11 A1,. < Y, F,.Arw the nominal moment strength is limited by Specification
Equation F 13-1 to

M
II
= -FuAfi,
Ajy I
20-l
.- S = -4.28 ( I )
(88.9) -
12
.
= 353 ft-k1ps
and
(353) ,
-MQ = -
11
- = 211 >
1.67
167ft-kips

So the flexural strength is adequate.

412 C hapter 12 Moment Connections

Step 3: Check the flange plate for tension yield.

The flange plate will likely be sirrtilar to the one used in Example 12.2b. Try a
7 1/ ;- x Y~-in. plate.
A 11 = 7.25(0.75) = 5.44 in. 2

R, = (36 )(5 _44) = ll7 >Ill kips

Q 1.67
Step 4: Check the plate for tension ruptw·e.

An = (7.25- :?.(7/ 8 + 1/8))(0.750) = 3.94 in. 2

R" = (58)(3 ..94) = tl4 > 11 J kips

Q 200
So the plate size is adequate based on tension.
Step 5: Determine the number of bolts required based on the bolt shear rupture.
Fin.t consider the shear rupture of the bolts to determine the minimum number of
bolts required.
For a '1s-in. bolt. from Manual Table 7-1, i
}'
= 14.4 kips, therefore

111
Required number of bolts= - - = 7.7 I
14.4
Thus. try an eight-bolt connection with bolt spacing of 3.0 in. and end distances of at
least twice the bolt diameter so that the full bolt strength can be used.
Step 6: Determine the bolt bearing strength on the plate.

R, = 2.4(7/ 8)(0.750)(58) = 91.4kips

Thus, for the eight-bolt connection in the plate. the allowable strength is
R11 (8)(91.4) .
Q = _
2 00
= 366 > Ill k1ps

Step 7: Determine the boll bearing strength on the beam flange. again assuming that all bolts
have sufficient clear distance to be controlled by bearing.

R, = 2.4(7/8)(0.570)(65) = 77.8 kips

Thus. for the eight-bolt connection in the beam flange, the allowable strength is

-R,.
Q
= ( 8)(7?.
2.00
8)
= "I
_, I > I I I k.ipS

T he assumption of an end distance of2d" is not a problem since if only six bolts were
considered. the limit state of bolt bearing would still not be c ritical.
Step 8: Check the plate for block shear mpture.
Check the plate for block shear using the geometry shown in Figure 12.5. Because
the re are two possible block shear failure patterns, one with the center portion faili ng
in tension and the other with the two outside portions fai ling in tension, the worst case
must be identifi ed. The critical tension area for block shear w ill be the one associated
with the least tension width. In this case it will be for the middle 3 1/2 in.-section and
the critical net tension area is

Am = (3.5 - (7/8 + I /8))(0.750) = 1. 88 in.2

and the shear areas are

Ag,. = 10.75(0.750) = 8.06 in. 2

Am· = (10.75- 3.5(7/8 + 1/8))(0.750) = 5.44 in. 2
 12.3 Moment Connection Design -U3

Consider the shear yield and shear rupture and select the least strength, thus

= 0.6(36)(8.06) = 174 kips

0.6F,. A~,.
0.6F"A"' = 0.6(58)(5.44) = 189 kips
Selecting the shear yield term and combining it with the tension rupture term gives a
connection allowable block shear strength, with U11 , 1.0, of=
R, = ( 174+ 1.0(58)( 1.88)) = 142
> I I I ki
n 2.00 ps
Step 9: Check the beam flange for block shear.
In this case, the beam web prevents a block shear failure in the middle porti on so
check the sum of the two outer portions.

Am = 2(2.00- ~(7 /8 + I/8) )<0.570) = 1.7 I in.2

and the shear areas are
A11,. = 10.75(0.570) = 6.13 in. 2
A111• = ( 10.75- 3.5(7/ 8 + I /8))(0.570) = 4.13 in.2
Consider the shear yield and sheru.· rupture and select the least strength. thus
= 0.6(50)(6.13) = 184 kips
0.6F,A 11 ,
0.6F A,, = 0.6(65)(4.13) = 161 kips
11

Selecting the shear rupture tetm and combining it with the tension rupture term g;, es
a connection allowable block shear strength, with Ubs = 1.0. of
R, (161 + 1.0(65)(1.71)) I k'
Q = .00 = I 36 > I I tps
2
Step 10: Check the compression plate for local buckl ing.
Try the same plate as was used for the tension plate using the geometr: gi,·en in
Figure L2.5a.
Check the plate for local buckling in a si milar fashion to what was done for the
welded plate. ln this case. the stiffe ned plate width is the distance between the bolt
lines and the unstiffened width is from the bolt line to the free eJge. Thus
For the stiffened plate

-bI = -3.5
- = 4.67 <
0.750
I .49
{f;
- = 42.3
Fy
For the unstiffened plate

t
1.875
-b = - - = 2.50 < 0.56 - = 15.9
0.750 F,
If
So the plate strength is nor limited by local buckling.
Step 11: Check the compression plate for buckling over its length.
The distance from the column flange to the first bolt is taken as the buckling length
of the plate, thus, L = 1.75 + 0.50 = 2.25 in. Assuming the effective length factor of
=
a fixed-fixed column, k 0.65, is appropriate

[h1{(052
r = yl2 = y -T-2 = 0.217 in.
and
KL _ 0.65(2.25) _
-- - 6.74 < 25
r 0.217
Thus, Fa = F, and the strength is the same as for the tension yield limit state.
414 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

Step 12: Detennine the welds required to connect tile flange plates to the column flange.
The force to be transfen·ed is the same for both plates. A comparison of the plate
\~ idth with the column flange width shows that they are compatible because the plates
are narrower than the column flange width, b1 = 14.5 in. Tn addition. the force is
perpendicular to the weld so the weld strength can be increased by 1.5. Thus, for fillet
welds on both the top and bottom of the plate

D= Ill 39.9
1.5(0.928)(2bp) b,>
For both flange plates

39.9
D = - - = 5.50 sixteenths
7.25

therefore. use a pair of}8-in. welds which exceeds the minimum for this plate thickness.
Step 13: Consider the web connection.
The same web shear connection as was used in the welded flange plate connection
could be used in this connection.
Step 14: Final design.
The flange plates ofth.is connection arc 13- x 7 Y4 - x %-in. with eight ~8 -in., A325N
bolts. as shown in Figures 12.5a and b.

12.4 COLUMN STIFFENING

The connection designs illustrated in the previous examples treated the beam side of the con-
nection. That is, they looked at only the connecting elements and their influence on the beam
to which they were attached. They did not consider, however, the influence of the connec-
tion and tran. fer of forces to the supporting element. Normally, a fully resu·ained moment
connection is made to the flange of a column. Th1s is the most efficient use of the column
because the strong axis is resisting the transferred moment.
As with each connecting element, the appli·cation of fo rce to a supporting element
requires a check of all applicable limit states. The typical moment connection, like those
illustrated in Figures I2.2a through 12.2c. results in the transfer of a concentrated force to
the column flange. The limit states for flanges and webs with concentrated forces that are
applicable to the beam-column connection are defined in Specification Section 110 as

1. Flange local bending

2. Web local yielding
3. Web crippling
4. Web compression buckling
5. Web panel zone shear

Application of these limit states vary, depending on whether the applied force is tension
or compression and whether the connection is on one side or both sides of the column. If
the limit states are exceeded, either the column section should be changed or stiffeners and
web doubler plates are required.
 12.4 Column Stiffening 415

-----
..._._

----
~
-... p
..._._

- - Figure 12.6 Flange Local Bending.

12.4.1 Flange Local Bending

Flange local bending (J I 0.1) is illustrated in Figure 12.6. This limit state is applicable only
where a tensile force is applied to the column ftange. The primary concern addres ed through
this limit state is the stress distribution in the weld if the flange deformation is excessive.
Thus, the limit on the applied force is set in order to prevent excessive defonnation. The
nominal strength for flange local bending is

R11 = 6.25fJ F_,f

and
~ = 0.9 (LRFD) Q = I .67 (ASD)
If the force is appl ied over a small central portion of the column flange, less than 15%
of the flange width, this limit state does not need to be checked because the force is applied
c lose to the column web and very little flange deformation occurs.
If the force is applied close to the end of the column, the distribution of the force within
the flange is limited by the proximity of the end of the column and the resulting deflection
increases. Thus, if the force is applied closer than 1Otf to the end of the member. the nominal
strength must be reduced by 50%. When this limit state is exceeded, a pair of half-deptl1
transverse stiffeners are needed.

12.4.2 Web Local Yielding

Web local yielding (J 10.2) is the same limit state that was considered for bearing of the
web in a seated connection as discussed in both Chapter J J and Section 6.14. Although
previously discussed for compressive forces, this limit state is also applicable to tensile
forces. Figure 12.7 illustrates the application of a concentrated force to the web of the

Figure 12.7 Distribution of Concentrated Forces on Column

Web.
416 Chapter 12 Moment Connections

column. Thi" force could be transfered through a directly welded beam flange or a beam
tlange plate. The bearing lenglh N is taken as the thickness of the plate applying the force,
or the plate thickness plus the weld width when attached with fillet welds. The force is
distributed in both directions. provided the connection is at least the depth of the column
from the column end. This distribution is on a slope of 2.5: I over the depth given by kdes in
Manual Table 1-1. ln this case

<!> = 1.0 (LRFD) Q = 1.50 (ASD)

If the connect ion is closer to the end of the column than the depth of the column, d, the
dist:Iibution of the force can take place in only one djrection and the factor 5 is replaced by
2.5. This is the relationship that was used for the seated connection. When this limit state
is exceeded. a pair of half-depth stiffener" or a web doubler plate is needed.

12.4.3 Web Crippling

Web crippling (J I 0.3) applies only to compressive forces. It is the limit state that predicts
the crumpling of the web beneath a compre!>!)ivc force. It is similar to local web yie lding
but occurs in more slender webs whereas local web yielding occurs in more stocky webs.
Web crippling strength depends on hmv close the force is applied w ith respect to the
column end. Fori llustration here. it is assumed that the force is at least d/2 from the column
end. When this limit state was considered for the seated connection, the force was assumed
to be applied less than d/2 from the end. The nominal strength for this case is given by
Specification Equation J I 0-4 as

2
R, = 0.80t11 [ 1 + 3 d lr )1.s] yru:;;
(N)(t" ----;: ---,-,-,
<!> = 0.75 (LRFD) Q = 2.00 (ASD)
If the web crippling limit state is exceeded. a pair of half-depth stiffeners or a half-depth
doubler plate are required.

12.4.4 Web Compression Buckling

Web compression buckling (J 10.5) applies only when compressive forces are applied o n
opposite sides of the column, putting the web into compression. If the forces are close to
the end of the column (less than d/2). the strength is reduced by 50%. The strength is given
by Speci Acation Equation J l 0-8 as

24t~.j£F:
R, = ---'-''---
h
<!> = 0.90 (LRFD) Q = 1.67 (ASD)
1f the web compression buckling limit state is exceeded, a single full-depth stiffener. a
pair of full-depth stiffeners, or a full-depth doubler plate are required.

12.4.5 Web Panel Zone Shear

Web panel -;.one shear (J 10.6) within the boundaries of a fully rigid connectio n may be
significant. The strength of the panel zone is based on shear yielding of the web unless a
 12.4 Column Stiffening 417

significant axial force also exists. In this case, shear/ax ial interaction is conside red. When
the effect~ of panel tone shear are not included in the strucwral anal~ ~is . the panel zone j,
expected to behave e lastically. If the behavior of the panel zone is included in the structural
analysis, the nonlinear behavior of the panel zone can be included and ito; strength increased
according ly. When panel-zone deformations are not included in the analysis, panel zone
strength g iven by Specification Section J I 0.6 is
For P,. .:S 0.4Pc

For P,. > 0.4 Pc

and

<!> = 0.90 (LRFD) Q = 1.67 (ASD )

where P, is the required strength and P, is the yield strength, Py for LRFD or 0.6P for
ASD. The panel zone strength must be sufficient to resist the to tal shear in the panel 7one.
including the story shear carried by the column web. When this limit state is exceeJed. a
fuJ1-depth doubler plate is required.
In the discussion of each of these limit states, the concluding statement indicared that if
the limit state was exceeded, a stiffener or doubler plate was required. Thus. rhi b a ··go-no
go" decision. It is possible that a stiffener may be required by a very small margin for
only one of these limit staLes. Unfortunately. stiffeners are an expensive element to add to a
connection. especially if they must be fitted between the column flanges as for a full-depth
stiffener. In many cases, it is much more economical LO have selected a column section
that may be larger than required for the axial load but avoids the requirement of stiffeners.
Stiffener requirements should not be left for the detailing stage of the de~ign process, but
addressed early in the design process so that these requirements are considered at a po int
in time when member sizes can still be revised.
If stiffeners cannot be avoided. they are designed to res ist a force calculated as the
applied force, either tension or compression, minus the resisting force as defined for each
limit state. This net force is resisted by the cross section of the stiffener~. which are sized
based on the provisions for tension or compression connecting elemems in Specification
Section J4. The Specification provides additional criteria for . tiffener~ and doubler plates
in Section 110.8 and 110.9.
The arbitrary dimensional requirements for stiffeners are as follows:

1. The width of each stiffener plus half the column \\ eb thickness must be greater than
o ne-third of the attached plate width. b, 2:: (hp/3 - t., / 1).
2. The thickness of the stiffener must be at lea!>t half the thickness of the attached plate
andat leasrtheplatewidthdividedb)' 15.!, 2::1,j!..andt., ::::bp/ 15.
3. Transverse stiffeners must abo extend at lea~t one-half the depth of the column.

The strength requirements are also found in these sections. For sti ffeners that resist
tension forces.the prO\ i~ion<.; of Specification Chapter D must be satisfied. The weld between
the loaded flange and sliffener must be <;izcd to transfer the load that must be carried by the
stiffener, and the weld to the web must transfer the difference between the forces o n each
end of the stiffener.
418 Ch<1pter 12 Moment Connections

The strength of a compression stiffener must satisfy the requirements for compression
connecting element~ found in Specification Section 14.4. The stiffener may be designed to
bear on the Joatlcd flange o r welded to transfer the force that the stiffener is required to
resist. The \\ eiJ to the web is designed to u·ansfer the diffe rence between the forces on the
ends of the <;tiffener.
Doubler plate'. when needed, must be de<>igned for the forces they are required to resist
according lO the prm isions for those force". These include: for compression the provisions
of Chapter E. for h.!n"ion the p rovisions of Chapter D , and for shear the provisions of Chapter
G. Additional limitations are:

1. The plate thickness and size must pro\'ide suffi cient additional material to equal or
exceed the '-lrength requirements.
2. The weld" nf the doubler p1ate to the colu mn web must develop the force u·ansmitted
to the doubler plate.

EXAMPLE 12.4a
GOAL: Check the column side limit state\ for a moment connection and design any needed
Column Side Limit
stiffeners and doubler plates.
States by LRFD
GIVEN: Con,tder the bolted flange plate ~:onnection of Example l 2.3a. The flange plates are
7 1/ 4 x %and re~i-.t a required force of P, = 167 1-.ip~.

SOLUTION Step 1: Detc:m1ine the column tlange strength ba~ed on flange local bending.
Tht~ limit state is applicable on!) for a tension force and the strength is

R, = 6.2517 F, = 6.25<0.7 10)2 (50) = 158 kips

<I>R, = 0.9( 158) = 1-+2 < 16Hips

Because the ~trenglh i~ less than the applied force. hal C-deplh stiffener plates are required.
Step 2: Determine the column web strength based on web local yielding.
This limit slate applies to bolh tension and compression forces applied to the colunm
web. The bearing length. N. is the sum of the plate thickness plus the %-in. fi llet weld
on each side of the plate, thus
N = 3/.t + 2(3/8) = 1. 50 in.
ami fmm Manual Table 1-1. k,1.., = 1.3 J ~o the web strength is

Ru=(51.u,,+N)F,t., =(5(1.31)+ 1.50)(50)(0.44)= 177kips

cl>R, = 1.0( 177) = 177 > 167 kips

Therefore. thi' limit ~tmc i::. not cx~eedcd and does not call for stiffeners.
Step 3: Determine the column web strength ba!>ed on web crippling.
This limit state is applicable only for a compressive force applied to the column. The
column web strength i~

(29.000)(50)(0.7 10) .
- -- - ,.---- = 274 ktpS
(0.440)

¢Ru = 0.75(274) = 206 > 167 kips

Therefore. no stiffeners are required for this limit state.
 12.4 Column Stiffening 419

Step 4: Detem1ine the column web strength for web compression buckling.
This limit state does not need to be checked unless there are opposing compressiYe
forces on opposite sides of the column. The connection described for this example did no t
mention any connection on the other side of the column. This limit :-tate can be checked
to establish any limits on future connections to this column. The value for his not given
explicitly in the Manual; however. h/t.., is given. Thus. h = 25.9(0.+-tO) = 11 .4 in. The
column web strength is then

24r,~ jEF; 24(0.440)3 )(29.000)(50) .

R,. = = = 216 kips
h J 1.4
<j>R, = 0.9(216) = 194 > 167 kips
Thus, this column web does not experience compression buckling if oppo:-ing forces
less than 194 kips are applied on opposite sides of the colunm.
Step 5: Determine the strength of the web for panel zone shear.
Based on yielding of the panel zone, without the interaction of any a,\ial fo rce in the
column, the available panel zone shear strength is

R11 = 0.6F,.dt.., = 0.6(50)( 14.0)(0.440) = 185 kips

<j>R" = 0.9(185) = J67kips
Because this is equal to the force applied by the connection, the panel .~:one cannot
accommodate any additive story shear. For a typical exterior column connection. the
story shear and the shear from the connection forces are not additive so this panel will
not have a panel zone shear problem unless the column axial load is greater than 0..+ P, .
Step 6: Determine the force to be transferred by stiffeners.
The only column web limit state that calls for a stiffener in this example is that
of flange local bending, which is an issue for the tension flange only. The force to be
transferred through the stiffener is the difference between the applied force and that
available through the web. thus

Ru = ( 167- 142) = 25 kips

This is clearly a small force to be transferred. Careful review of the limit state of flange
local bending shows that if the column flange was 0.770 in. thick instead of 0.7l0
in. thick, no stiffener plates would be required. In this case, a W l.f x 99 would have
elirn.inated the stiffener problem.
Step 7: Determine the required stiffener s ize.
Based on the dimensional requirements for a stiffener
The minimum width of each stiffener is

bs 2: (
bp
3 fw) -_ (7.25
- 2 - 3- - ~
0.440) _? ?O.
- - ·- 111.

The thickness of the stiffener must be at least

fp 0.750 . h, 7.25 .
Is 2: 2= - - = 0.375 m. or Is 2: IS = = 0.483111.
2 15
Transverse stiffeners must also extend at least one-half the depth of the column. There-
fore. try a 2.25- x 1/2-in. stiffener with a 3/J-in. corner cut off. as shown in Figure 12.8.
For the tension stiffener. the design strength of one stiffener is

A ~ = (2.25- 0.750)(0.50) = 0.750 in.2

<j>R" = 0.9(36)(0.750) = 24.3 kips
Therefore, the pair of stiffeners provide 2(24.3) = 48.6 kips, which is greater than the
required strength of 25 kips.
420 Chapter I 2 Moment Connections

- ' Partial
,...-..-- stiffener
length

---
~
1f4in . - 1 J l

t 22!,, "l",
II'

j_
" 1

L - ._ __ _ _ j__.J 3/4 in.

~ '--
I 6.5 in. ·I
Figure 12.8 Column Sti!Tcner for Example I :2A.

Step 8: Detennine the required weld siLe.

The weld between the loaded flange and stiffener must be sized to transfer the I 2.5
kips earned by each stiffener. Fillet weld-; will be used on the top and bottom of the
stiffener. Thus
12.5
D = I .5( 1 .39~ )( 2 )(I .50)
== 2.00 s ixteenths

and a minimum Jwin. weld is required by Specification Table J2.4.

T he'' eld to the web must tran~fer the difference between the forces on each end of
the \lllfener. Because this is a half-depth !.tiffener, the total force in the stiffener must
be tran~ferred to the column web. thu"
12.5
D == = 0. 78 I sixteenths
( 1.392)(2)(6.50 - 0.750)

and a minimum Ywin. weld is required by Specification Table J2.4.

Step 9: Conclusion.
With the exception of the conditi on~ covered in Steps 4 and 5. the 6 1h - x 2 1/ 4 - x
1
h -in. stiffeners as shown in Figure I 2.8 with .Ywin. fillet welds will be adequate.

EXAMPLE 12.4b
GOAL: Check the column side limit states for a moment connection and design any needed
Column Side Limit
stiffeners and doubler plates.
States by ASD
GIVEN: Co nsider the bolted flange plate connection of Example 12.3b. The flange plates are
7% x %and re&ist a required force of Pa = 11 I kips.
SOLUTION Step 1: Determine the column flange strength based on flange local bending.
This limit state is applicable only for a tension force and the strength is

R 11 = 6.25t}Fy = 6.25(0.7 10)2 (50) = 158 kips

( 158) .
<j>R11 = -1.67
- = 94.6 < I ll ktps

Because the strength is Jess than the applied force, half-depth stiffener plates are required.
Step 2: Determine the column web strength based on web local y ielding.
This limit state appUes to both tension and compression forces applied to the column
web. The bearing length, N, is the !iUrn of the plate thickness plus the %-in. fillet weld
on each side of the plate, thus
N = 3/4 + 2(3/8) = 1.50 in.
 12.4 Column Stiffening 421

and from Manual Table 1-1. kde> = 1.31 so the web strength is

R, = (5A.tie1 + N)F,.r.,. = (5( 1.31 ) + 1.50)(50)(0.440) = 177 kips

R, ( 177)
-
n
= --
1.5
= 118 > I I J kips

Therefore. this limit stare is not exceeded and does not call for stilTeners.
Step 3: Dctenninc the column web strength based on web crippling.
This limit state is applicable only for a compressive force applied to the column. The
column web strength is

(29.000)(50)(0. 71 0) .
(0.4 4 0) = 274 kips

Therefore, no stiffeners are required for this limit state.

Step 4: Determine the column web strength for web compression buckling.
This limit state does not need to be checked unless there are opposing compressive
forces on opposite sides of the column. The connection described for this example did not
mention any connect1on on the othe r s ide of the column. This limit state can be .:hecked
to establish any limits on future connections to this column. The value for h is not given
explicitly in the Manual; however, hI lw is given. Thus, h =
25.9(0.440) = ll ..t in. The
column web strength is then

24t,~ j EFy 24(0.440)3 )(29,000)(50) .

R, = = = 216k.ips
h 11.4
R, (216)
n== 1.
67
=129 > lllkips

Thus, this column web does not experience compression buckling if opposing forces
Jess than 129 kips are applied at opposite sides of the column.
Step 5: or
Determine the strength the web for panel zone shear.
Based on yielding of the panel LOne. without the interaction of an) a>.ial force jn the
column, the available panel zone shear strength is

R, = 0.6Fydt., = 0.6(50)( 14.0)(0.440) = 185 kip:,

R11 (185)
Q = 1.
67
= Ill kips

Because this is equal to the force applied by the connection, the panel zone cannot
accommodate any additive story shear. For a typical exterior column connection. the
story shear and the shear from the connection forces are not additive so this panel will
not have a panel zone shear problem unless the column axial load is g reater than 0.4P, .
Step 6: Determine the force to be transferred by ~tiffeners.
The only column web limit state that calls for a stiffener in this example is that
of flange local bending. which is an issue for the tension flange only. The force to be
transfe1Ted through the stiffener i~> the difference between the applied force and that
available through the web. thus

Ra = (J I l - 94.6) = 16.4 kips

422 Charter 12 Moment Connection!>

This b dearly a small force to be transferred. Careful review of the limit state of flange
local bending shows that if the column flange was 0.77 in. thick instead of0.7l in. thick.
no -.uffener plates would be required. Ln this case, a W J4x99 would have eliminated
the -,titlener problem.
Step 7: Determme the required stiffener sile.
Ba~cd on the dimensional requirements for a stiffener
The nunimum width of each stiffener is

h >
I-
b,,
( -3
t") = (7.25
- -
2
--3
o.44o)
-- 2
- = 2.20. Ill.

The thickness of the stiffener must be at least

,,, 0.750 ' b,, 7.25 '
t, ;::: Z= ~ = 0.375 111. or t., ;::: J5 = J5 = 0.483 111.
Tranm:t·,e stiffeners must also extend at least one-half the depth of d1e column. There-
fore. lt: a :2.25 x 'h-in. stiffener with a '/.~-in. corner cut off, as shown in Figure 12.8.
For the tension stiffener. the design strength of one stiffener is

Ag = (2.25 - 0.750)(0.50) = 0.750 in. ~

R" _ (36)(~ 750) = _ kips
16 2
Q l. 7
Therefore. the pair of stiffeners provide 2( 16.2) = 3~.4 kips. which is greater than the
required strength of 16.4 kips.
Step 8: Determill1e the required weld size.
The weld between the loaded flange and stiffener must be sized to transfer the 8.20
ktp<t carried by each stiffener. Fillet ''elds will be used on the top and bottom of the
-.tiffener. Thus
8.20
D= = 1.96 sixteenths
1.5(0.928)(2)( I .50)
and a minimum Yu,-in. weld is required by Specification Table J2.4.
The weld to the web must transfer the difference between the forces on each end of
the stiffener. Because this is a half-depth stiffener. the total force in the stiffener must
be transferred to the column web, thus
8.20 '
D = (0. 928)(l)(6 .50 _ O.?SO) = 0.768 S1xteentl1s

and a minimum ·Ywin. weld is required by Specification Table J2.4.

Step 9: Conclusion.
With the exception oft he conditions covered in Steps 4 and 5. the 6 1h- x 2 1/4 x Y2 -in.
stiffener as shown in Figure 12.8 witll 3/win. fillet welds will be adequate.

12.5 PROBLEMS
1. De~ign a bolted flange-plate connection to connect a bolt~. The beam and column are A992 steel. Design by (a) LRFD
W2 1x57 beam to the flange of a Wl4x9Y column. The con- and (b) ASD.
nection must n·ansfer a dead load moment of 36 ft-kip!> and a 2. For the desi!!n from Problem I. detem1ine the column
live load moment of 110ft-kip'>. and a dead load sheur of 6.7 :.tillening requirelnents. If stiffeners or doubler plates are re-
kips and a I ive load shear of20 kips. The plate~ arc A3o '>tee I and quired. design the stiffeners and doublers by (a) LRFD and (b)
welded to the column with E70 electrodes. Use 1-~-in .. A325N ASD.
 12.5 Problems 423

3. Design a welded flange-plate connection 10 connect a 7. Design a welded flange-plate connection to connect a
W24 x l 03 beam to the flange of a W 14 x 159 column. The con- W24 x 117 beam to the flange of a Wl-tx L76 column. The con-
nection must transfer a dead load moment of 167 ft-kips and a nection must transfer a dead load moment of 150 ft-kips and a
live load moment of 500 ft-ldps, and a dead load shear of 12 Jive load moment of 450 ft-k ips, and a dead load shear of 10
kip~ and a live load shear of 35 kips. The beam and column are kips and a live load shear of 30 kips. The beam and column are
A992 steel and the plates are A36. Use E70 electrodes and 3/ 4 -in .. A992 steel and the p lates are A36. UseE70 electrodes and 14 -in..
A325N bolts. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. A325N bolts. Design by (a) LRFD and (bl ASD.
4. For the design from Problem 3, determine the column stiff- 8. For the design from Problem 7, detem1ine the column
ening requirements. Tf stiffeners or doubler plates are required, stiffening requi rements. [ f sti ffeners or doubler plates are re-
design the stiffeners and doublers by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD. quired. design the stiffeners and doublers b) Ia! LRFD and (b)
5. Design a bolted ftange-plate connection to connect a ASD.
W24 x 76 beam to the flange of a W 14 x 120 column. The con- 9. Design a direct-welded flange moment connection to con-
nection must transfer a deatlload moment of 45ft-kips and a live nect a W24 x 76 beam to the flange of a W L-+ x 99 column. The
load moment of 135 ft-kips, and a dead load shear of I0 kips and connection must transfer a dead load moment of bO ft-ldps and
a live load shear of 30 kips. The plates are A36 steel and welded a live load moment of 240 ft-kips, and a dead load shear of 15
to the column with E70 electrodes. Use 3/ 4 -in., A325N bolts. The kips and a live load shear of 45 kips. The beam and column are
beam and column are A992 steel. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) A992 steel and the web plate is A36. Use E70 elect:rodes and
ASD. 3k in., A325X bolts. Design by (a) LRFD and (b) ASD.

6. For the design from Problem 5, determine the column stif- 10. For the design from Problem 9, determine the column
fening requirements. If stiffeners or doubler plates are re- stiffening requirements. lf stiffeners or doubler plate~ are re-
quired, design the stiffeners and doublers by (a) LRFD and quired. design the stiffeners and doublers by !al LRFD and
(b) ASD. (b) ASD.
Chapter 13

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Steel Systems for Seismic

Resistance
13.1 INTRODUCTION
For wind and gra' iry loads. structural analysis and design are normally performed by as-
suming that the tructural response remains elastic. In seismic design, this assumption is
too restrictive. particularly for applications that involve significant ground motion. That is,
the structural response in a strong earthquake is naturally inelastic and an elastic analy-
sis may unnecessarily overestimate the resulting forces and incorrectly underestimate the
deformations.
This chapter provides an introduction to the design of steel building structures for
seismic resistance. The requirements of the Specification are supplemented by the AISC
Seismic Provisions for Structural Steel Buildings, ANSl/AlSC 341-05. to provide appro-
priate guidance when designing for seismic loads. ln this chapter, this standard is referred
to as the Seismic Provisions.
To account for the inelasticity that is expected in the response of a structure to a
seismic event, the approach used in the Seismic Provisions, the National Earthquake Hazard
Reduction Program (NEHRP) Provisions, ASCE 7. and the International Building Code
incorporates a seismic response modification factor, R, a drift amplification factor, Cd. and
a system overstrength factor, s-2 0 • which permit the use of an elastic analysis. These factors
are incorporated as follows:

424
 13.2 E xpected Behavior 425

• R is used as a divisor when detennjning the seismic force for which the !>trucrure
will be designed. Higher R values represent higher ductility levels in the ~truuural
system, thus reducing the resulting seismic forces in proportion to this ducrilit) .
• C" is used as a multiplier when determining the story drift. Lower C1 values repre em
higher levels of structural stiffness and therefore lower story dn ft.
• Q 0 is used as a multiplier in seismic load combinations. It increa~es the desig n load~
to account for the level of overstrength present in a~) stem so that the analysis reflects
a more accurate prediction of the onset of inelastic behavior.

To determine the values of R , C 11 • and Q (l that are appropriate for a de, ign. buildings
are categorized based upon occupancy and use. In the NEHRP Provision-,. buildings are
assigned to one of three seisrruc use groups and then to a seismic design categor: based upon
the seismic use group. the expected acceleration and soil characteristics, and the period of
the building. Provisions in ASCE 7 and the International Building Code \ ar: -..lightly but
are similar.
Seisrruc design categories A, B, and C generally correspond to a classi fication o f low
to moderate seismicity. In these cases, the engineer can choose to use a basic ~ted 'trucmre
with no special detailing, for which R = 3, C" = 3, and Q 0 = 3. Alternative!). the e ngineer
can choose to use a system defined in the Seismic Provisions and take advantage of a higher
R factor.
Seisrruc design categories D. E, and F generally correspond to a classification o f high
seismicity. In such cases, the engineer must use a structural system defined in the Sei!>mic
Provisions. The remrunder of trus chapter discusses the structural systems prm 1ded in the
Seismk Provisions for resisting seismic forces-those in which R is taken greater than 3.
The reader is encouraged to review the Seismic Provisions in detrul.

13.2 EXPECTED BEHAVIOR

For gravity loads, wind loads, and seismic loads associated with smaller earthquakes, it is
expected that the structural response will be elastic. However, for larger earthquakes, it is
recognized that it may be impractical or impossible to prevent some i n e l a~tic behavior. For
this reason, and because there is no guarantee that an actual earthquake\\ ill be le~s than that
de fined for design purposes .in the building code, the Seismic Provic;ionc; are based upon a
capacity design methodology. According ly, the provis ions co ntained fo r each system are
intended to result in a structure in which controlled inelastic deformations can occur during
a strong earthquake to dissipate the energy impmted to the building by the ground motion.
These inelastic deformations are forced to occur in a predictable manner and in specifi c
elernenrs and/or locatio ns in the structural system. The remainder or the structure remains
elastic as these deformations occur, protected in much the same way that a f use protects the
wiring in a circuit from overload.
Given this basic premise of the capacity design methodology, the fuse elements often
establish the design requirements for the me mbers a nd connections that surround them.
This has vary ing implications for different types of systems.
• As illustrated in Figure 13 . I. in a moment fra me, the fuse element is typically a
plastic hinge that forms in the girders just oULside the girder-to-column connection.
Accordingly, the girde r-to-column connections, column panel zones. and columns
must all be designed to develo p tl1e fl exural strength of the girders connected to
them.
426 Chapter 13 Steel Systems for Seismic Resistance

Moment connections Plas1ic hinges

(a) Moment frame b.!fore ~eismic defonnations (b) Moment frame after deformations occur
in large earthquake
Figure 13.1 Moment-Frame Systems.

• As illustrated in Figure 13.2, in a concentrically braced frame. the fuse element is

usually a compression buckling/tension yielding mechanism formed in the bracing
member it elf. Accordingly. the brace-to-gusset connections, gussets, gusset connec-
tions, beams. and columns must all be designed to develop the tension yield strength
and compression buckling strength of the braces that connect to them.

Regardles'> of the system chosen, fuse elements must deform in a predictable and
controlled manner, and provide a ductility that exceeds the level of deformation anticipated.
Thus. the systems are configured so that limit states with higher ductility, such as yielding,
have control over limit states with lesser ductility. such as rupture.
The actual material properties, such as steel yield strength and strain hardening effects,
can influence the behavior of the system. As discussed throughout this book, steel is specified
by AST). f designation, which identifies the specified minimum yield strength, among other
characteri ·tics. The actual yield strength, however, is most likely higher than the specified
value. Also. once strain hardening begins to take place, the effects of load reversals will
tend to funher elevate the apparent yield strength. The d ifference between the actual yield
strength and specified rni nirnum yield strength and strain hardening effects are important

Diagonals yielded Diagonals buckled

(a) Braced frame before seismic defom1ations (b) Braced frame after deformations occur
in large earthquake
Figure 13.2 Braced-Frame Systems.
 13.3 Moment-Frame Sy~ tem 427

in the capacity design methodology because they increase the strength required in the
remainder of the structure to permit yielding in the fuse elements.
These effects are treated directly with multipliers in the Seismic Provisions. FiN. a
multiplier Ry is given for each grade of steel. When applied to the pecified minimum
yield strength, Fv, the resulting quantity is the expected yield strength. RyF)'. Second. an
allowance is made for the effects of strain hardening, generally with a factor of I. I. Thu::..
the Seismic Provisions use an elevated yield strength. generally equal to 1. 1RyFy. when
determinjng the strength of fuse elements and the resulting design force~ for connections
and members surrounding the fuse clements.

13.3 MOMENT-FRAME SYSTEMS

The moment-frame systems given in the Seismic Provisions generally U'>e flexural fuse
elements, usually plastic hinges forming in the girders just outside the fully re~trained (FR)
girder-to-column moment connections. Three types of moment-frame system~ are addressed
in the Seismic Provisions: special moment frames (SMF) in Section 9 , intermediate moment
frames (lMF) in Section I 0, and ordinary moment fran1es (OMF) in Section II. S ~1F and
IMF use connections that have demonstrated at least 0.03 radians and 0.01 radian.., inelastic
rotation, respectively, in testing. Some typical seismic moment connection:. are :-.hO\' n in
Figures 13.3 and 13.4. OMF use a prescriptive connection that provides for ~mall inelastic
demands. Assuming that the elastic drift of a moment frame is 0.01 radians and Lhe inelastic
drift is equal to the inelastic rotation at the connections. SMF, IMF and Ot-.IF prO\ ide for
interstory drifts of 0.04, 0.02, and 0.0 I radians, respectively.

lb \j
$= 4~+/i
8c

, ---i.Jr ~--------------
ll--
J 1 ~~---r-----------
Retluced _
beam section

r'-
1+
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I+
l..,---
1====1

Figure 13.3 Typical Seismic-Reduced Beam

Section (RBS) Moment Connection.
428 Chapter 13 Steel Systems for Seismic Resistance

~
I
t
>

I ( [:
Figure 13.4 Typical Seismic End-Plate Moment
v Connection.

The values of R. Cd, and Q 0 provided in the NEHRP Provisions for each of these three
systems are as follows:
System
SMF
lMF
OMF
The use of SMF is not limited in any seismic design categories, whereas IMF and
OMF usage is restricted based upon seismic design category. building height, and structural
configuration.

13.3.1 Special Moment Frames (SMF)

SMF are configured to form fuses through plastic hinging in the beams, usually adjacent to
the beam-to-column connection, to accommodate significant inelastic deformation duting
large seismic events. There may also be some inelastic deformation in the column panel
zone. Several requirements are included in the Seismic Provisions to promote this behavior,
as described in the ensuing sections.

Fuse Strength
With the plastic hinges forming in the beams, the fuse flexural strength is l.lR.l'M,. The
girder-to-column connectiom, column panel zones. and columns must all be designed to
allow the fuse to develop this flexura l strength. Alternative approaches recognized in the
Seismic Provisions include moment-frame systems with partially restrained (PR) connec-
tions and weak panel-zone systems, wherein the fuses would form through connection
deformations and panel-zone shear deformations, respectively.

Beam-to-Column Connections
The moment connections used in SMF must have supporting tests demonstrating confor-
mance with the ductility requirements, such as through the use of a connection listed in
the AISC Prequalified Connecrions for Special and Inrermediare Steel Momellt Frames
 13.3 Moment-Frame Systems 429

for Seismic Applications (AISC 358-05). Alternatively, the use of connections qualified b)
prior testing or project-specific testing is acceptable.

Panel Zone Requirements

Some inelastic deformation in the column panel zone is permitted. and is in many ca es
beneficial to the system performance. A panel zone consistent with tested assemblies is
required, and requirements in the Seismic Provisions generally result in <>tiff panel zones
with limited yielding. It may also be necessary to reinforce the column '' itb a web doubler
plate for shear and/or transverse stiffeners in the column at the beam fl anges for the flange
forces transferred to the column by the beam flanges.

Beam and Column Compactness

The compactness criteria in the AlSC Specification are predicated based on a required
ductility level of 3, whereas the expected member ductility demands for beam~ and columns
in SMF can be on the order of 6 o r 7. Accordingly, beams and columns in S.\IF must meet
the more st1ingent width-thickness limits in the Seismic Provisions.

Prevention of Story Mechanisms

In SMF, a strong-column weak-beam relationship must be satisfied in propomoning the
columns. This requirement is formulated as a check of the moment ratio bet\\ een the
beam(s) and colwnn(s) at each moment-com1ected joint in the structure. Ho'' e'er. this
check is not intended to eliminate ali column yielding. Rather, it is a simplified approach
that results in a framing system with columns strong enough to force fkxural } ieldi ng in
beams at multiple levels of the frame. This prevents a story mechanism, a-. ~hO\\ n in Figure
13.5, from forming and achieves a higher level of energy dissipation. Some e:-.ceptio ns
are permitted, as in the case fo r a one-story building, where it would nor inLrea'e energy
dissipation if the beams yielded instead of the columns.

Stability Bracing Requirements

Special stabi lity braci ng requirements apply in SMF because the bracing must be suitable
to maintain the position of the braced elements well into the inel a~tic range. For beams, the
permitted unbraced length is generally reduced, and bracing i" required near the location

M oment connecti ons

Plastic
hinges - - Weak l:Oiumn,
a!IO\\ a ~tory
merham\m

'/. ::.'l //
F igure 13.5 Moment Frame~ Without Strong Columns/Relationship.
430 Chapter 13 Steel Systems for Seismic Resistance

where the plastic hinge is expected to form. The Seismic Provisions provide several op-
tions for bracing the beams at the beam-to-column connection and the column. Often, the
configuration of the gravity framing and interconnection of the floor slab to the beam can
be used to sati!>f~ these requirements.

Protected Zones
The fuse regions in SMF-the plastic hinge regions in the beams-are expected to undergo
significant inelastic defotmations. Accordingly. attachments and other potential notch-
effect-inducing conditions are prohibited in these areas.

13.3.2 Intermediate Moment Frames (IMF) and Ordinary

Moment Frames (OMF)
IMF and OM F "Y terns are similar in configuration to SMF, but do not prov ide as high a
capacity to acco mmodate inelastic deformatio n during large seismic events. The Seismic
Prov isions requirements for SMF, IMF, and OMF emphasize that IMF and OMF are subject
to lesser special requirements than SMF. ln fact, TMF and OMF are often subject to no
additional requirements beyond those in the AISC Specification.
IMF are ba-.ed on the use of a tested connection design with a qualifying interstory drift
angle of 0.02 radians. That is. IMF are subject to the same connection testing requirements
as SMF. but with a lesser required interstory d1ift angle. OMF are based on a prescriptive
design procedure and an expected interstory drift angle of 0.0 I radians, which corresponds
to a no minally elastic response.

13.4 BRACED-FRAME SYSTEMS

The braced-frame systems in the Seismic Provisions fall into two categories: concentric
and eccentric. Concentrically braced frames generally use axial fuse elements-usually
the brace them<;elves. which yield in tension and/or buckle in compression. Eccentrically
braced frames generally use shear and/or flexural fu se e leme nts- usually a segment, called
a link, in the beams themselves between the braces.
Three types of braced-frame systems a re addressed in the Seismic Provisions : special
concentrically braced frames (SCBF) in Section 13, ordinary concentrically braced frames
(OCBF) in Section 1-1-. and eccentrically braced frames (EBF) in Section 15. The values of
R . Cd. and Q 0 provided in the NEHRP Provisions for each of these three systems are as
follows:

System R
SCBF 6
OCBF 5
EBF 8 or 7*
=
• R 8 if beam-to-column connections away
from EBF lin k is a moment connection; R = 7
othcr.vise.

A ll braced-frame systems have building height restrictions that vary based on the
seismic design category.
 13.4 Braced-Frame Sy~tem~ 431

13.4.1 Special Concentrically Braced Frames (SCBF)

SCBF are configured to form fuses through tension yielding and compression buckling of
the braces between the end connections, to accommodate significant inelastic deformauon
duri ng large seismic events. Several requirements are included in the Seic;mic Provision'> to
promote this behavior, as described in the ensuing sections.

Fuse Strength
The fuse axial strength in tension is 1.1 R.,.F,,.Ag. a quantity tbat is usuall~ larger than the
fuse axial strength in compression and, thus, controls the force requirement-.. The brace-
to-gusset connections, gussets, gusset-to-beam and gusset-to-colw11n conne..:tioos. beams,
and columns must all be designed to permit the brace to develop this full a\.J.l) ~tre ngth in
tension.

Gusset Requirements
Most braces and gussets are detailed so that out-of-plane buckling occurs bdore tn-plane
buckling. When this is the case, weak-axis bending is induced in the gu !>~ct b~ the end
rotations and the gusset must be detailed to accommodate these rotations. According!). a
free length of two times the plate thickness must be provided between the end of the brace
and the bend line in the gusset plate, as illustrated in Figure 13.6. The bend line in the gusset
is a line perpendicular to the brace axis that passes through the point on the gu~-.el edge
connection that is nearest to the brace end. Alternatively, the bracing conne~tion can be
detailed to force the deformation into the bracing member, with buckling occurring either
in-plane or out-of-plane.

Brace Slenderness
The slenderness ratio, Klj r, of the brace affects post-buckling cyclic perfom1ance of the
system. Accordingly, a maximum brace slenderness ratio of 200 is permined. and special
provisions apply when the slenderness ratio exceeds 4.0J Ej F,..

Fig11re 13.6 Typical Seismic Bracing

I= thicknes~ of gusset plate
Connection.
432 Chapter 13 Steel Systems for Seismic Resistance

Brace Net Section Limitations

The net section of the brace must be large enough to allow tension yielding to control over
tension rupture . .\lost end connections involve a net section that may require reinforcement
to satisfy this requirement.

Distribution of Bracing
Braces must be used in a manner such that the lateral forces in all stories are resisted by a
combination of tension yielding and compression buckling of the brace members. Although
a 50-50 distribution is considered ideal, the provisions allow up to 70% of the lateral force
to be resisted b~ tension or compression braces, unless it can be shown that the system
response is essentially elastic. The mixing of tension and compression braces improves
the buckling and post-buckling strength of the system and helps prevent accumulation of
inelastic drifts in one direction.

Beam, Column. and Brace Compactness

The compactness criteria in the AJSC Specification are predicated based on a required
ductility level of 3. whereas the expected member ductility demands for beams and columns
in SMF can be on the order of 6 or7. Accordingly. beams and columns in SCBF must meet the
more stringem width-thickness limits in the Seismic Provisions. The more stringent width-
thickness limitations for braces also improve the fractw·e resistance and post-buclcling cyclic
performance of the braces.

Bracing Configurations
A variet y of bracing configurations can be used. Some configw·ations require special consid-
erations whereas others such as K-bracing, are not permitted. Fig me 13.7 illustrates several
bracing configurations.
In V -braced and inverted-V-braced frames, the expected yielding and buckling behavior
ofthe braces creates an unbalanced vertical force because the tension brace remains effective
as it yields but the compression brace is ineffective after buckling. This unbalanced force
must be resisted by the intersecting beam, as well as its connections and supporting members.
That is, the beam must be designed for the conesponding load redistribution in addition
to the gravity loads. Alternatively, the bracing configuration can be altered to eliminate the
potential for unbalanced loading. For example, the V and Inverted-V configurations can be

V-bracing Inverted V -bracing K-bracing X-bracing Diagonal bracing

F igure 13.7 Bracing Configurations.
 13.4 Braced-Frame Systems 433

Zipper column"

(a) Two-story X (b) Zipper

Figure 13.8 1\vo-Story X and Zipper Configurations.

alternated to form a two-story X configuration. Another approach invohe ~ the addition of

a zipper column. These bracing configurations are illustrated in Figure 13. .
K-bracing (and knee bracing) is prohibited in SCBF because the con figuration re•;;u lrs
in an unbalanced force in the columns.
X-bracing is allowed. However, the common tension-only design approach for \\ ind
forces is not permitted. Both diagonals of the X-bracing must be designed ro re..;i,t rhe
tension and compression forces that result from cyclic load reversals.
Single diagonal bracing is not permitted because all braces in thi-; conngurauon are
called upon to resist the same type force, either tension or compression. at the 'arne time.
ln this case. for one direction of loading, 30% to 70% of the braces would not be in tension.
Thus, the diagonal braced frame should be implemented as previously shm\ n in Figure 13.2.

Stability Bracing Requirements

Special stability bracing requirements apply in SCBF because the bractng mu<;t be suitable
to maintain the position of the braced elements well into the inela-.tic range. Often, the
configuration of the gravity framing and interconnection of the floor ~lab to the beam can
be used to satisfy these requirements.

Protected Zones
The fuse regions in SCBF-the braces and gussets-are expected to undergo significant
inelastic deformations. Accordingly, attachments and other potential notch-effect-inducing
conditions are prohibited in these areas.

13.4.2 Ordinary Concentrically Braced Frames (OCBF)

OCBF are simil ar in configuration to SCBF. but do not provide as high a capacity to accom-
modate inelastic deformation during large seismic events. The Seismic Provisions require-
ments for SCBF and OCBF emphasiLe that OCBF are subject to less special requirements
than SCBF.
434 Chapter 13 Steel Systems for Seismic Resistance

13.4.3 Eccentrically Braced Frames (EBF)

EBF are configured to form fuses through shear yielding. flexural yielding, or a combination
of the two in the EBF link, in order to accommodate significant inelastic deformation during
large seismic c\'ents. Unlike the behaviorofSCBF and OCBF, the braces in EBF are intended
ro remain nominally e lastic. The requjrements in the Seismic Provisions to promote this
behavior are described in the ensuing sections.

Fuse Strength
The fuse strength in shear is I .25 RyV11 , where ~~ is the nominal shear strength of the link,
which is the 1e er of the nominal plastic shear strength and the shear associated with flexural
yielding of the link. The strain hardening multiplier used for EBP is 1.25. This is higher than
the multiplier u'ed in determining the strain hardening effects for other systems because
EBF exhibit more -;train hardening effects . The beam segments outside the link, gussets,
g usset-to-beam and gusset-to-column connections, and colunms must a ll be designed to
develop the shear and/or Aexural yielding mechanism in the links.

Link Location
EBF links are u'ually located as segments within the le ngth of the beams. e ither between
braces or bet\\ een a brace and a beam-to-column connection. Alternatively. links can be pro-
vided as vertical elemems between beams and V or inveJted-V bracing. EBF configurations
are shov. n in Figure 13.9.
When links are located as segments within the length of the beams, it is preferable
to locate the links between the ends of the braces. When the links are located between
braces and the beam-to-column connec tions. the beam-to-column connections require spe-
cial consideration because the rotational demands are substantially higher than those at
a beam-to-column con nection in an SMF. In applicatio ns involving a significant flexural
de mand, a prequalified connection or a connection qualified by testing must be used. When
the links u~ed are short enough that shear yielding donlinates, the need for qualificatio n
testing is eliminated if the connection is reinforced with haunches or other suitable re-
inforcement designed to preclude ine lastic actio n in the reinforced zone adjacent to the
column.

(a) Lin!-. between braces (b ) Link adjacent to column (c) Link vertical
Figure 13.9 Configmation of EBF.
 13.5 Other Framing S ystems 435

Link Rotations
Link rotations in EBF are limited to 0.02 radians for flexural l inks and 0.008 radians for hear
links. For links that deform in combined shear and flexure. the rotation Limit is determined
by linear interpolation between these limits.

Link Stiffening and Bracing

To ensure that the required rotations can be achieved a nd yielding occurs w ithout local
buckling well into the inelastic range, lin ks are stiffened as prescribed in Sei"mic Provisions
Section 15.3. The use of web doubler plates to stiffen links is not permitted because this
type of reinforcement does not deform consistently with the web deformation . Additionally,
beam web penetrations within the link are not pe1mitted and the link must be braced against
out-of-plane d isplacement and twist at the ends of the link.

Braces and Beam Segments Outside of Links

Because the inelastic action in EBF is intended to occur primarily wi thi n the I ink5. the braces
and beam segments o utside of the links must be designed to remain nominal!~ elastic as
the links deform. Limited yielding outside of the links is allowed, as long as the beam
segments outside the links and braces have sufficient strength to develop the full~ : ielded
and strain-hardened strength of the links. The braces and beam segments outside rhe links
are normally designed as members subject to the combined effects of axial force and flexure.

13.5 OTHER FRAMING SYSTEMS

Several other systems are provided for in the Seismic Provisions, including "Pecial truss
momentframes (STMF) in Section 12, buckling-restrained braced frame (BRBF\ in Section
16, and special plate shear walls (SPSW) in Section 17. The values of R. Cd. and rlo provided
in the NEHRP Provisions for each of these three systems are as follow

System R cd Qo

STMF 7 3 sY2
BRBF* 8 or7 2% or2 5 or 5 L~
SPSW 7 2 6
*The first number applies in each category if the
beam-to-column connections are moment
connections: the second number in each catego~
applies otherwise.

Each of these systems has building height restrictions that vary based on the seismic
design category.
Composite steel and reinforced concrete systems are also provided for in Part II of the
Seismic Provisions.

13.5.1 Special Truss Moment Frames (STMF)

STMF are configured to form fuses through yielding in a special segment of the truss.
to accommodate signi ficant inelastic deformation during large seismic events. The spec ial
segment can be either a truss panel with diagonals or a Vierendeel truss panel. The remainder
of the truss and framing in the system is designed to remain elastic as the special segmen t
deforms. A schematic STMF is illustrated in Figure 13.1 0.
436 Chapter 13 Steel Systems for Seismic Resistance

Elastic Ela~tic
-egmenl
inelastic Figure 13.10 STMF Configuration.

When diagonals are used, the yielding of the special segment occurs by axial tension
yielding and (;Ompression buckling of the diagonals. Diagonal web members used in the
special segments of STMF systems are limited to flat bars only, and must meet a limiting
width-thic kness ratio of 2.5.
When a Viercndeel panel is used, yielding of the special segment occurs by flexural
yielding of the chord members.
The size o f the truss and size and location of the special segment are limited to corre-
spond with the research on which the system is based. It is desirable lo locate the STMF
special segment near mid-span of the truss becau se shear due to gravity loads is generally
lower in that region.
Other than the normal gravity Loads CaJTied by the frame, no major structural loading
is permitted in the special segment.

13.5.2 Buckling-Restrained Braced Frames (BRBF)

BRBF are a type of concentrically braced frame system that has special bracing elements,
as shown in Figure 13.11. These bracing elements provide essentially the same response in
compression as they do in tension. The bracing elements are composed of a load-bearing
core and a surrounding sleeve element that restrains the global buckling of the core, forcing
yielding in compression rather than buckling. BRBF are configured to form fuses through
tension yielding and compression yielding of these special bracing eleme nts, to accommo-
date significant inelastic deformation during large seismic events.
The bracing elements must be qualified by testing to ensure that the braces used provide
the necessary strength and deformation capacity. The required deformation capacity is
amplified beyond what is required by an analysis in recognition that actual deformations
can be larger than those predicted by analysis.
 I 3.5 Other Framing Systems 437

"A"

Bouom 1: 1 ~ ~'
:? : :I Tl~p
"A" A'

'"cll
... •\

Plan

Plate

M~:~:e
Mor1ar

"''"+
HSS
Plate

Bond-preventing Bond-prc, em.~g

layer layer
Section "A-A" Section "B-B" Sertil'R C-C
Core projection Transition segment Yieldmf -.e;r:Jeo::t
Figure 13.11 BRBF Bracing Element.

The steel core has a yielding segment that is designed with a eros~- e~tlonal area and
length !based on strength, stiffness. and strain demands. Because each bra, ng element j<;
a manufactured item. the designer can specify an array of braces that promote di:mibuted
yielding throughout the frame.
The steel core projections beyond the yielding segment are designed to pro' ide the
transition from the core and connection to the remainder of the framing ~) ::,tem. The pro-
jections are designed so that they remain nominally e lastic like the rest of the frame a the
yielding segment deforms.

13.5.3 Special Plate Shear Walls (SPSW)

SPSW have slender, unstiffened plate elements surrounded by and conne.:ted to horizontal
and vertical boundary elements that are rigidly interconnected.:\ <;chematic SPSW system
is illustrated in Figure 13.12. SPSW are configured to form fuse:. through plate yielding and
buckJing (tension field action), to accommodate significant ine ta...LJL deformation during
large seismic events.
Although plastic hinging is anticipated at the ends of horizontal boundary e lements, the
boundary elements, like the rest of the framing system. are de,Igned to remain essentially
elastic as the plates deform. The tension-fieLd action in SPS\\. i;, analogous to that in a plate
girder. but the behavior and strength of SPSW differ from that of plate girders. Accordingly.
the design requirements in the Seismic Provisions for SPS\\' differ from those in the AISC
Specification for plate girders.

13.5.4 Composite Systems

A variety of composite structural system~ are provided for in Palt II of the Seismic Provi-
sions. These systems include Composite Partially Restrained Moment Frames (C-PRMF),
Composite Special Moment Frames (C-SMF), Composite Intermediate Moment Frames
(C-TMF). and Composite Ordinary Moment Frames (C-OMF). The requirements of Part II
of the Seismic Provisions are applied in addition to those of the Seismic Provisions and the
Specification.
438 Chapter I 3 Steel Systems for Sei~mic Resistance

Level4

Horizontal bounda ~ ·
element <HB E ' fL Panel4
Level 3
-........
Vertical boundar) ..__
elemem (VBE

Web element ..__

B Level 2

1- Panel 2
Level I

B Figure 13.12 SPSW System.

13.6 OTHER GENERAL REQUIRE:\IENTS

13.6.1 Bolted and Welded Connections
Connections in the seismic force resisting system must be configured such that a d ucti le limit
stare in the fuse controls- the deformations occu1· in the fuse elements before failure occurs
in the connections. This generally means that connections in the seismic force resisting
system are much larger than they would be if jesigned for gravity, wind, and low-seismic
applications. There arc additional special requirements for the use of bolts and welds in the
Seis mic Provt-;ions.
Bolted joints in shear are designed as pretensioned bearing joints with faying sm-
faces prepared as for Class A o r better slip-critical connections. These are not slip-critical
connectio ns-they are bearing joints with some slip resistance. Because slip cannot and
need not be prevented in large ground motions, the intent is to control slip in lesser ground
motion~ and pretension the bolts because large ground motions can cause full reversal of
design load.
Hole t) pe usage is restricted to standard holes and short-slotted holes perpendicttlar to
the loading direction, unless another hole type is shown acceptable by testing. One exception
provided is that oversized holes are permitted in brace diagonals within certain limits.
For design purposes, bolt bearing checks are required to be made at the deformation
considered level , to prevent excessive deformations of bolted joints due to bearing on the
connected material. primarily to minimize damage in Jesser ground motions.
In welded connections, filler metal with a minimum specified Charpy Y-notch tough-
ness of 20 ft-lbs at 0°F is required in all welds involved in the seismic load path, except for
demand critical welded joints, which have more stringent notch toughness requirements.
It is prohibited to share a common force between bolts and welds because seismic
deformation demands generally exceed the defonn ation compatibility required for loads to
be shared between welds and bolts.

13.6.2 Protected Zones

The fuse elements in the various systems covered in the Seismic Provisions may undergo
significant inelastic deformations when subjected to large g round motions. Accordingly,
construction operations that might cause discontinuities must be restricted from these areas.
Thus, the Seismic Provisions designate protected zones in each system that must be kept free
 13.8 Problem 439

ofsharp transitions. penetrations. notches. and so forth. Discontinuities that are inadYe rrentl~
created in these zones must generally be repaired.

13.6.3 Local Buckling

The yielding of fuse elements requires member ductili~ of 6 or 7, v. hich is more t11an the
normal ductility of3 used in the development of the compactness criteria m the Specification.
Thus, in the Seismic Provisions. more . tringent seismic compactness criteria are provided
in Table l-8-1 .

13.6.4 Column Requirements

Special requirements for columns and column splices in the seismic force re,l::-ting system
are stipulated in the Seismic Provisions. Minimum de:.ign forces are speclii.:-d to preclude
column and column splice failure in compression or tension. This approach uoe' nor neces-
sarily preclude yielding of the column, and some guidance is provided in the Commentary
for cases in which yielding of the column might be of concern.
Column splices must be located away from the beam-to-column connec tion'. generally
within the middle third of the story height in which the splice occurs. to red ..h..e ;.he etTecb
of flexure. Additionally. if partial-joint-penetration groove welds are u ed w 'll~e column
splices, a J 00% increase in required strength is specified and the use of nm..:h-rough ti ller
metal is required.
There are also requirements for columns that are not a part of the sei'IT'll. I ..1d re . . i, ting
system, because these columns are still active in distributing the seismic -.ne:rr' he£\' een the
floors.

13.6.5 Column Bases

To increase frame stiffness, column bases are normally treated similar!~ t t-eam-to-column
moment connections, accounting for the inherent differences. such a_, <..'Ie m~.reased flexi-
bility due to deformations in longer anchor rods, compressibility of the ; n.1ut and concrete,
and foundation rocking effects.

13.7 CONCLUSIONS
This introduction to the design of steel structures for sei smi~· fon:e re,j , tance is intended to
provide a starting point for further study. The detailed pro\l"ion-, .J.re fo und in the Seismic
Provisions for Steel Buildings. ANSl!AISC 341-05. and addiuonal guidance is found in
the AlSC Seismic Design Manual. The interested student j., encouraged to study these two
documents for a more in-depth treatment of seismic de.,ign of -.reel structures.

13.8 PROBLEMS
1. What is the major difference between the analysis and de- .t. What j, the purrc"e o f fuse elements in seismic de ign?
sign of a structure for wind and gravity loads versus seismic Prm ide '>Orne e\.Impk~ of !.tructural fuse elements.
loads? 5. \q1at r~ pe ot fu,e elements are typically used in moment
2. Explain the use of the R, Cd. and Q , factors. What do these frame "}'tern".
factors account for? 6. \\'hat are the three types of moment frames considered in
3. How are the R, Cd. and Q " factors determined for a panicular the Sei~nlic Pro,·i~ions? What are the respective values for R.
analysis? C , and Q for each of these systems?
440 Chapter 13 Steel Systems for Seismic Resistance

7. For Special Moment Frames, what type o f relationship 13. How do EBF differ from CBF in their performance during
should exist between the column and beams to prevent a story large seismic events?
mechanism? 14. Where are the fuse elements located for Eccentrically
8. Which 1~ pe of moment frame has a duct iln~ requirement for Braced Frames?
connection~ of an inter-story drift angle of 0.0 ~ radians? 15. List some other seismic force resisting systems mentioned
9. Name the two categories of braced frame' provided for in in the Seismic Provisions and indicate the corresponding fuse
the Sei,mic Provisions. What type of fuse element is used by element for each of these.
each of these? 16. How does the size of connections in seismic force resisting
JO. Li>t three types of braced frame systems addre~sed in the systems differ from connections designed for gravity and wind
Set~mic Provisions and their corresponding value, torR. Cc~. and systems? Why?
Q . 17. Is it pem1itted to share a common force between bolts and
11. How do SCBF and OCBF allow for inelasuc deformations welds in seismic design? Why or why not?
m mucrut·es? 18. For sci mic design. where should column splices be located
12. List some examples of CBF configuration' and why?
Index

A B SCBF, 430-B3
ACI 318,270.301 Base Plates. 390-391 Seismic. 430--t15
Advanced Analysis. 165 Base Shear, 29 Bracing.
AJSC Code of Standard Practice. 37, Beam and Column Construction, 9 Column. 256
108 Beam Line. 246-249 Design. 255-:::!5-
AISC Steel Construction Manual. 1 Beam-Columns. 6. 209- 258 Frame. 257
Alignment Chans, 117-119 Composite, 304 Nodal, 255
Allowable Strength Design (ASD), I, Design Tables, 234-236 Relative, 255
12. 14 Effective Axial Load, 232-234 Beam, 256-257
American Airlines Terminal. 341 Interaction. 2LO Bracing Member. 93
American Welding Society (AWS), 328 Selection, 232- 234 Buckling Load. 100
Amplification Factor, 217-219. Truss Members, 209 Building Codes. 18 . .!~5
224- 225 Beams. 4, see a lso Bending MembeJs Built-up Girder. ~ee Pl...te
ANSI/AISC 34 1.29.424 Bearing Plates. 390-391 Girder
ANST/AISC 360. I Bearing Wall, 9 Bumham, Daniel. 36
ANSI/AWS D 1.1. 56 Bending Members,
Aon Center. 12 Beams. 4. 139-179 c
Approximate Effective Length. 119 Double Angle. 171- 172 Calibration, 34
Area, Flange Local Buckling. 17 1-172 Carnegie-Phipp~ Stee Comp~•~ .
EITective Net. 65. 67.74- 75 Girders. I 39 36
Gross. 65-66 Larerai-Torsional Buckling. 172. 175 Chemical Compo< '1. -'-5
influence, 25-26. 31-33 Leg Local Buckling. 174 Carbon. -+8
Net, 65-67 Single Angle. 173-175 Chromjum. 5(
Tributary. 25- 26.31-33 Tee. 171-1 72 Columbium . .!4
ASCE 7, 18.424 Yielding. 171. 174 Copper. 49
ASTM. 50-56 Blast. 24 Mangane-.e .. .!~"
A6, 42 Block Shear. 81. 335-337 Mol) bdenu~ 50
A36. 50 Bolt~. Nickel. .!1..1
A53. 50 A307. 312 .\itroge" !Q
A242. 53 A325, 31.3-314 Pho~phoru ... .!O

A307, 54,312 A490. 313-314 S JltC ~... .!0

A325,54-56, 313-314 Bearing. 317- 318 u·f..r. !C
A370, 39 Combined Forces. 325. 383-385 \ .;..n~J um. ~q
A490. 56.313- 314 Common. 3 12- 313 co:.:yp..e .....J . 15
ASOO. 50 Fl852.313-314 Co ~P-e \lechanism, 167
A501, 52 F2280,313-314 Co ...:nn. 96. ~ee also Compression
A514, 53 High Strength, 3 13-314 \!ember
A529, 52 Holes. 314-315 Col ..mn Stiffening, 414-422
A572, 52 Limit States. 315-318 Doubler PIares, 418
A588, 53 Shear, 315-317 Range Local Bending, 415
A618,52 Slip-Critical. 325. 385 Stiffeners, 417-418
A847, 53 Tension, 318 Web Compression Buckling,
A852. 53 Tear Out. 3 J7-31 8 416
A913. 52 Braced Frame. 117. ~ 16-~ IIJ Web Crippling. 416
A992, 52 Buckling-Restrained. - 3£.>--!3- Web Local Yielding, 415-416
Fl852.56,313- 3 14 EBF, -DO. -+3.:1--135 Web Panel Zone Shear,
F2280,313-314 OCBF. -BO. -UJ 416-427

441
442 Index

Combined Force Member, 6, see also Fixed, 309 Flexible Moment Connections, 248-250
Beam-Columns Fully Restrained, 3 10-311 Flexural Buckling, 99-102
Compact Beam~ . 145 \!oment, Flexural-Torsional Buckl ing, 115.
Composite Beams, 267-300 FuUy Res~rained. 309-31.1. 133-134
Advantage-.. 267-268 393--422 Framing Systems, 8
Design. 293-297 Lim it States, 395-396
Tabk'>. 278-28 I Partially Restrained, 393 G
Preliminary, 293-294 \loment-Rotation Curves. 247- 250. Girders, 4
Di~ad,antages, 267- 268 31 0 Girts, 5
Effective Flange Width, 268-269 Panially Restrained, 3 10-312 Grades of Steel , see ASTM
Fle.\ural Strength, 269-278 Seated. 373-378 Gravity Columns, 237-239
Fully Composite, 270-272 Set,mic, 438 Ground Snow Load, 27
Lower Bound Moment of Inertia, Shear. 341-378
299-300 Shear Tab.312.368- 372 H
Metal Deck, 285-288 Stmple, 309,31 1-3 12, 341- 391 Hearst Tower, I
Negative Moment Strength, 282- 283 Smgle-Angle, 360--368 High-Rise Construction, I 0
Partially Composite, 270, 275-278 Single-Plate, 368-372 Holes,
Plastic Neutral Axis, 270, 278 Ten~ion, 308 Oversize, 70
Serviceability, 297-300 Butt. 308 Patterns. 7 1
Composite Columns, 301-304 Hanger, 308, 387-388 Placement, 70
Beam-Columns. 304 Lap,308 Size, 67
Encased Shapes, 3 I 0-304 Prying Action, 387-388 Slotted, 70
Filled HSS, 304 T~ pe 2 with Wind, 248 Home Insurance Building.
Composite Construction, 264-265 \Velded Flange Plate, 394,401--407 36
Composite Systems, Seismic, 437 Whitmore Section, 379- 383
Compression Member, 4 , 96-136 Con~rruction Types, 8- 11 I
Behavior, 99- 102 Continuous Be ams. !65-166 Impact, 23-24
Boundary Conditions, 102- 105 Critical Buckling. 101 Inelastic Buckling, 109-1 11
Bracing, 103-105 Inelastic Design, 13. 15
Built-up, 136 D Influe nce Area, 25-26, 3 1-33
Design Tables, 128-130 Dead Load, 21 , 25 Interaction. 210,212-216
End Conditions, 102-105 Deflection, 176- 177, 297-299 Interaction Diagram, 213-2 16
Real Column, 106-108 Direct Analysis Method. 231 Interaction Equation, 213- 2 16
Shapes, 98 Drift. 177 International Building Code (IBC), 18,
Strength, 99 Drift Amplification Factor, 424, 428. 425
Concentrated Forces, 179 430, 435
Connecting Elements, 334- 337 J
Compression, 335 £ Jenney, Will iam LeBaron, 36
Shear. 335 Eads Bridge. 36 John Hancock Center. 12
Tension. 334-335 Effective Length, Joists, 4
Connections. 7-8. 307 Elastic. 115-123
Beam-to-Column, 309- 3 I 0 Inelastic. 12 1-123 K
Bolted Flange Plate, Method. 231.-232 K-factors, 116
394.407--414 Elastic Buckli ng. 101, l09-lll
Bolted Tee, 394 Encased Beam , 264, 293 L
Bracing. 341 . 378- 388 Euler Buckling, 10 I Lateral Bracing, 149- 150
Bracket, 308- 309 Euler Column, 99-102 Lateral-Torsional Buckling
Clip Angle, 312 Experience Music Project. 96 149-1 54
Direct Welded Flange. 394. Leaning Columns, 237- 239
397-401 F Limit States. 17
Double-Angle, FiUed Column, 264 Lintel. 5
Bolted-Bolted, 344-354 First-Order Effects. 2 10 Live Load, 2 1-22, 25-27
Welded-Bolted, 354-359 Flange Local Bending, 160-162. Arbitrary Point in Time, 22
Welded-Welded. 360 204- 205 Reduction, 26-27
 Index 443

Load and Resistance Factor Design Plate Girder, 181- 205 L. 4..1--.J.5
(LRFD), 1, 13-14 Bending Strength Reduction Factor, M.44
Load Combinations, 30-31 188-190 MC.44
Load Effect, II. 16 Homogeneous, 182 .\fT. 45
Loads. 20 Hybrid. 182 S.44
Local Buckling. 159-162 Noncompact Web. 184-187 \\'. .J-2
Long- Span Construction. I 0 Nontension Field Action. 196-197 \VT, 45
Lower Bound Moment of tnertia. Shear. 195-200 Pipe, 45---46
299-300 Slender Web, 188-190 Plates. 46
Tension Field Action, 197- 198 Shear. 164-165
M Transverse Stiffeners, J 95- 196 Plate Girders. 19.'-200
Margin of Safety, 11 Probability. 16 Post Buckling Strergth. 195-200
Member Effects, 212 Proportional Limit, 40 Tension Field A ction. 195-200
Metal Deck, 285-288 Protected Zones. 438 Shear Stud, 265
Minor A-xis Bending. 164 Prying Action, 387- 388 Metal Deck, 286-2\"-
Modern Steel Construction, 56 Puerto Rico Convention Center, 20 Piacement, 284
Modular Ratio, 298- 299 Pure Column. 100 Strength. 283-28-t
Modulus of Elasticity, 40 Purlin. 5 Strength Reduction h d "r'. 2~3-284
Moment Frame, 117,223-225 P-o Effects. 21 1-212 Shored Construction. 26r
fMF. 427,430 P-t:.. Effects, 211- 212 Sidesway.
OMF, 427, 430 Inhibited Frame. II (
Seismic. 427---430 R Pennitted Frame. II (
SMF.427-430 Rand-McNally Building, 36 Prevented Frame. I )-
Moment Gradient, 153-155 Reduced Beam Section. 427 Uninhibited Frame. 11-
Moment Redistribution, 165-166 Relative Braces. 255 Single Angle Compres' '"" \ femoe:.
Moment-Rotation Curves, 247-250, 3 10 Required Strength, II 134
Residual Stresses, 106-107 Single-Story Frame. I'
N Response Modification Factor. 424. Slender Elemem'>. I 5 • .:-. .:-
National Earthquake Hazard Reduction 428,430.435 Siendemess Parame•e- .._,,,
Program (NEHRP). 424 Root, John, 36 Snow Load. 2~-2:. ::-- ::'
Nelson Stud Company. 265 Spandrel. 5
NFPA Building Code, 18 s Special Plate She,r \\.:.11--. .!~/
Nodal Braces, 255 Safeco Field, 424 Special T rus, .\I 7c:ul fr.une.
Nominal Strength. 11 Safety, 15-1 7 .J.35-.!3h
Nomograph, 117-119 Sears Tower. I 2 St. Loui-. Gait>\\:!: :'\n::h. 36
Noncompact Beams. 159-1 62 Seattle Public Library, 139 Stabilit:. 2: -2 ~ .:
Second-Order Effects, 210-2 12 Stiffene". ::ro-:: -5
0 Seismic Behavior. 425---427 Beann;. :o:-: ·.5
Orange County Convention Center, 393 Seismic Design, 424-440 J:)e,j;:';. ::05
Capacity Design Methodology, !mer.nedi.,.;e. ..:!00-201
p 425-427 :w
Sh.....lt:HJC :'\na :- ~ i ~.
Palazzo. 36 Categories. 425 Sr--.. ':1 H..rdemng. .J.l
Partially Restrained Frames, 246-250 Protected Zones, 438 S·n..~'<lrJI Stability Research Council
PATH Station. 58 Fuse Elements, 425---427 SSRCJ. 108
Pentagon, 24 Seismic Load, 23, 29 Stn.. tural Steel,
Perfect Column. I 00 Semirigid Connections. 2-+6 Definitions of, 38-39
Plastic Analysis. 167- 170 Serviceability. 175-1 77.297- 300 De,ign. I
Plastic Design, 167-170 Shake Down, 248 Structure Effect, 212
Plastic Hinges, 168 Shapes. Sy,tem Overstrength Factor. 424. 428.
Plastic Moment, 142 Bars. 46 430,435
Plastic Neutral Axis (PNA), 142.270. Built-up. 47
278 C.44 T
Plastic Region, 40 HP, 42----l.J. Tangent Modulus of Elasticity, 107
Plastic Section Modulus. 142 HSS . .J-5 Tensile Strength. 41
444 Index

Tension Field Action Tran<;ient Live Load. 22 Welds, 326-334

Limitations, 19g-200 Tributary Area. 25-26.31 - 33 Fillet Weld. Strength 329-331
Tension Memb~r. 3. 58 G roove Weld, Strength. 334
Behavior. 63-65 r Limit States, 328-329
Built-up. 93 L S. Courthouse. Seanlc, 18 1 Positions, 328
Eye Bar. 61. 92-93 L nbraced Frame, I 17 Sizes, 32R
Frat·ture. see Tension Member, Lmversity of Phoenix Stadium. 307 Types, 327- 328
Ruprure l n,hored ConsLruction, 268 Welding Process, 326--327
H:111ger. 59
Pm-connected, 61, 89-90
,. FCAW. 327
SAW, 327
Rod . 92-93 \'hration, 176,298 SMAW, 326-327
Rupture, 64 GMAW,327
Sag Rod. 59 \\ Whitmore Section, 379- 383
Shapes,62 \\a~lu Center. 264 Wind Load, 28- 29
Slenderness, 78 \\e:1l Axis Bending, 164 World Trade Center. 12. 24
Truss. 59, 93 Web.
Yielding, 64 Cnppling, 203 y
Terrorism, 24 Local Buckling, 162 Yield,
Thermal Loads, 24 Local Yielding, 202-203 Moment, 141-142
Torre Mayor, 209 Plastification Factor, I 84-1 87 Point, 40
Torsional Buck! ing, I 15, 133- 134 Sidesway Buckling. 203- 204 Stress, 41