PLATE ELEMENTS

Introduction

The cross-section of members such as UB,UC, SHS can be thought of comprises of plates joint
together. These sections discuss the local buckling behavior of this section. Local buckling
differs from member buckling in the sense that the individual plate elements buckled
independent of the length of the member. In fact, the length of the member has very little (if
any ) effect on the local buckling capacity. The main longitudinal axis of the member remains
straight.

Local buckling occurs as a result of the compressive stress on the plate elements. The
compressive stress can uniform ( e.g in a column or the compression flange of a beam) or
varying ( e.g the web of a beam)

When the uniformly compressed plate elements are supported on two longitudinal sides such as
the RHS, they are called elements or stiffened elements (see Table 11). When the plate
elements are supported on one side only such as the flange of a beam, they are called
outstand element or unstiffened elements. If the plate elements are under varying stress
such as a web, they are called web elements.

In this section, local buckling of internal, outstand and web elements will be diccussed first. The
local buckling behavior will affect the section classifications of the sections. Local buckling
behavior will affect the section classifications. Design of the Class 4 (slender) sections will also
be introduced. Plate buckling under shear stresses will also be discussed.

Outstand Element Internal Element

Web(internal) Element

RSA under Compression UB in Bending SHS in Compression

The basic plate equation is given by :

k π2E
f E= 2
b
12 ( 1−ν 2 ) ()
t

Where k is a constant that depends on the type boundary conditions in the plate elements as
well as the nature of the stresses (uniform or varying linearly). By changing the value of k, the
local buckling of the various plate element can be determined as shown in the table below.
Table PL 1: Value of k for various plate element

Types of Elements Value of k

Internal Element 4.0
Outstand Element 0.425
Web element under bending 23.9

P M=PL/4

Mpl
CLASS 1 Plastic
My CLASS 3 Semi-Compact
CLASS 2 Compact
py
py
py
CLASS 4 Slender

< py

Section Classification θ
Consider a simply supported laterally restrained beam loaded at mid-span. Let’s plot the
moment to rotation relationship if the beam of different section classification is used. From this
moment rotation behavior, the properties of the section classifications are summarized in Table
PL2

Table PL2: Summary of behavior for various section classification

Condition of stress in the Condition of Stress in Inelastic

Class
Compression Flange the Web rotation(ductility)
1 Flange reaches yield stress Web reaches yield High
stress
2 Flanges reaches yield stress Web reaches yield Low
stress
3 Flange reaches yield stress Web is elastic Negligible
4 Flange is elastic Web is elastic None

CLASS 3: Plate Element (Also include CLASS 1 and CLASS 2 elements)

It can be seen that Class 3 is the lowest classification on which the flange can reach the yield
stress before local buckling occurs. The limiting b/t ratio in which the yield stress and local
buckling stress occur simultaneously is obtain by setting

k π2E
f E= 2
=py
b
2
12 ( 1−ν )
t ()
From which we obtain

b k π2 E 275 275 Eqn. PL1

t
=
√
12 ( 1−ν ) 275 p y
2
=25.967 √ k
py √
¿ 25.967 √ k √ ε

For normal element, k=4 and outstand k 0.425

Thus, we obtain

b
=51.93 √ ϵ For Internal Element
t

And

b
=16.93 √ ϵ For Outstand Element
t

However, test results show that it is NOT conservative to use the above equations to define b/t
ratio for CLASS 3 sections. Before we discuss the test results, let’s look at the plate buckling for
plates of various slenderness ratios.
The plate slenderness ratio is,

py
❑PL =
√ fE

Thus, for CLASS 3 section, PL = 1.0 in theory

Let’s plot fa/py ratio versus PL where fa is the average stress on the plate element. This plot
represents the average stress that can be applied (normalized to the yield stress) for various
slenderness ratio of the plate.

Figure PL1: Local Buckling Capacity of Internal Element

Yielding
1.2
Elastic Post-buckling
1.0

0.80
Elastic buckling
0.60

0.40

0.20

0.00

0.00 0.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50

It can be seen that for PL= 1.0, the stress in the plate do not reach the yield stress as suggested
by the theory. The reason for this discrepancy is due to the presence of residual stresses as
well as initial-out-of straight (IOOS) of the plate similar to that we have found when studying the
centrally loaded column.

As can be seen from the above test results for stiffened plate (internal element), the plate only
reaches the yield stress (fa/py = 1.0) when PL =0.6. Thus for CLASS 3 internal elements,

py
❑PL =
√ fE
=0.6

Substitute for fE, Slenderness Ratio (PL)

 2
2 b

0.6=
√ p y 12 ( 1−ν )

k π2 E

Multiply the numerator and denominator by 275 and rearrange,

(t)

b 0.6 k π 2 E 275
t
=
√
12 ( 1−ν 2 ) p y

275
¿ 20.11 √ k
√ py

¿ 20.11 √ k √ ϵ

Substitute k=4.0 for internal element, we obtain the limiting b/t ratio

b Table 11 for CLASS 3

=40
t Internal Element

Similarly, from test results of outstand elements (Rolled and Welded) and using k = 0.425, we
obtain the limiting b/t ratios

b Table 11 for CLASS 3

=15 Outstand Element, rolled
t

Table 11 for CLASS 3

b
=13 Outstand Element, Welded
t

Note that welded flange has higher residual stresses and geometrical imperfections, which
accounts for the lower b/t ratio.

The limiting b/t ratios for CLASS 2 cannot be obtained through elastic analysis, and are largely
obtained in Table 11 which provides the b/t limits for various types of elements and various type
of stress (uniform or linear).

Question: Why are there no CLASS 1 and CLASS 2 for columns?

Notes:

The general trend is stability and strength can be seen in Figure PL1. The slenderness ratio
defined as:
 py
❑PL =
√ fE

The slenderness ratio can be divided into three distinct zones namely

Yield occurs when PL = 0

Inelastic buckling occurs when 1 < PL  0

Elastic buckling occurs when PL > 1

In the above case for internal elements, 0 and 1 are 0.6 and 1.4 respectively. In our previous
chapter on column buckling capacity, 0 and 1 are 0.5 and 1.4 respectively. For other types of
elements, the values can be different.

Inelastic buckling occurs when the element buckles after partial yielding. The buckling load is
lower than the yield load and the elastic buckling load, and this reduced load is caused by
residual stresses as well as geometrical imperfection.

Plate element with PL  1 are also called CLASS 4 (slender) plate elements. It can be seen
that for CLASS 4 elements, the failure capacity is larger than the elastic buckling capacity. The
larger capacity is called post-buckling capacity. Post-buckling are inherent in plate elements but
negligible in column elements. Post-buckling capacity should be utilized to ensure economical
design of plate elements, and the effective width approach is usually used for the design
approach.

With the above definition,

fa 1
Normalized elastic buckling= = 2
p y ❑ PL

fa 1
Normalized post−buckling= =
py ❑ PL

CLASS 4 internal and outstand elements

CLASS 4 plate elements are slender and will undergo elastic local buckling. The b/t ratio of
plate elements that exceed that of CLASS 3 is classified as CLASS 4 (slender).
It can be seen from Figure PL1 , beyond about PL=1.4, the ultimate load is higher than the
elastic buckling load. Unlike columns with are unstable after column buckling, plate elements
are still stable and able to sustain additional loads after undergoing elastic buckling load. The
additional load carrying capacity is called post-buckling capacity. For economical design, we
must account for the post-buckling capacity, and this can be achieved using effective width
approach.

The post-buckling stress distribution is non-linear as shown in Figure PL2. For an internal
element, the stress at ultimate load reaches py at the edge but decreases near the middle of the
plate. Let the axial compression capacity of the plate be Pu. The non-linear stresses can be
modeled as a uniform stress py acting over an effective width, be, such that the ultimate axial
capacity Pu is now given by

Pu=be t p y

Non-linear stress distribution over full width ofLinear

panel stress distribution over full width of panel

beff beff
b
Effective Width Effective Width
Full Width

Figure PL2: Effective width model for internal elements

It was shown by Von Karman that the buckling stress fcr,e of a plate with effective width be can be
modeled as that with a full width if we substitute be for b.

Thus
 k π2 E
f cr , e = 2
= py
b
2
12 ( 1−ν ) e( )
t

Accordingly, using similar derivation as before, we obtain:

be (Internal Element)
=40 ε
t
(Outstand Element, rolled)
be
=15 ε
t

be (Outstand Element, welded)

=13 ε
t

For CLASS 4 welded UC under uniform compression, the effective section is as shown in Figure
PL3. Other effective section under uniform compression is given in Clause 3.6 and shown in
Figure 8 BS 5950.

13tε 13tε

Example: 20tε
a) Determine the capacity under uniform axial stress (use Gr S275- rolled section)
 13tε 13tε

b) Determine the capacity under pure bending stress.

700 mm
15tε 15tε
T=20 mm

20tε

900 mm
t=6mm

20tε

15tε 15tε

700 mm

a) To calculate Effective Section

Flange

From Table 9, For T=20 mm, py = 265 N/mm2

275 275
ε=
√ √py
=
265
=1.0187

( Tb ) actual
=
700/2
20
=17.5

( Tb ) lim ¿=15 ε =15∗1.0187=15.28¿

Table 11

Since,

( Tb ) >( Tb )
actual lim ¿ Therefore ,CLASS 4 ¿

Effective Width Be
 Be =15 Tε=15∗20∗1.0187=305.61 mm

Web

For t = 6 mm, py = 275 N/mm2, therefore ε = 1.0

d 900
= =150
t 6

( dt ) lim ¿=40 ε=40 ¿

Table 11

d e =20 εt=20∗1.0∗6=120 mm check……….

Effective Area,

Ae =4 Be T +2 d e t

¿ ( 4∗305.61∗20 ) + ( 2∗120∗6 )

¿ 25888.8 mm2

F= Ae p y

¿ 25888.8∗0.265

¿ 6860 kN

b) To determine the capacity under pure bending stress

Flange

Same as before, Be = 305.61 mm

Web

(Neutral Axis at mid-depth since there is NO axial force.)

( dt )lim ¿=120ε =120¿

Table 11

( dt )=150>( dt ) lim ¿ ¿
CLASS 4
An iterative approach is required to determine neutral axis (see Figure 9, BS 5950)

First Iteration 305.61

305.61
Assume Ῡ = 400 mm fcw=fy
T=20 mm
0.4 beff
Therefore

f cw 900−400
t=6mm Clause 3.6.2.4
= =1.25
900 mm
f tw 400
0.6 beff
Neutral Axis
f tw =0.8 f cw

f cw −f tw f cw −0.8 f cwῩ Clause 3.6.2.4 Note:

= =0.2 pyw=fcw=fy
p yw f cw

Effective Width ftw

700 mm
120 εt Clause 3.6.2.4
b eff =
f −f f
( )(
1+ cw tw 1+ tw
p yw f cw )
120∗1.0∗6
¿
(1+ 0.2 )( 1+0.8 )

¿ 333.33 mm
 0.4 b eff =0.4∗333.33=133.33 mm

0.6 b eff =0.6∗333.33=200 mm

Recalculate new Ῡ = Ῡ2

Y 2=436 mm Measured from bottom of flange

Second Iteration

Use Ῡ = 436 – 20 = 416 mm

f cw 900−416
= =1.1635
f tw 416

Therefore,

f tw =0.86

f cw −0.86 f cw 484−0.86∗484
= =0.141
f cw 484

120∗1.0∗6
b eff = =339.26 mm
( 1+0.141 )( 1+0.86 )

0.4 b eff =0.4∗339.41=135.76 mm

0.6 b eff =0.6∗339.41=203.64 mm

Recalculate new Ῡ = Ῡ3

Ῡ3 = 436 mm and Ῡ2 = 436 mm (Converged)

Therefore you need to calculate new Section Properties (Use Excel)

Ix = ___________mm4

Zx = __________ mm3

Then calculate, M cx,eff = Zx py

=_________________kNm
 LOCAL BUCKLING OF WEB UNDER BENDING

Bending stress in the web consists of a distribution of tension and compression stresses which
is sometimes denoted as stress gradient. The compression stress can cause buckling if web is
slender. The form of the buckling equation remains unchanged.

k π2E
f E= 2
=py
b
2
12 ( 1−ν )
t()
Where, fE is the maximum compression stress in the web and k varies according to the ratio of
compressive to tensile stress. The minimum value is k=23.9 and substituting into Eqn. PL1

b
=127 ε
t

However, due to residual stresses and geometrical imperfection, test results show that the
limiting b/t ratio where the buckling stress equals the yield stress (CLASS 3) is more
conservative and given by

b Table 11 for CLASS 3 web element under

=120 ε
t bending

The limiting b/t ratios for CLASS 1 and CLASS 2, in which the web must resist the load until
complete plastification (plus inelastic rotation for CLASS 1 elements) are obtained through
experiment results and are shown in Table 11 (BS5950).

ELEMENTS CLASS 3 Limiting b/t ratio

k b/t (Theory) b/t(Design)
Internal Element 4.0 52ε 40
Outstand Element(rolled) 0.425 17ε 15
Outstand Element (welded) 0.425 17ε 13
Web under stress gradient 23.9 127ε 120ε
Web under shear (rolled, NO stiffeners) 5.35 79ε 70ε
Web under shear (welded, NO stiffeners) 5.35 79ε 62ε

For CLASS 4 sections under stress gradient, the slender sections will undergo elastic local
buckling followed by post-buckling. Again, the effective approach can be used to model the
post-buckling capacity, and the effective section (pure bending) is shown in Figure 9
WEB ELEMENT UNDER SHEAR

Shear Yielding

The shear distribution in a rectangular beam has a parabolic stress distribution. However, the
shear stress distribution in a UB or UC is almost uniform. Moreover, the shear stress is
concentrated in the web.

VQ
τ=
It

τmax
τmax τmax

First Yield
First Yield Fully Plastic

Thus, for UB,UC and similar sections, the shear stress pw, at plastic section can be
approximated by

V
pw =
AV

V is the shear force and the shear force area Av is the area of the web. In rolled UB and UC, the
generous root fillet can help to increase the shear area. Thus, Av is defined as:

Shear Stress distribution in Shear Stress distribution in

rectangular section UB or UC section
 A v =D∗t for roled section

A v =d∗t for welded section

The shear area for other shapes is given in Clause 4.2.3

to determine the yielding limit for pw, consider the element under shear and its Mohr’s Circle.

τmax
τmax

It can be seen from Mohr’s Circle for this element that f2 f1

f 2=−f 1

τ max=f 1

Substitute into Von Mises failure criteria (refer chapter on introduction)

f 21−f 1 f 2+ f 22= p 2y

f 21−f 1 (−f 1 ) + f 21= p2y

We obtain

3 f 21=p 2y

Hence we obtain the shear yielding failure

py Clause 4.2.3
f 1=τ max = p v = ≈ 0.6 p y
√3

Notes:

A few definition found in Clause 4.4.5 as well as Annex H must be clarified:

qw: “Shear buckling strength” is the minimum of post-buckling or tension field action or shear
yielding capacities. If stiffeners are present, both the post-buckling strength and tension field
action strength will be mobilized. If stiffeners are absent (a/d>>3), only the post-buckling
strength will be mobilized.

qcr: “Critical shear buckling resistance” is the minimum of elastic shear buckling, inelastic shear
buckling or shear yielding. The equivalent shear resistance Vcr = qcrDt is also given in Clause
4.4.5.4

qe: “Shear buckling resistance” is the elastic shear buckling

qw=Theoretical elastic
post-buckling curve
fy qe=Theoretical elastic
0.6 p y =
√3 buckling curve

Shear Buckling of Slender Web with no Transverse Stiffeners

Slender web will buckle elastically before reaching the yield stress and is given by

k π2 E py
f E =q E = = =p
d
2
√3 v
12 ( 1−ν 2 ) []
t

Where k is given by

4
k =5.35+ whena ≥ d
a 2
()d

5.35
k= + 4 when a ≤ d
a 2
()
d

In the above equations, d is the depth of the web and a is the buckling half-wave length which in
general is long in web without transverse stiffeners. Thus, we can assume that a>>>d and use

k = 5.35
 py
Substitute into the above buckling equation and set it equal to the yield stress in shear , the
√3
d
limiting d/t ratio where yielding will occur is =78 ε . Again, due to geometrical imperfections
t
and residual stresses,(welding being worst then rolled plates in these regard), the limiting d/t
values is NOT conservative. Defining the equivalent limiting slenderness ration as:

2
d

λ w=
√ py
√3 f E
=
√ √3 k π 2 E
(t )
p y 12 ( 1−ν 2 )

From experimental results, it is found that the limiting slenderness ratios for rolled and welded
sections hen the elastic buckling stresses reach the yield stress are:

λ w =λ0 =0.9 For rolled sections [Clause H.1]

and

λ w =λ0 =0.8 For welded sections [Clause H.1]

Welded web have higher residual stresses and hence lower limiting value. From this limits, the
equivalent d/t ratio is in BS 5950 (Clause 4.2.3 and Clause 4.4.5.1) are:

d For rolled sections [Clause 4.4.5.1]

=70 ε
t

d For welded sections [Clause 4.4.5.1]

=62 ε
t

Where

275
ε=
py

Web element that meet the d/t limits fails by shear yielding whereas those that exceed the d/t
limits are slender and fails by inelastic buckling or post-buckling. Furthermore , if the slender
web elements are provided with transverse stiffeners, tension field action can develop which is
in the next section.

qw Gr S275 Steel

165 N/mm2 Shear Yielding

a/d<3
(0.6py) a/d=3
a/d=∞
Shear buckling of Slender Stiffened Web

For slender web with stiffener, the web element is able to develop significant additional capacity
after the onset of elastic web buckling. The additional capacity is attributed to the post-buckling
strength as well as tension field action(TFA). In tension field action, the diagonal tension stress
under the shear force form “tension members”. Together with the stiffener which acts like
compression members, a truss like action is formed which resists the additional shear force.
Larger stiffness ratio will benefit more from the post-buckling and the tension field action will be
larger when the a/d spacing is small. This phenomenon is shown in the graph above and
illustrated in diagram below.

Transverse Stiffeners
Tension Field Action

Development of Tension Field

fTFA
qcr+fTFA
qcr
f1
f 1=¿ p +f ( √ 3−1 ) ¿
y 2

py
Combined shear -qcr
buckling and py
tension field action Principal Stresses
Truss Action py
py √3 py f2
stresses
3
In the presence of TFA, the total capacity is given by

V w =V cr +V TFA

where V cr =q cr dt

and VTFA is the additional capacity due to tension field action. The principle stresses resulting
from the combined forces Vcr and VTFA (see figure above) is

f 1=q cr + f TFA

f 2=−q cr

Where qcr and fTFA are respectively the shear stresses due to Vcr and the normal stress due to
tension field action. It can be seen from the above figure, we can approximate the Von Mises
failure envelop as a straight line given by

f 1= p y +f 2 ( √ 3−1 )

Substitute for f1 and f2

f TFA qcr
=1− =1−C v
py py
√3[ ]
q cr q cr
Where C v = =
py pv
[ ]
√3
It can be shown that,
 dt 1
V TFA =f TFA
2
[√ ( ) ]
1+
a
d
2

The total capacity with TFA is therefore

( 1−C v )
V w =V cr +V TFA =dt qcr +
[ √
2 1+ () a
d
2

]
Vw ( 1−Cv ) p y
q w= =q cr +
dt a 2
2 1+
√d ()

3 ( 1−C v )

[
q w = pv C v + √
2
1+
a
d √
2

() ]
py Eqn. PLTFA 1
where pv =
√3

Design for Tension Field Action using BS 5950

In the BS 5950, the shear capacity with TFA is presented in a different form. The shear strength
Vw is given by the equation

V w =qw A v

Where qw is the shear buckling resistance stress. The value of qw depends on the slenderness
ratio as well as the spacing of the stiffeners, and presented in term of d/t ratio as given in Annex
H. For web with stiffener spacing a, the elastic shear buckling equation becomes.

k π2E
f E =q e = 2
d
12 ( 1−ν 2 ) () t

Where f is given by
 4
k =5.35+ whena ≥ d
a 2
()
d

5.35
k= + 4 when a ≤ d
a 2
()
d

Noting that

π2E 1000

12 ( 1−ν )
2 d
[]
t
2
=0.1853
[( ) ]
d
t
2
∈units of N /mm2

Substitute into qe together with the equation for k, we can write

1 1000 pwr 2

[
q e = 0.75+
a
()
d
2

][ d 2
()
t ]
when a<d Clause H .1

0.75 1000 pwr 2

[ ( ) ][
q e = 1+
a 2
d
d 2
t () ]
whena> d Clause H .1

The web slenderness ratio λw is defined as

pv
λ w=
√ qe

The buckling strength for welded I-section is then given by [Annex H2

]: when λw ≤ 0.8 [yielding]

q w = pv =0.6 p y

q w =[1.5−0.62 λw ] pv when 0.8< λw <1.25 [inelastic buckling]

pv when λw ≥ 1.25 [post-buckling & TFA]

q w =0.9
λw

Where,

pv =0.6 p y [shear yielding]

The above equations provide similar values as that using Eqn. PLTFA 1
Critical Shear Buckling (NO TFA)

If we cannot rely on TFA (for example when there is no end-post), then the critical shear
buckling for welded I-section is given by [Annex H].

q cr =p v when λw ≤ 0.8 [yielding]

q cr =[1.64−0.8 λw ] when 0.8< λw <1.25 [inelastic buckling]

pv when λw ≥ 1.25 [elastic buckling]

q cr = 2
λ w

Alternatively, Vcr is given in Clause 4.4.5.4 where the strength is presented in the form of force
(Vcr = qcrdt) and the independent variable is the Vw/Pv ratio. This clause is rewritten in terms of
stress below.

q cr =p v when qw = pv [yielding]

[ 9 qw−2 pv ] when pv>qw>0.72pv [inelastic buckling]

q cr =
7
when qw ≤ 0.72pv [elastic buckling]
2
qw
q cr =
[ ]
0.9 p v

Note that qcr/pv = Cv, a term which we encountered when developing the theory for TFA.

Note that shear buckling in I-section is generally more important in welded rather than rolled
section. The reason is because rolled sections have slenderness ratio in the range that would
cause failure by shear yielding. For this reason, the above equations are given for welded
section. For rolled section, refer to Annex H for corresponding equation.

Shear Buckling Capacity (Welded Section)

1.2
Normalized Buckling (qw/pv) OR (qcr/pv)

1.0
Post-buckling & TFA
0.8
0.72
0.6

0.4 Shear Buckling [H.1]

0.2 Critical Shear [H.2] Clause 4.4.5.4

0
0.8 1.25
Slenderness Ratio (λw)