SPPU | 2021 Video

First Year Engineering Explanation

BASIC
ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING

Sakshi Hosamani R.Bakare

SCAN. STUDY. SCORE.

 JOURNEY TO A SUCCESSFUL IN-SEM EXAM
Total Marks: 30

UNIT-1 19
Topics UNIT-2

1st MILESTONE 1st MILESTONE

1. Evolution of Electronics
2. Impact of Electronics in Industry and in
Society
3. Introduction to Active and Passive Com-
ponents
4. P-type and N-type of Semiconductor
5. Currents in Semiconductors – Drift and
Diffusion Current

2nd MILESTONE
2 nd
MILESTONE
6. P-N junction formation
7. P-N Junction Diode
8. Biasing – Forward bias, Reverse bias
9. V-I Characteristics of PN junction diode
10. Diode as a Switch
11. Rectifier circuits
12. Half Wave Rectifiers
13. Full Wave Rectifiers
14. Full Wave Rectifier: Center-Tap Rectifier
3rd MILESTONE
15. Full Wave Rectifier: Bridge Rectifier

3rd MILESTONE
1 6. Special purpose diodes
17. Zener diode
18. Light emitting Diode (LED)
19. Photo diode
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U N I T

Introduction to Electronics

1. Evolution of Electronics
Introduction

The word Electronics is derived from “electron” which is present in all materials. The behavior
of an electron under different conditions of externally applied fields is studied under electron
mechanics.
Electronics is defined as “The Science and technology of the conduction of electricity in a vacuum,
a gas, or a semiconductor etc.” as per the Chambers 20th century dictionary.
In fact, electronics is a branch which essentially deals with electronic devices and their utilization. A
device in which conduction i.e electron flow takes place through a vacuum, a gas or semiconductor
is an electronic device.
Electronics has become vital for all of us now and it impacts all the sectors today. The history of
electronics is from 19th century and today electronics exist in almost every gadget or device used.
The components that could be considered as an important part of evolution of electronics
development is vacuum tube, the solid state devices (as an example transistor) and the integrated
circuit.

Vacuum Tubes

Word Electronics comes from elementary particle Electron which was first discovered by Sir J. J.
Thomson in 1897. But when AC and DC terms became more confirming, Physist James Fleming
came with first vacuum tube i.e diode. Thomas Alva Edison discovered that electrons would flow
from one metal conductor to another through a vacuum. This discovery of conduction is known as
the Edison Effect.
This vacuum diode allowed the flow of current in one direction called ‘Fleming Valve’ which is a
diode rectifier. In those days there was no existence of p-n junction in electronics field.
Electronics has evolved by rapidly since the invention of first amplifying device known as triode
vacuum tube in 1906 by Lee forest. This device could increase the strength of the signal, thus
devising the term amplifier.
The vaccum tubes, which are three terminal devices made manipulation of electrical energy
possible so it could be amplified and made efficient for transmission.

Solid State Devices

The vacuum tube did function well, but it was bulky and used a lot of electrical power that ended
up as heat which shortened the life of the tube itself. The transistor was a much more elegant
creation giving marvelous features.
The transistor was successfully demonstrated on December 23, 1947 at Bell Laboratory in Murray
Hill, New Jersey. The three individuals credited with the invention of the transistor were William
Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain.

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The invention of transistor stimulated the further investigation in semiconductor components in

order to replace the bulky electronic tubes (vacuum, gas etc.) with much smaller and more efficient
devices based on semiconductor technology.
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR) today known as Thyristors was proposed by William
Shockley in 1950. It has led to the revolution in the control of electric power, i.e. in the field of
power electronics. Thyristors are mainly used where high currents and voltages are involved, and
are often used to control alternating currents.
The MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), also known as the MOS
transistor, was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs in 1959. It was a
breakthrough in electronics field. Generations of MOSFETs enabled power designers to achieve
commendable performance and density levels which was not possible with bipolar transistors.

Integrated Circuits (ICs)

Integrated circuit (IC), also called microelectronic circuit, microchip, or chip is an assembly of
electronic components, fabricated as a single unit, which includes active device(e.g., transistors
and diodes),passive devices (e.g., capacitors and resistors) and their interconnections built up on
a thin substrate of semiconductor material (typically silicon).
The resulting circuit is thus a small monolithic “chip,” which may be as small as a few square
centimeters or only a few square millimeters. The individual circuit components are generally
microscopic in size.
The Integrated circuit (IC) chip was invented during 1958–1959 by Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce.
While at Fairchild, Noyce developed first monolithic IC chip, the same concept has been invented
by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments in Dallas a few months previously known as hybrid integrated
circuit (hybrid IC).
In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology’s large scale limited each chip to
only a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively
simple. As metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) technology progressed, millions and then billions
of MOS transistors could be placed on one chip.

Summary of Evolution of Electronics

Year of Invention / Discovery

Sr. No. Name of Scientists / Lab
Invention Details
Vacuum Tubes
1. 1897 J. J. Thomson Discovery of Electron
2. 1904 John A. Fleming Vacuum Diode – First amplify-
ing device
3. 1906 Lee De Forest Vacuum Triode – signal amplifi-
cation and transmission.
Solid State Devices
4. 1948 Bell Laboratory - William Shock- Transistor – solid state device
ley, John Bardeen and Walter (semiconductor device)
Brattain

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Year of Invention / Discovery

Sr. No. Name of Scientists / Lab
Invention Details
5. 1950 William Shockley Thyristors (SCRs) etc. – to han-
dle high currents and voltages.

6. 1958 Bell Lab - Mohamed M. Atalla MOSFET – breakthrough in

and Dawon Kahng power electronics

Integrated Circuit (IC)

7. 1958-59 Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce IC-Assembly of electronic com-
ponents, fabricated as a single
unit, on a thin substrate of semi-
conductor material (typically
silicon).

8. 1960 till Point to be noted - As metal – Low to high degree of integra-

today oxide – semi conductor (MOS) tion- SSI, MSI, LSI, VLSI,
technology gets developed, mil- ULSI.
lions and then billions of MOS
transistors could be placed on one
chip.

2. Impact of Electronics in Industry and in Society

The electronics plays an important role in almost every sphere of our life. It has become an integral
part of our lives. It has penetrated in every field, example from an ordinary wrist watch to super
computers, from telephone repeaters buried deep under sea to the spaceship far out in space; from
the control of modern household application to the control of 500000 tonne supertanker carrying
across the sea. It has great impact in many fields, few of them are mentioned below:

Impact of Electronics in Society

We begin with an electronic alarm in a mobile, digital watch, use microwave oven for ease of
cooking without hassle, use grinders and mixers for assistance, use a washing machine for washing
the clothes, use vacuum cleaners for cleaning the homes and to listen news, music using electronic
gadgets like iPod, computer, mobile etc.  Communicate with family and friends via mobiles,
laptops etc. And now we even will use E-vehicles for transit. The list will go on and on as we think
more.
Atomization is done at homes and offices with help of electronics to assist and make our fast lives
more comfortable.
Camera helps us to full fill our hobbies like photography and retain memories at a cheap cost.
Allowing to store huge data. Millions of people are depending on television and mobile for
entertainment (music, movies etc), online education and news.
It is indeed correct to say, we are blessed because of the evolution of electronics.

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Impact of Electronics in Industry

Today’s world of electronics has made deep inroads in several areas, such as healthcare and
medical diagnosis, automobiles, industries, defense, space projects etc. Hence, We must accept
that without electronics all the pleasures we live in today would have been impossible.
Healthcare and Medical Industry: Electronic devices are being used in the health field, not only
to assist in diagnosis and determination of medical problems, but to assist in providing treatment
and cures for illnesses and even genetic anomalies. Equipment such as MRI, CAT and the older
X-rays, tests for diabetes, cholesterol and other blood component tests, all rely on electronics
in order to give quick results, without direct human intervention and precisely. Pacemakers and
smaller equipment implanted in the body is now almost a routine and are the boon to the needy. In
fact, the use of electronics in medical sciences has expanded to such an extent that a new branch
in medical science has been started called bioelectronics.
Defense and Aerospace Industry: The electronic is used in defense and aeronautical applications
such as RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging), Missile Launching systems, Rocket Launchers
for space, Aircraft systems, Cockpit controllers, Boom barrier for military applications etc.
Instrumentation and Automation Industry: The electronics is used in instrumentation
applications such as the cathode ray oscilloscope (CROs), frequency counters, pulse and
signal generators, digital multimeters, power supplies, pH meters, strain gauges etc. Without
these instruments no research laboratory is complete. Overall there is complete dependency of
laboratories for experimentation on electronic instruments.
The electronics is used in automation using control systems, such as computers or robots, and
information technologies for handling different processes and machineries in an industry to replace
a human being. It is the second step beyond mechanization in the scope of industrialization.
Automation increased productivity and reduced the time and cost.
Communication and Entertainment Industry: The electronics is used in communication and
entertainment applications such as telephony and telegraphy, optical communication, television
and mobile communication, space and satellites communication, gadgets etc.
Automotive and Automobiles Industry: The automotive industry comprises a wide range of
companies and organizations involved in the design, development, manufacturing, marketing,
and selling of motor vehicles. The electronics is used in anti-collision unit, infotainment console,
anti-lock braking system, cruise control, traction control, window regulators, electronic control
unit (ECU), airbag control etc. The most important application in automation in automobiles is
electronic ignition, which provides better timing of the ignition spark, especially at high speed.
Computer and IT industries: Electronic and information technology includes computer
hardware and software. The mother board of CPU of computers is all nothing but electronics.
Video equipment and multimedia products, information kiosks, and office products such as
photocopiers and fax machines etc; electronics has a major role.

3. Introduction to Active and Passive Components

Introduction

Electronic components are the basic elements of an electronic circuit or electronic system or
electronic device.

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An electronic component is any basic discrete device or physical entity in an electronic system
used to affect electrons or their associated fields.
There are numerous basic electronic components of various shapes, sizes, types and values
depending upon their material and composition used.
Some of these components are resistors, diodes, capacitors, inductors, transistors and integrated
circuits. These components are classified into two types: passive components and active
components.

Passive Components Active Components

Resistors Capacitors Transistor

Inductors Switches IC

Inductors Transformer Diode

Example of Passive and Active Components

Passive Electronic Components

The electronic component, which consumes energy in the form of voltage from the source, but
does not produce or supply energy is called passive electronic component.
These components can store or maintains energy either in the form of current or voltage.
Passive components cannot amplify or energize the energy of the signal associated with them;
they can store it or absorb it or dissipate it.
Passive elements do not possess gain and they cannot give energy continuously to the circuit.
Examples – resistor, capacitor, inductor etc.

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Active Electronic Components

The electronic component, which consumes energy in the form of voltage or current and produces
or supplies energy in the form of electric current or voltage is called active component.
Active components depend on the external source of energy or voltage to perform a specific
operation.
These components can produce energy either in the form of current or voltage.
Active components can energize or amplify the signal.
They possess gain. They can give energy to the circuit.
Examples- diodes, transistors, ICs etc.

Difference between Active and Passive Components

The active and passive components are differentiated on the basis of various factors like nature
of the source, function of component, power gain, behavior of component etc. The difference
between active and passive components is given below in the tabulated form.

Parameters Passive Component Active Component

Definition They does not require any external power They require an external power supply
supply/energy source for the operations. / energy source for the operations.
Function of Devices which store energy in the Devices which produce energy in the
Component form of voltage or current. form of voltage or current.

Nature of source A passive element utilizes power or An Active component delivers power
energy in the circuit. (Energy acceptor) or energy to the circuit. (Energy donor)
Flow of current Passive components cannot control the Active components can control the
flow of the current. flow of current.
Power Gain They are incapable of providing power They are capable of providing power
gain. gain.
Nature of energy Passive components are energy acceptor. Active components are energy donor.
Behavior of Mostly the behavior of components is Mostly the behavior of components is
Component linear. nonlinear.
Examples Resistor, capacitor, inductor etc. Diodes, transistors, SCR, integrated
circuits etc.

Passive Components - Resistors, Capacitors, and Inductors

Resistors

Resistor is most common type of electronic component used in used in any electronic equipment.
It is two terminal passive component which is used to resist the flow of electric current in a circuit.
Resistance: Property of resistor to oppose the flow of current.
Unit: Measured in Ohms (Ω)

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Power rating: Maximum power that resistor can dissipate safely i.e. without damaged.
Relation between power rating (P), current carrying capacity (I) and value of resistance (R) is

P = I2 R

Types of Resistors

(a) Fixed Resistors

(i) Carbon composition

(ii) Metal film

(iii) Wire wound

(b) Variable resistor

(i) Varistor

(ii) Potentiometers

(iii) Trimmers (Preset)

Symbol of Resistors

Fixed Resistor   Variable Resistor

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Parallel and Series Resistors: Calculations and Formulas

Resistors can be placed in an electrical or electronic circuit. In some instances, the resistors may
be placed in series, whereas in others they may be placed in parallel.
Resistors in series: If the resistors are placed in series then the overall resistance is simply the
sum of the individual resistors.

R Total = R1 + R 2 + R 3 + .....
Resistors in parallel: If resistors are placed in parallel, they share the current and the equivalent
resistance is calculated as,

1 1 1 1
= + + + .....
R Total R1 R 2 R 3

When there are only two resistors in parallel the formula simplifies to:
R1 R 2
R Total =
R1 + R 2

Color Coding of Resistor

There are many ways used by manufactures to indicate the value of a component. In one method,
the value of the resistance offered by a resistor is generally indicated by color bands on it.
Color Band Calculation: The first and second band represents the numerical value of the resistor,
and the color of the third band specifies the power-of-ten multiplier. The last band is a tolerance band.
The color bands are always read from left to right starting with the side that has a band closer to
the edge.

4 - band color code 10K Ohms ± 5%

5 - band color code 47.5K Ohms ± 1%

6 - band color code 276 Ohms ± 5%

First Digit Second Digit Third Digit Multiplier Tolerance Temperature

BLK - 0 BLK - 0 BLK - 0 SLV 0.01 SLV ± 10% Coefficient
BRN - 1 BRN - 1 BRN - 1 GLD 0.1 GLD ± 5% BRN-100ppm
RED - 2 RED - 2 RED - 2 BLK -1 RED-50ppm
ORN - 3 ORN - 3 ORN - 3 BRN 10 BRN ± 1% ORN-15ppm
YEL - 4 YEL - 4 YEL - 4 RED -100 RED ± 2% YEL-25ppm
GRN - 5 GRN - 5 GRN - 5 ORN -1K
BLU - 6 BLU - 6 BLU - 6 YEL -10K
VIO - 7 VIO - 7 VIO - 7 GRN -100K GRN ± 0.5%
GRY - 8 GRY - 8 GRY - 8 BLU -1M BLU ± 0.25%
WHT - 9 WHT - 9 WHT - 9 VIO -10M VIO ± 0.1%

Color Coding of Resistor

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Resistor Color Coding Example

Red
Green
Red
Gold

Resistor Color Coding

The first stripe is red for 2 and the next stripe is green for 5. The red multiplier in the third stripe
means add two zeros to 25, or “this multiplier is 102”. The forth strip, which indicates the resistor
tolerance, is gold for +-5%. The result can be illustrated as follows:
Red Green Red

2 5 × 100 = 2500

R = 2500Ω ± Explanation for this is expected

Therefore, this R value is 2500 or 2.5 KΩ.

Example
Orange
Blue
Green
Black
Green

Resistor Color Coding

The first stripe is orange for the number 3, the second stripe is blue for the number 6, and the third
stripe is green for the number 5. Therefore, the first three digits of the resistance are 3, 6, and 5,
respectively. The fourth stripe, which is the multiplier, is black, which means add no zeros. The
fifth stripe, which indicates the resistor tolerance, is green for ±0.5%.
Therefore R =365 ± 0.5%. The permissible ohmic range is calculated as 365 × 0.005 =1.825 Ω,
that is 363.175 to 366.825Ω.

Capacitors

Capacitors are the next most used component in the electronics industry. Capacitor is two terminal
passive component which is used to store charge.
They are used in all types of circuits ranging from logic circuits to power supplies and various
electronic circuits used in communication systems.

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Capacitance is effectively the ability to store charge. In its simplest form a capacitor consists of
two parallel plates.
When a battery or any other voltage source is connected to the two plates as shown, the potential
difference exists across the capacitor. The current flows for a short time and one plate receive
excess of electrons, while the other have few. That is the one with the excess of electrons becomes
negatively charge, while the other losing the electrons becomes positively charged.

No Electrical Field Dielectric Electrical Field Dielectric

Connecting Connecting
wire + wire
+
Electrically Electrically Positively + Negatively
Neutral Neutral Charged + Charged
+
+
+
+

Conductive Plate Conductive Plate

     Uncharged Capacitor            Charged Capacitor

If the battery is removed the capacitor will retain its charge. However, if a resistor is placed across
the plates, providing a closed path, the current will flow until the capacitor becomes discharged.
Capacitance: Ability of capacitor to store charge in the form of an electrostatic field.
Unit: Measured in Farad (F).
The capacitance is said to be 1F when a charge of 1 coulomb is stored by the voltage of 1 V.

Types of Capacitors

(a) Fixed Capacitor

Paper Capacitor

Mica Capacitor

Plastic Capacitor

Ceramic Capacitor

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Electrolytic Capacitor

Tantalum Capacitor

(b) Variable Capacitors

Ganged Capacitor

Trimmer Capacitor

Symbol of Capacitors

Fixed Capacitor   Polarized Capacitor   Variable Capacitor

Capacitors in Series: When capacitors are connected in series, the total capacitance can be
determined by taking the reciprocal of the capacitance of each capacitor, and adding these together
to give the reciprocal of the total capacitance.
1 1 1 1
= + + + .....
CTotal C1 C2 C3
Capacitors in parallel: The total value is simply the sum of the capacitance values of the individual
capacitors.

CTotal = C1 + C 2 + C3

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Inductors

Inductor: The inductor is one of the passive electrical components which is a coil of wire that is
designed to induce a magnetic field in itself or in the core when a current is flowing through the coil.
Inductance: It is a property associated with any wire or coil which is caused by the magnetic field
that is set up when the current flows through it.
Inductor is also called as a “choke”.
Inductors have the exact opposite characteristics of capacitors i.e. capacitors store energy in the
form of an electric field (produced by the voltage between two plates), inductors store energy in
the form of a magnetic field (produced by the current through wire).
Unit: Henry (H)

Types of Inductors

Air core inductor

Iron core inductor

Ferrite core inductor

Variable core

Symbol of Inductors

Air Core Iron Core Ferrite Core Variable Core

Inductor Inductor Inductor Inductor

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Identification of Inductor Values

First two bands indicate the value of an inductor in µH.

Third band indicates the multiplier.
Fourth band indicates the tolerance.
Note: In multiplier band Gold = 0.1, Silver = 0.01.

2 7 10 +-5%

1st Band red Tolerance gold

2nd Band violet Multiplier brown

A 270 μH Inductor
27x10 μH with a tolerance rating of ± 5%

Inductor Color Code Example

4. P-type and N-type Semiconductors

Solid-state materials are commonly grouped into three classes: insulators, semiconductors, and
conductors.  The resistivity and conductivity of these solid-state materials is shown in figure below.
resistivity p (Ω cm)
1018 1016 1014 1012 1010 108 106 104 102 1 10-2 10-4 10-6 10-8

glass germanium (Ge) silver

nickel oxide (pure) silicon (Si) copper

diamond (pure) gallium arsenide (GaAs) aluminium

sulfur gallium phosphide (GaP) platinum

cadmium sulfide (CdS) bismuth

fused quartz

10-18 10-16 10-14 10-12 10-10 10-8 10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104 106 108

conductivity σ (Ω S/cm)

insulator semiconductor conductor

Resistivity and Conductivity of Materials

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Energy Band Theory

The materials can be classified on the basis of energy gap between their valence band and
conduction band.
The valence band is the band consisting of free valence electron and the conduction band is empty
band.
Conduction takes place when an electron jumps from valence band to conduction band and the
gap between these two bands is energy gap.
Wider the gap between the bands, higher the energy it requires to shift the electron to conduction
band.
The materials are classified into three types on the basis of energy gap as conductors, insulators
and semiconductors.
The energy band gap of these solid-state materials is shown in figure below.

Energy Energy Energy

Conduction band

No band gap
Conduction band Wide band gap
+5eV
Narrow band gap
Conduction band 1 eV
hole

Electron Valence band Electron Valence band Electron Valence band

Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

Energy Band Diagram

In case of conductors, this energy gap is absent (~0 eV) or in other words conduction band and
valence band overlap each other. Thus, electron requires minimum energy to jump from valence
band. Example: silver, copper and aluminum.
In insulators, this gap is very large (~5 eV). Therefore, it requires large amount of energy to shift
an electron from valence to conduction band.
Thus, insulators are poor conductors of electricity, Example: mica, diamond.
Semiconductors have energy gap in between conductors and insulators (~1 eV) and thus
require energy more than conductors but less than insulators. They don’t conduct electricity
at low temperature but as temperature increases, conductivity increases Example: silicon and
germanium.

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Semiconductor

Semiconductor materials have a conductivity between conductors (commonly metals) and

nonconductors i.e. insulators. They are not good conductors nor good insulators hence their name
“semi”-conductors.
Semiconductors can be pure elements, such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), or compounds such
as gallium arsenide (GaAs), or cadmium selenide.
They have very few “free electrons” because their atoms are closely grouped together in a
crystalline pattern called a “crystal lattice” but electrons are still able to flow, but only under
special conditions.
The semiconductor is divided into two types. One is intrinsic semiconductor and other is an
extrinsic semiconductor. The detailed explanation of the two types of the semiconductor is given
below.

Intrinsic Semiconductor

An extremely pure form of the semiconductor is called as intrinsic semiconductor.

The conductivity of the intrinsic semiconductor becomes zero at room temperature.
An intrinsic semiconductor material like silicon (Si) has 14 electrons with a configuration of 2,8,4
as shown below and germanium (Ge) has 32 electrons with a configuration of 2,8,18,4.

Si Si Si

Si Si Si Si

Si Si Si
[2, 8, 4]

Pure Silicon - Intrinsic Semiconductor

Extrinsic Semiconductor

The semiconductor in which impurity is added for making it conductive is known as the extrinsic
semiconductor.
An intrinsic semiconductor is capable to conduct a little current even at room temperature, but
it is not useful for the proper operation. Thus, to make it conductive a small amount of suitable
impurity is added to the material.

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Doping

Doping is a process of adding small amount of impurities to pure semiconductors to increase the
conductivity of the material.
The purpose of adding impurity in the semiconductor crystal is to increase the number of free
electrons or holes to make it conductive.
The amount and type of impurity which is to be added to a material has to be closely controlled
during the preparation of extrinsic semiconductor.
Generally, one impurity atom is added to 108 atoms of a semiconductor.
If a pentavalent impurity, having five valence electrons is added to a pure semiconductor a large
number of free electrons will exist.
If a trivalent impurity having three valence electrons is added, a large number of holes will exist
in the semiconductor.

The Difference between the Two Types of the Semiconductor

Basis of
Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor
Difference

Doping of Doping or addition of impurity does not A small amount of impurity is dopped
impurity take place in intrinsic semiconductor. in a pure semiconductor for preparing
extrinsic semiconductor.
Density of The number of free electrons in the The number of electrons and holes are
electrons and conduction band is equal to the number not equal.
holes of holes in the valence band.
Electrical Low electrical conductivity. High electrical conductivity.
conductivity
Dependency Electrical conductivity is a function of Electrical conductivity depends on
of electrical temperature alone. temperature as well as on the amount of
conductivity impurity doping in the pure semicon-
ductor.
Example Crystalline form of pure Silicon and Impurity like As, Al, Sb, P, In, Bi etc.
Germanium. are dopped with Germanium and Sili-
con atom.

P-type and N-type of Extrinsic Semiconductor

Depending upon the type of impurity added the extrinsic semiconductor can be classified as n type
semiconductor and p type semiconductor.

N-Type Semiconductor

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor providing a

large number of free electrons in it, the extrinsic semiconductor thus formed is known as n-type
semiconductor.  The conduction in the n-type semiconductor is because of the free electrons
denoted by the pentavalent impurity atoms.

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An N-type semiconductor is created by doping this pure silicon crystal lattice with a pentavalent
impurity element like Antimony (Sb – atomic number 51) or Arsenic (As – atomic number 33).
Such impurities which produce n-type semiconductors are known as donor impurities. They are
called a donor impurity because each atom of them donates one free electron.
The antimony (Sb) impurity element electron form covalent bonds with only four silicon atoms.
The fifth electron of the impurity atom is not bonded with any semiconductor atom in the crystal
lattice. This electron is loosely bonded to its parent impurity atom.
Thus, as external voltage or heat is applied this fifth electron easily breaks its bond with the parent
atom and takes part in conduction.
This fifth electron majorly contributes to the current in an N-type semiconductor as shown in
figure below. In the N-type Semiconductor the electrons become the majority carrier.

Si Si Si

Si Sb Si

Si Si Si

Free electron
Antimony (Sb) Doped Silicon - Extrinsic Semiconductor

Hence, each antimony atom provides one free electron in the silicon crystal. Since an extremely
small amount of antimony, impurity has a large number of atoms; it provides millions of free
electrons for conduction.

P-type Semiconductor

When a small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor providing a large number
holes in it, the extrinsic semiconductor thus formed is known as p-type semiconductor. The conduction
in the p-type semiconductor is because of the holes denoted by the trivalent impurity atoms.
A p-type semiconductor is created by doping this pure germanium crystal lattice with a trivalent
impurity element like Gallium (Ga – atomic number 31) and Indium (In – atomic number 49).
Such impurities which produce p-type semiconductors are known as acceptor impurities because
each atom of them creates one hole which can accept one electron.
A trivalent impurity like gallium, having three valence electrons is added to germanium crystal in
a small amount.
Each atom of the impurity fits in the germanium crystal in such a way that its three valence electrons
form covalent bonds with the three surrounding germanium atoms as shown in the figure below.

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Ge Ge Ge

Ge Ga Ge

Ge Ge Ge

Hole

Gallium(Ga) Doped Germanium - Extrinsic Semiconductor

In the fourth covalent bonds, only the germanium atom contributes one valence electron, while
gallium atom has no valence bonds.
Hence, the fourth covalent bond is incomplete, having one electron short. This missing electron is
known as a hole. Thus, each gallium atom provides one hole in the germanium crystal.
As an extremely small amount of Gallium impurity has a large number of atoms, therefore, it
provides millions of holes in the semiconductor.
The difference between a p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor are given below in
tabulated form.

Basis of
p Type Semiconductor n Type Semiconductor
Difference

Group of Doping III group element is added as doping V group element is added as doping
Element element in case of p Type semiconduc- element in case of n type semiconduc-
tor. tor
Nature of Doping Impurity added creates vacancy of elec- Impurity added provides extra elec-
Element trons (holes) called as acceptor atom. trons and is known as donor Atom.
Type of impurity Trivalent impurity like Al, Ga, In etc. Pentavalent impurity like P, As, Sb, Bi
added are added. etc. are added.
Majority Carriers Holes are majority carriers. Electrons are majority carriers.
Minority Carriers Electrons are minority carriers. Holes are minority carriers.
Density of Elec- The hole density is much greater than The electron density is much greater
trons and Holes the electron density. than the hole density.
nh >> ne ne >> nh
Energy level The acceptor energy level is close to The donor energy level is close to the
the valence band and away from the conduction band and away from the
conduction band. valence band.

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Basis of
p Type Semiconductor n Type Semiconductor
Difference

Fermi level Fermi level lies between acceptor en- Fermi level lies between donor energy
ergy level and the valence band. level and the conduction band.
Movement of Majority carriers move from higher to Majority carriers move from lower to
Majority carriers lower potential. higher potential.

5. Current in Semi-conductors: Drift Current and Diffusion Current

Current flow in a semiconductor arises from the motion of charge carriers in both the conduction
and valence bands.
The mobile charges in the conduction band are electrons and those in the valence band are holes.
The current is in general made up of two components: drift current and diffusion current.

Drift Current

The current generated because of the application of external voltage that results in the movement
of charge carriers is defined as drift current.
There are two kinds of charge carriers in a semiconductor, that is holes and electrons. Holes are
positively charged carriers whereas the electrons are negatively charged carriers.
Once the voltage is applied to a semiconductor, the electrons move toward the positive terminal of
a battery whereas the holes travel toward the negative terminal of a battery.
Semiconductor

Voltage
Hole Free electron
Drift Current

Density in Semiconductors: As the external supply is provided there is the movement in the
majority of the concentration of the carriers. Based on the type of semiconductors its majority
carriers vary. Hence the electric field is applied, due to which the motion of charge carriers
observed results in the production of current.
Drift Velocity: The velocity required for the movement of charge carriers is referred to as drift
velocity. The current direction here is dependent on the collision occurring between the atoms.
Generally, the flow of electrons will be in the Brownian motion. But here the electric field is
responsible for them to arrange in a single direction.

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Diffusion Current

The “diffusion current” can be defined as the flow of charge carriers within a semiconductor
travels from a higher concentration region to a lower concentration region.
Diffusion current is mainly generated in semiconductors. The process of diffusion mainly occurs
when a semiconductor is doped non-uniformly as shown below.

Non Uniform concentration Uniform concentration

of electrons of electrons

Higher Diffusion of electrons

Lower
Concentration Concentration
Region Region

Diffusion Current

A higher concentration region is nothing but where the number of carriers present is more in the
semiconductor. Similarly, a lower concentration region is where the smaller number of carriers are
present in the semiconductor.
The movement of carriers is from higher concentration area to lower concentration area for
equilibrium throughout the substrate. While this movement, the recombination of the carriers
takes place and it achieves uniformity. The current is generated in this process.
Let us take the example of n-type semiconductor that doped non-uniformly. In this, the majority
of the concentration of carriers is of electrons and the minority of the concentration of carriers is
of holes.
But while dealing with diffusion the property of majority carriers is considered here.
The electrons in the higher concentration region are more in the semiconductor so they will
experience a repulsive force from each other.

Difference between Drift Current and Diffusion Current

Parameters Drift Current Diffusion Current

Definition The movement of charge carriers is The diffusion current can be occurred
because of the applied electric field is because of the diffusion in charge car-
known as drift current. riers.
external energy It requires electrical energy for the Some amount of external energy is enough
process of drift current. for the process of diffusion current.
Law Obeys This current obeys Ohm’s Law. This current obeys Fick’s Law.

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Parameters Drift Current Diffusion Current

Direction of The direction of the drift current, as The direction of this current can be de-
Current well as the electric field, will be the cided by the concentration of the carrier
same. slope.
Dependency on It depends on the permittivity. It is independent of permittivity.
Permittivity
Currents The direction of this current mainly The direction of this current mainly
Depends on depends on the polarity of the applied depends on the charge within the con-
electric field. centrations of carrier.

STEPS & Problem Based on

FORMULA Drift and Diffusion Current
Important formulas

Drift current density = J n = nqm n E A / m 2

Drift velocity of Electron = Vn = m n E m / s
Drift current = I n = J n ´ a Amp( A )

V
Applied Electric field = E = V/m
L
Important Notations

n = concentration of free electrons per m3

q = charge on each electrons coulomb (c)
m n = Mobility of free electron cm2/V-sec
V = Voltage applied across the bar Volt (V)
L = Length of bar Meter (m)
a = cross-section area of bar mm2

E xercise - 1.1
Problem based on 1st Milestone
Click or Scan using
FORTFLAG app
for detailed
solution.

1. Explain in brief “history and evolution of electronics”.

2. Explain impacts of electronics on Industry and/or society.
3. Define active and passive component. Explain them with suitable examples.
4. Compare active and passive component. Explain passive components. (R, C, L).

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5. Find value of resistor for RED, BLACK, GREEN, GOLD and value of inductor for YELLOW,
VIOLET, BROWN, GOLD.
6. What is doping? Explain donor (pentavalent) and acceptor (trivalent) impurity.
7. What is intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor?
8. What is extrinsic semiconductor? Explain the n-type and p-type extrinsic semiconductor.
9. Explain drift and diffusion current with suitable diagram.
10. A bar of n type silicon has a length of 4 cm and cross-section of 10mm2. When it is subjected
to a voltage of 1V applied across its length, the current flowing through it is 5mA . Calculate i)
Concentration of free electrons ii) Drift velocity of electrons.
(Assume q = 1.6 × 10–19C and µn = 1300 cm2/V-sec)

6. P-N junction Formation

When the two p type and n type materials are chemically combined with a definite fabrication it
forms a P-N junction which is called a diode.
As we have seen earlier, the movement of charge carriers from high concentration to low
concentration area to achieve uniform concentration over the material is called as a diffusion
process.
In P-N junction, there is large number of electrons on the N side, whereas on the P side the
concentration of electrons is very low.
Due to this non-uniform concentration, diffusion starts and electrons start moving from N side
towards P side. Similarly, the holes from P-region diffuse into the N-region across the junction.

Junction

Hole Electron

P N

Hole Free electron

Initial Diffusion in P-N Junction

When the P-N junction is formed, the N-side donor atoms accept additional holes and they become
positively charged immobile ions. Similarly, P-side acceptor atoms accept additional electrons and
they become negatively charged immobile ions. The formation of immobile ions near the junction
is shown in figure.

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Junction

Negatively charged Positively charged

immobile ions immobile ions

P N

Depletion Region

Positive Ion Negative Ion

Formation of Depletion Region

In this region, there exists a wall in which there are no mobile charge carriers. Such a region is
depleted of the free mobile charge carriers and hence is called as depletion region or depletion layer.
Thus, under thermal equilibrium, the depletion region gets widened up to an extent where no more
electrons or holes can cross the junction. This depletion region acts as the barrier, due to which the
hole and electrons cannot diffuse further. This condition is shown in figure.

Direction of electric field

Depletion region
E

Holes in P-region Electrons in N-region

Immobile negative ions Immobile positive ions

- + Barrier potential
V Junction

Hole Positive Ion Free Electron Negative Ion

Depletion Region

Thus, at the junction, there are immobile positive and negative ions, due to which an electric field
called barrier potential or cut-in voltage is created at the junction.
The barrier potential depends on different factors like: Type of semiconductor, the acceptor
impurity added, the donor impurity added and the surrounding temperature.
The barrier potential for Silicon is 0.7 V and the barrier potential for Germanium is 0.3 V.

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7. P-N Junction Diode

The P-N junction forms a device which is known as diode which is the most widely used electronic
component in electronic circuits.
The PN junction diode is the most basic form of semiconductor device. P-N junctions are
elementary “building blocks” of semiconductor electronic devices such as diodes, transistors,
solar cells, LEDs, and integrated circuits.

Construction P-N Junction Diode

When the n-type semiconductor is joined with the p-type semiconductor, a P-N junction is formed.
A P-N junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows the
electric current in only one direction, while blocks the electric current in opposite or reverse
direction.
One electrode of the semiconductor device is termed the anode i.e. positive (p) side and the other
is termed the cathode i.e. a negative (n) side as shown in figure below.
p-type n-type

Hole Positive Ion Free Electron Negative Ion

Concentration of holes and electrons

)+( )-(

Anode Cathode

P-N Junction diode Symbol

P-N junction semiconductor diode is also called as p-n junction semiconductor device. Like any
diode, the PN junction diode has two terminals or electrodes. This gives it its name: “di-” meaning
two and “-ode” as a shortening of electrode.
The p-n junction diode is made from the semiconductor materials such as silicon, germanium, and
gallium arsenide.

8. Biasing of Diode: Forward Bias, Reverse Bias

When an external source of energy is applied to a P-N junction it is called a bias voltage or simply
biasing. This method either increases or decreases the barrier potential of the junction.
Biasing is the process of providing DC voltage which helps in the functioning of the circuit.

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Bias voltage: The amount of voltage that an electronic device needs in order to power on and
function. Without bias voltage, an electronic device wouldn’t have sufficient energy to turn ON
and be operated.
Based on the applied voltage, there are two possible “biasing” conditions for the P-N Junction
diode, as mentioned below:
Forward Bias: The positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type material.
Reverse Bias: The positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type material and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material.

Forward Bias

In the forward bias condition, the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material
and the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type material.
The biasing voltage provided must be sufficiently large to force an electron from the n-region to
cross the junction and enter the p-region.
Due to the attractive force generated in the p-region, the electrons are attracted and they start
moving towards the positive terminal.
Simultaneously the holes are attracted to the negative terminal of the battery. Due to this movement
of electrons and holes current starts flow.
In this condition, the width of the depletion region decreases due to the reduction in the number
of positive and negative ions.
If this external voltage becomes greater than the value of the potential barrier, approximate 0.7
volts for silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers opposition will be overcome
and current will start to flow as shown below.

PN Junction
p-region n-region

Very small
depletion layer

Forward Biasing Voltage

Hole Positive Ion Free Electron Negative Ion

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P-N Junction Diode in Forward Bias

Reverse Bias

In the reverse bias condition, the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the p-type material
and the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n-type material. This connection is also
called as giving negative voltage.
The positive voltage applied to the n-type material attracts electrons towards the positive electrode
and away from the junction, while the holes in the p-type end are also attracted away from the
junction towards the negative electrode.
The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a lack of electrons and holes and
presents a high impedance path, almost an insulator.
The result is that a larger potential barrier is created thus preventing current from flowing through
the semiconductor material as shown below.

PN Junction
p-region n-region

wider depletion
layer

Hole Positive Ion Free Electron Negative Ion

P-N Junction Diode in Reverse Bias

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9. V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

Volt-ampere (V-I) characteristics of a P-N junction or semiconductor diode is the curve between
voltage across the junction and the current through the circuit. Normally the voltage is taken along
the x-axis and current along y-axis.
The V-I characteristics or voltage-current characteristics of the P-N junction diode is shown in the
below figure.
The horizontal line in the below figure represents the amount of voltage applied across the P-N
junction diode whereas the vertical line represents the amount of current flows in the P-N junction
diode.
+IF Forward B
(mA) Current

Forward
Bias

Reverse “knee”
Breakdown
–VR Voltage(VBR) Is A
O +VF

Reverse Voltage Forward Voltage

Reverse
“Zener” Saturation Cut-in voltage
Breakdown current (Knee voltage)
or Avalanche Reverse
Region Bias
Reverse Current
–IR(μA)

V-I Characteristics of P-N Junction Diode

The characteristics can be explained in two ways, such as:

(i) Forward bias characteristics
(ii) Reverse bias characteristics

Case-1: Forward Bias characteristics

A forward bias characteristic is observed in first quadrant. In forward bias condition, the p-type
of the PN junction is connected to the positive terminal and n-type is connected to the negative
terminal of the external voltage. This results in reduced potential barrier.
In forward biased P-N junction diode, VF represents the forward voltage whereas IF represents the
forward current. At some forward voltage i.e. 0.7 V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge, the potential barrier
is almost overcome and the current starts flowing in the circuit.
From this instant, i.e., from knee point the current increases with the increase in forward voltage.
Hence, a curve OB is obtained with forward bias as shown in figure above.
From the forward characteristics, it can be noted that at first i.e., region OA, the current increases
very slowly and the curve is non-linear.

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However, once the external voltage exceeds the potential barrier voltage, the potential barrier is
eliminated and the P-N junction behaves as an ordinary conductor. Hence, the curve AB rises very
sharply with the increase in external voltage and the curve is almost linear.

Case-2: Reverse Bias characteristics

Reverse bias characteristics is observed in third quadrant. In reverse bias condition, the p-type
of the PN junction is connected to the negative terminal and n-type is connected to the positive
terminal of the external voltage.
This results in increased potential barrier at the junction. Hence, the junction resistance becomes
very high and as a result practically no forward current flows through the circuit.
We know that there are few free electrons in p-type material and few holes in n-type material.
These free electrons in p-type and holes in n-type are called minority carriers.
In reverse biased P-N junction diode, VR represents the reverse voltage whereas IR represents the
reverse current. However, a very small current of the order of μA, flows through the circuit in
practice. This is known as reverse saturation current (IS) and it is due to the minority carriers in
the layers.
However, if the voltage applied to the diode is increased above an extent, the P-N junction diode
reaches to a state where junction breakdown occurs, and reverse current increases rapidly. This
voltage is known as reverse breakdown voltage (VBR). In a normal pn junction diode it may damage
the diode completely.

Current Equation of Diode

The relation between the applied voltage ‘V’ across the diode and current ‘I’ flowing through the
diode can be expressed mathematically by the diode current equation which is given as,

I = I O [e V /hVT - 1] Amperes
Where, V = Applied voltage across the diode in volts
I = Current flow through the diode in amperes
h = 2 for Silicon P-N junction diode
h = 1 for germanium P-N junction diode
I O = Reverse saturation current flow through diode in amperes
The term ‘e’ indicates that the diode current equation is exponential in nature and is applicable
for all the conditions of the diode operating modes (i.e., whether diode is forward biased, reverse
biased or in unbiased condition).
VT is the voltage equivalent of temperature in volts. It is given by following equation.

VT = K ´ T volts

where, K = Boltzman’s constant = 8.62 ´ 10 -5 eV / °K.

T = Temperature in °K (°Kelvin )
The equation VT = K ´ T indicates that the current flow through the diode also depends upon the
ambient temperature.

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Consider for example, room temperature = 25°C.

Then temperature in °K=25°C+273. Therefore, T=298°K
Hence, VT = K ´ T

\ VT = 8.62 ´ 10 -5 ´ 298 K

\ VT = 25.68 mV

10. Diode as a Switch

The diode is used as electronic switch.
If the reverse voltage is applied across the diode, the diode resistance gets increased. Since no
current flows through the device, it acts as an open switch.
If forward voltage is applied is to the diode, the diode resistance decreases, making the diode
forward biased. The current flow exists and the diode acts as a closed switch.
The following circuit explains the diode acting as a switch.

R1 R2
ON OFF

A
K D

Switching Circuit as Diode

A switching diode has a PN junction in which p-region is lightly doped and n-region is heavily
doped.
The above circuit symbolizes that the diode gets ON when positive voltage forward biases the
diode and it gets OFF when negative voltage reverse biases the diode.

11. Rectifier Circuits

In a large number of electronic circuits, we require DC voltage for operation. Virtually all modern
electronics need the steady, constant power of DC to operate correctly.
We can convert the AC voltage or AC current into DC voltage or DC current by P-N junction
diode.
One of the most important applications of a P-N junction diode is the rectification that is converting
Alternating Current (AC) into pulsating Direct Current (DC).
A P-N junction diode allows electric current in only forward bias condition and blocks electric
current in reverse bias condition. This unique property of the diode allows it to acts like a rectifier.

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Rectifier: The circuit which converts AC voltage to a pulsating DC voltage using P-N junction
diodes is called a rectifier.

V (RL)

0
Rectifier

   Alernating Current (AC)             Pulsating Direct Current

Types of Rectifiers

The rectifiers are mainly classified into two types

(i) Half wave rectifier
(ii) Full wave rectifier

12. Half Wave Rectifier

The half wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts only half of the AC input signal into
pulsating DC signal.
Positive Half Wave Rectifier: A half wave rectifier that converts only the positive half cycle and
blocks the negative half cycle.

Diode
Input AC full cycles DC Output Positive
Half Cycles

Negative Half Wave Rectifier: A negative half wave rectifier converts only the negative half cycle
of the AC into DC.

Diode
DC Output Negative
Input AC full cycles
Half Cycles

In all types of rectifiers, a half-wave rectifier is the simplest of them all as it is composed of only
a single diode.

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Step down S1 D
Transformer
P1
Vdc
Line voltage
from an Primary VS Secondary
AC Power RL

P2

S2

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

Above diagram shows the positive half wave rectifier.

A diode allows the current flow in only one direction i.e., forward bias. 
A load resistor RL is connected in series with the diode.

Operation of HWR

The AC input to be rectified is connected to the diode. The input is stepped up or down using a
transformer.
A half wave rectifier uses a step-down transformer, a diode and a load resistor RL. The AC line
voltage (230 V, 50 Hz) is lowered by a step-down transformer that provides lower AC voltage at
the secondary in order to increase compatibility.
This alternating current supplied to the halfwave rectifier circuit will have positive half and
negative half cycle.
During the positive half cycle, the diode terminal anode will become positive and the cathode will
become negative known as forward bias. This will allow positive cycle to cause current to flow
through the diode.
During the negative half cycle, the anode will become negative and the cathode will become
positive, which is known as reverse bias. The diode will act as open switch and will not conduct
current. Thus, blocking the negative cycle.
So, when an AC source is connected to the half-wave rectifier, only half cycle will flow through it
as shown in the figure below. Thus, working as positive half wave rectifier.

V (RL)

AC Input Full wave DC output

Input and output of Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

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If we look at the input-to-output graph, it shows a pulsating positive half cycle of the input.
If we connect the diode in opposite direction, then the same circuit will allow only negative cycle
to be rectified. Thus, working as negative half wave rectifier.

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)

This is one of the most important analysis parameters in case of rectifier for diode selection.
The peak inverse voltage is the maximum negative voltage that appears across the diode in the
reverse biased condition i. e. when the diode is not conducting

Step down S1 D
Transformer
P1
Vdc
Line voltage
from an Primary VS Secondary
AC Power RL

P2

S2

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

Thus, PIV = Vm volts

PIV rating must be taken care of while selecting a diode . It should be higher than the maximum
possible reverse voltage to prevent the diode from getting damaged.

Advantages of Half-wave Rectifier

Uses less number of components so there is reduction in the size of the circuit and less cost.
It is simple in construction.

Disadvantages of Half-wave Rectifier

Rectification efficiency is low = 40.5%.

Ripple factor is high = 121%.
Due to high ripple, large filter components are required.
TUF is low = 28.7%
Due to the drawbacks mentioned above, the HWR is usually not used for rectification.

13. Full Wave Rectifier

The full wave rectifier is a type of rectifier which converts the full AC input signal (positive half
cycle and negative half cycle) to pulsating DC output signal.
Unlike the half wave rectifier, the input signal is not wasted in full wave rectifier.

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The efficiency of full wave rectifier is high as compared to the half wave rectifier.
A full wave rectifier converts both positive and negative half cycles of the AC (alternating current)
into DC (direct current).
A full wave rectifier is made up of more than one diode.
There are two types of full wave rectifier.
(i) Center-Tapped Rectifier
(ii) Bridge Rectifier

14. Full Wave Rectifier: Center-Tap Rectifier

In half-wave rectifier only half of the incoming AC cycle is utilized and all the energy associated
with the other half cycle is wasted. Thus, it is not very efficient. This type of full-wave rectifier
uses a center-tap transformer and two diodes.

D1

Step down
Transformer A

AC RL
voltage
Source

D2
Center-tapped Transformer

Figure shows center tapped full wave rectifier circuit with input 230V, 50Hz at primary of
transformer. Circuit uses two diodes D1 and D2 connected across secondary of transformer. Center-
tapped is taken as zero reference point.
For greater efficiency, we need to utilize both halves of the incoming AC. Here only one diode
conducts in one half cycle of the AC input, thus giving full-wave rectification.
However, for proper operation, this thing is not shown in diagram of the secondary winding.

Operation of Center-Tap Rectifier

During Positive Half Cycle

During the positive half cycle of the AC input, terminal ‘A’ is positive w.r.t. terminal ‘B’. Diode D1
is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased.

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Ideally D1 acts as closed switch and D2 as open switch. So current cannot flow through
D2. The current flows through D1 and the load resistor RL through the upper half of the
secondary winding, thus providing the load current which develops positive voltage across
load resistance.

During Negative Half Cycle

During the negative half cycle of the AC input, terminal ‘B’ is positive w.r.t. terminal ‘A’. Therefore,
diode D2 is forward biased while D1 is reverse biased.
Ideally D2 acts as closed switch and D1 as open switch. So current cannot flow through D1. The
current flows through D2 and the load resistor RL through the lower half of the secondary winding,
thus providing the load current which develops positive voltage across load resistance.

Input and Output Waveforms of Center-Tap Rectifier

The waveforms show that the output of a rectifier is not exactly a DC It is called a pulsating DC
i.e. The DC output of a center-tap rectifier also has ripples and it’s not smooth and steady DC. A
capacitor at the output will remove the ripple and make a steady DC output.

V (RL)

AC Input Full wave DC output

PIV (Peak Inverse Voltage)

D1

+
ON +Vm
D1
Single ON
t
phase - 0
AC +
supply
RL t
D2 0 D2
- OFF
-Vm
OFF
t
+Vm 0

~ 2Vm across diode D2

Voltage =
-2Vm

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Thus, PIV of diode D2 = 2Vm volts.

Similar if you find PIV of diode D1 it will be same as D2
Therefore, PIV of each diode in case of Center-Tap Rectifier is “2Vm “volts.

Advantages of Full Wave Rectifier

Better rectification efficiency = 81.2%.

Increased VL dc and IL dc values.
Low ripple factor (48%) better than half-wave rectifier.
No transformer saturation because of bi-directional current in the secondary of the transformer.
Better TUF = 69.3%.

Disadvantages of Full Wave Rectifier

The cost increases because diodes of high PIV (2Vm) are required.
A center tapped transformer is required which is costlier and complicated to design, as well as the
amount of space required here, is more.

Applications of Full Wave Rectifier

It is used in battery chargers.

Also used in power supplies in laboratory.
In high current power supplies.

15. Full Wave Rectifier: Bridge Rectifier

The circuit shown above is the four-diode rectifier circuit that provides full wave rectification of
the AC input 230V, 50Hz, using a transformer without center tapped connection. This is the main
advantage of the four-diode bridge circuit.
In this type of rectifier, the diodes are connected in a specific form called bridge as given below.
Therefore, this rectifier circuit is known as a bridge rectifier.

D1 D3

AC RL
voltage Vin
Source Vout

D2 D4

Bridge Rectifier Circuit

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Operation of Bridge Rectifier

During positive half cycle, the diode D2 and D3 becomes forward bias while D1 and D4 becomes
reverse bias.
The diode D2 and D3 forms a closed loop causing current to flow through RL that provides a
positive output voltage across the load resistor RL.
During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 and D4 becomes forward bias while D2 and D3 becomes
reverse bias, causing current to flow through RL that provides a positive output voltage across the
load resistor RL again as the direction of current is still the same.
Thus, provides a positive pulsating DC output voltage across the load.

Input and Output Waveforms of Bridge Rectifier

The output of full wave rectifier has low ripples compared to half-wave rectifier but still, it’s not
smooth and steady.

V (RL)

AC Input Full wave DC output

Advantages of a Bridge Rectifier

Increased TUF(Transformer utilization factor) because the transformer used is not center-
tapped.
Does not require center-tapped transformer therefore cost is less.
High rectification efficiency.
The cost gets reduced as the diodes with less PIV rating are required.
Both output voltage and current are higher.

Disadvantages of Bridge Rectifier

As the circuit requires four diodes, there is additional voltage drop across them which reduce the
output voltage.

Applications of Bridge Rectifier

Because of their low cost compared to center tapped they are widely used in power supply circuit.
It can be used to detect the amplitude of modulated radio signal.
Bridge rectifiers can be used to supply polarized voltage in welding.

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Comparison of HWR, FWR and Bridge Rectifier

Half Wave Centre Tap

Parameter Bridge Rectifier
Rectifier Rectifier

Circuit diagram Step down S1

Transformer
P1
D

Step down
D1 A

D1 D3
P N
Transformer A
Vdc
AC RL
Line voltage voltage Vin
from an Primary VS Secondary Vout
AC Source
AC Power voltage O
RL
Source
D2 D4
P2

S2 B B

D2

Average or DC Im 2I m 2I m
load current p p p
I L dc
Maximum Vm 2Vm 2Vm
Average or DC p p p
load voltage
V L dc
RMS (Root Im Im Im
mean square) 2 2 2
load current
I L rms
RMS (Root Vm Vm Vm
mean square) 2 2 2
load voltage
V L rms
Expression for Vm Vm Vm
the peak load Im = Im = Im =
( RS + R F + R L ) ( RS + R F + R L ) ( R S + 2R F + R L )
current
Center tapped
Not required Required Not required
transformer
DC load power I 2m 4I 2m R f 4I 2m R f
Pdc RL
p2 p2 p2
Maximum
rectification ef- 40%(Very less) 81.2% 81.2%
ficiency ( h )
Transformer 28.7%(Very less i.e. 69.3%(Higher than that of 81.2% (Much higher than
Utilization fac- transformer is not utilized HWR. So better utiliza- that of HWR and Centre
tor (TUF) effectively ) tion of transformer) Tap Rectifier. So better
utilization of transformer)
Ripple factor 121%(Very high) 48% 48%
Ripple frequency f = 50 Hz f = 100 Hz f = 100 Hz

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Half Wave Centre Tap

Parameter Bridge Rectifier
Rectifier Rectifier

Number of
One Two Four
diodes used
Transformer Possible due to unidirec- Not possible as the sec- Not possible as the sec-
core saturation tional secondary current. ondary current is not ondary current is not
unidirectional. unidirectional.
Peak Inverse
Voltage(PIV) Vm 2Vm (Disadvantage) Vm

Applications Used in low power simple Used for the battery Used in Mobile, Laptops
battery charger circuit. charger circuits, for the charger circuits, in Unin-
Pulse generator circuit, high power application, in terruptable Power Supply
signal modulation circuit, earlier transistor radio. (UPS) Circuits to convert
AM radio circuits as a AC to DC, in our Home
detector, in soldering iron Inverters to convert AC to
circuit etc. DC, in Televisions, LCD,
LED TVs, in Car Alter-
nator to charge the batter-
ies during the running of
the car.

STEPS & Problem Based on

FORMULA Diode as Rectifier
I = I O [e V / h/ VT - 1] amperes

Important Notations

V = Applied voltage across the diode in volts

I = Current flow through the diode in amperes
h = 2 for Silicon P-N junction diode, = 1 for germanium P-N junction diode
I O = Reverse saturation current flow through diode in amperes
VT is the voltage equivalent of temperature in volts VT = K ´ T volts
K = Boltzman’s constant = 8.62 ´ 10 -5 eV / °K. ,T = Temperature in ° K (°Kelvin )
T
VT =
11600
300
Let, T = 300°K i.e room temperature, VT = = 25.86 mV » 26 mV
11, 600

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Half Wave Rectifier

Vm
Im =
R F + R L + RS

R S = Resistance of secondary winding of transformer

R F = Forward resistance of diode

Vm = Maximum value of transformer secondary voltage

Im I
I Ldc = , VLdc = I Ldc*R L , I Lrms = m
p 2

I 2m
PLdc = VLdc I Ldc = I 2Ldc R L = RL
p2

I 2m
Pac = I Lrms
2
[R L + R F + R S ] = [R L + R F + R S ]
4

D.C. output power PLdc 4 RL

h= = = 2
A.C. input power Pac p ( R S + R F + R L )

%hmax = 0.4 or 40%

2
æI ö
Ripple factor = ç Lrms ÷ - 1 = 1.21 or 121%
è I Ldc ø

PIV of diode = Vm

D.C. Power delivered to the load V I

T.U.F. = = Ldc Ldc 0.287 = 28.7%
A.C. Power rating of the transformer VSrms ISrms

Full Wave Rectifier

Vm
Im =
R F + R L + RS
2I m
I Ldc =
p
2Vm
VLdc = I Ldc R L =
p
Im
I Lrms =
2

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4 2
PLdc = I 2Ldc R L = ImR L
p2
I 2m ( R F + R S + R L ) Vm2
Pac = I 2
Srms (R F + RS + R L ) = =
2 2( R F + R S + R L )

8R L
h=
p (R F + RS + R L )
2

8
%hmax = = 0.812 = 81.2%
p2
2
æI ö
Ripple factor = ç Lrms ÷ - 1 = 0.48 = 48%
è I Ldc ø

PIV of diode = 2 Vm ,

Average T.U.F. for full wave rectifier

= 0.693 or 69.3%

VNL - VFL R + RS
% Regulation = ´ 100 = F ´ 100
VFL RL

Bridge Rectifier
Vm
Im =
R S + 2R F + R L
2I m
I Ldc =
p
2Vm
VLdc = I Ldc R L =
p
Im
I Lrms =
2

4 2
PLdc = I 2Ldc R L = ImR L
p2
Pac = ISrms
2
( R S + 2R F + R L )

PLdc 8R L
h= = 2 ,
Pac p ( R s + 2R f + R L )
hmax = 0.812 or 81.2%
2
æI ö
Ripple factor = ç Lrms ÷ - 1 = 0.48, T.U.F. = 0.812 = 81.2%
è I Ldc ø

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E xercise - 1.2
Problem based on 2nd Milestone
Click or Scan using
FORTFLAG app
for detailed
solution.

1. Explain the construction and working of P - N junction diode. Draw its V - I characteristics.
2. Explain biasing and operation of diode in different biasing.
3. Sketch and explain the V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode.
4. Draw and explain operation of half wave rectifier (HWR) along with corresponding input and
output waveforms.
5. Explain operation of FWR (Centre tapped / Bridge) with suitable diagram and waveforms. State
its advantages and disadvantages.
6. Define rectifier with its types. Draw and explain operation of FWR (centre tapped / Bridge)
rectifier along with waveforms.
7. Compare HWR, FWR and Bridge rectifier.
8. In a P-N junction germanium diode, if the reverse saturation current is 10 mA . Calculate the
forward current for voltages of 0.1 V, 0.2 V and 0.3 V respectively.
9. The forward current through a diode is 10 mA at room temperature ( 27°C).
Calculate
(i) Reverse saturation current Io for Si diode if forward voltage is 0.75 volt.
(ii) Reverse saturation current Io for Ge diode if forward voltage is 0.3 volt.
10. For full wave bridge rectifier, applied input voltage is 5sinωt. Calculate average output voltage,
RMS voltage and PIV rating of diode used.
11. For the half wave rectifier circuit of Fig. Shown below, the resistance of transformer secondary
is 5 W , forward resistance of the diode R F = 50 W and the load resistance is 1 kW . Calculate the
following:

RF = 50Ω

240V IL
50Hz VS
RL = 1kΩ

–
4 : 1

Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

(i) Average load current and average load voltage.

(ii) RMS load current and rms load voltage.

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(iii) DC load power and AC input power.

(iv) Rectification efficiency.
(v) Transformer utilization factor (TUF).
12. A voltage V = 300 cos100t is applied to a half wave rectifier with R L = 5 kW.The rectifier may
be represented by an ideal diode in series with a resistance of 1 kW. Calculate:
(i) Im
(ii) DC power
(iii) AC power
(iv) Rectifier efficiency
(v) Ripple factor
13. In a centre tapped FWR, the rms half secondary voltage is 9V. Assuming ideal diodes and load
resistance of R L = 1 kW. Find
(i) Peak current
(ii) DC load voltage
(iii) RMS load current
(iv) Ripple factor
14. A bridge rectifier is directly connected to single phase AC supply voltage of 230V, 50Hz. If load
resistance is 1 00W and diode forward resistance is 1 W . Calculate ILdc, VLdc, ILrms, VLrms, h .
15. A full wave rectifier circuit is fed from a transformer with a centre tap. The rms voltage from
end of secondary to centre tap is 30V. If the diode forward resistance is 2 ohms and that of the
half secondary is 8W. Calculate the following for a 1 kW. load
(i) Power delivered to the load.
(ii) Percent regulation at full load.
(iii) Efficiency of rectification.
(iv) TUF of secondary
16. A bridge rectifier circuit has secondary voltage of 12 Vrms. Assume secondary resistance and
diode forward resistance to be negligible. Load resistance is 100 W . Calculate peak load current.
D.C. load current, rms load current and PIV across each diode.
17. A bridge rectifier is applied with input from a step-down transformer having turns ration 8 :1
at 230 V, 50 Hz. If the diode forward resistance is 1 W. , secondary resistance 10 W and load
resistance connected is 2 kW find
(i) DC power output
(ii) PIV across each diode
(iii) % efficiency
(iv) Regulation at full load.

16. Special Purpose Diodes

We have discussed about simple PN junction diode. These Diodes are optimized for the rectification.
It does not mean that a diode can be used only for rectification . There are different other diodes
which are used in non-rectifier applications. Some p-n junction diodes are developed for specific
applications. These diodes are termed as “special purpose diode”.

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Examples of such diodes are:

(i) Zener diode
(ii) Light emitting Diode (LED)
(iii) Photo diode
(iv) Varactor diode
(v) PIN diode
(vi) Schokley diode
(vii) Schottky diode
Here, we will discuss some of the types of diode.

17. Zener Diode

A Zener diode is a specially designed highly doped PN junction diode which is optimized to
operate in reverse direction.
Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in reverse
biased condition. (Ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased condition is not used
as zener diode practically).
By varying the doping level of silicon diode, a manufacturer can produce zener diode with
breakdown voltages (“Zener voltages”) anywhere from 1.8 to 200 V.

Symbol

Appearance

Schematic Symbol

Backwards current flow too, but only

past the “zener” breakdown voltage

The schematic symbol for a zener diode is shown above. It is very similar to that of a regular
diode, but with bent edges on the bar.
The Zener still conducts electricity in the forward direction like any other diode, but also conducts
in the reverse direction, if the voltage applied is reversed and larger than the zener breakdown
voltage.

Breakdown Mechanism of Zener Diode

There are two different breakdown mechanisms in Zener diode viz. Zener breakdown and avalanche
breakdown. Usually, the Zener breakdown is observed at voltages less than approximately 6 V (5
V to 8 V) and avalanche breakdown is observed at voltages greater than 8 V.
(i) Zener breakdown
When a reverse voltage (< 6 V) is applied across the Zener diode, an intense electric field, of the
order of 3 X 105 V/cm, appears across the narrow depletion layer.

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This strong electric field is capable of breaking the covalent bond and generating the free electrons
available for conduction.
A large number of such free electrons cause heavy reverse current through the diode.
This is called Zener breakdown which occurs only for heavily doped diodes.
(ii) Avalanche breakdown
Avalanche breakdown is due to collisions when a reverse voltage > 6 V is applied across the Zener
diode.
As the magnitude of the reverse bias voltage is increased, the kinetic energy of the minority
carriers gets increased. While travelling, the minority carriers collide with the stationary atoms,
which in turn results in breaking some of the covalent bonds and generating free electrons.
These electrons act as minority carriers. Again, they get accelerated by the strong reverse bias
field thereby increasing the collision and also the number of free electrons. This is known as
carrier multiplication.
This process continues leading to a very swift multiplication effect and give rise to a large reverse
current in just a few picoseconds. This effect is called as “avalanche breakdown effect”.

Characteristics of a Zener Diode

V-I characteristics of a Zener diode is a graphical representation of the operation of the Zener
diode.
+IF

Forward
Forward
Current
Bias region

-VZ
Reverse Bias
-VR +VF

Forward
IZ (min) VF
Bias
Knee point 0.3-0.7 v

‘Zener”
breakdown
region
IZ (max) Reverse
Current
Constant Zener -IR
voltage

V-I characteristics of a Zener diode

The above figure shows the V-I characteristics of a zener diode. When the diode is connected in
forward bias, this diode acts as a normal diode but when the reverse bias voltage is greater than
zener voltage, a sharp breakdown takes place.

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In the V-I characteristics above Vz is the zener voltage. It is also the knee voltage because at this
point the current increases very rapidly.
The Zener diode is used in its “reverse bias” or reverse breakdown mode, i.e., the diodes anode
connects to the negative supply.
From the I-V characteristics curve above, we can see that the zener diode has a region in its reverse
bias characteristics of almost a constant negative voltage regardless of the value of the current
flowing through the diode.
This voltage remains almost constant even with large changes in current providing the Zener
diodes current remains between the breakdown current IZ(min) and its maximum current rating
IZ(max).
The voltage across the zener is represented by the equation shown below.

V = VZ + IZRZ

Working Principle of Zener Diode

RS RS

Zener VZ Zener
Diode Diode VZ

     Forward Biasing                 Reverse Biasing

In the forward biased condition, zener diode operates like a normal P-N junction diode.
When a PN junction of zener diode is reverse biased as shown in figure, the depletion layer
becomes wider.
If this reverse biased voltage across the diode is increased, the depletion layer becomes more and
more wider as shown below.
And there will be a small reverse saturation current due to minority carriers.
After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the width of the depletion layer becomes thinner
than that in a normally doped diode.
If the reverse voltage is continued to increase, at a certain reverse voltage reverse breakdown
occurs and the current in the zener diode increases rapidly.
This breakdown is called zener breakdown. The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is called
zener voltage.
The zener voltage of the diode gets adjusted during manufacturing with the help of required and
proper doping.
When a zener diode is connected across a voltage source, and the source voltage is more than
zener voltage, the voltage across a zener diode remains fixed irrespective of the source voltage.

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The increase in this voltage causes only the current through the zener diode to increase. Although
at that condition current through the diode can be of any value depending on the load connected
with the diode.
That is why we use a zener diode mainly for controlling or regulating the voltage in different
circuits.

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

The function of a voltage regulator is to provide a constant output voltage to a load connected in
parallel with it in spite of the ripples in the supply voltage or variations in the load current.
A zener diode will continue to regulate its voltage until the diodes holding current falls below the
minimum Iz(min) value in the reverse breakdown region.
The voltage regulator is used for two main reasons
(i) To vary or regulate the output voltage.
(ii) To keep the output voltage constant at the desired value in spite of variations in the supply
voltage.
Voltage regulators are used in computers, power generators, alternators to control the output of the
plant.
Rs

50

0 100 5.00 v
5v
Volt
metre
Voltage
Control

Zener as Voltage Regulator

Zener Diode as Voltage Regulator

RS
IS
+
IZ IL
Vin

RL VO
VZ

–
Zener as Voltage Regulator

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The Regulating action in Zener Shunt Regulator with Varying Input Voltage (RL Constant)
V V
We know that output of the zener regulator Vo = VZ = constant is, I L = O = Z
RL RL
We can say from the above equation, if RL and Vz are constant, the load current always remains
V - VZ
constant IS = I Z + I L = in .
RS
From the above equation, we can say that, if the input voltage Vin increases, the current through RS
increases, IL cannot increase as VZ and RL are constant.
As the zener diode resistance is much smaller than RL when it is conducting, this extra current
flows through the zener diode to keep the load current constant as long as IZ < IZmax.
Therefore, IL remains constant and so VO remains constant.
I max = I Z max + I L
I min = I Z min + I L
Regulating Action with Varying Load (Keeping Vin Constant)
Here we consider that RL is variable and Vin is constant.
V - VZ
I = in , where I is the total current.
RS
If the load resistor RL decreases, load current IL increases, the current flow through RS is constant.
Hence, the current through the Zener diode decreases to keep the output voltage VO constant.

Applications of Zener Diode

Zener diodes are used in voltage regulators.

It is used in various protection circuits.
It is used in clipping circuits.

18. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

The “Light Emitting Diode” or more commonly called LED, it is one of the important light sources.
The LED is a PN-junction diode which emits light when an electric current passes through it in
the forward direction.
It is a special type of diode as they have very similar electrical characteristics to a PN junction
diode. This means that an LED will pass current in its forward direction but block the flow of
current in the reverse direction.

LED Symbol

The symbol LED is similar to that of the p-n junction diode. The difference between these two
symbols is that the two arrows indicate that the diode is emitting the light.

(+) (-)
Anode Cathode

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LED Construction

LED construction is same as that of p-n junction semiconductor diode and the LED is operated in
the forward biased region.
It operates on the principle which states that when the recombination of electrons and holes takes
place, the energy is released in the form of light.
The methods used to construct LED is to deposit three semiconductor layers on the
substrate.
The three semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate are n-type semiconductor, p-type
semiconductor and active region.
Active region is present in between the n-type and p-type semiconductor layers. The light emerges
from active region in all the directions when electron hole pairs recombine.
In order to focus light in desired direction, the basic structure is placed inside a small reflective
cup. Type of construction is called cup type construction as shown in figure.

Forward biased diode

Light
p-type
Active region
n-type

Working Principle of LED

When LED is forward biased, the free electrons from n-type will cross the junction and recombine
with the holes in the p type material.
These free electrons reside in the conduction band and hence are at a higher energy level than the
holes in the valance band.
When the recombination takes place, these electrons return back to the valance band which is at a
lower energy level than the conduction band.
While returning back the recombining electrons give away the excess energy in the form of light.
This process is called as “Electro-luminescence” this is the property of the material to convert
electrical energy into light energy and later it radiates this light energy.

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Depletion layer
p-region n-region

Hole Positive Ion Free Electron Negative Ion

Conduction band
Efc
Ec
Energy gap

Ev
Efv
Valance band

Forward Biasing Voltage

LED Colors

Silicon or Germanium do not emit energy in the form of light. Instead, they emit energy in the
form of heat. Thus, silicon or germanium is not used for constructing LEDs.

Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour V0@20mA
Material

GaAs 850-940 nm Infra-red 1.2v

GaAsP 630-660 nm Red 1.8 v
GaAsP 605-620 nm Amber 2.0v
GaAsP N 585-595 nm Yellow 202 v

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Typical LED Characteristics

Semiconductor
Wavelength Colour V0@20mA
Material

AlGaP 550-570 nm Green 3.5 v

SiC 430-505nm Blue 3.6v
GalnN 450nm White 4.0v

LED Biasing

The voltage drop across a conducting LED is in the range of 1.2 V to 3.2 V, depending on the
material used.
This voltage is much higher than that across a conventional diode.
The current range of the LED available in market is 10 to 80 mA.
It has low reverse breakdown voltage of the order 3 to 10 V. So, they should not be used in circuit
with high reverse voltage than specified.

Advantages of LED

LED’s are of small size, light weight and low cost.

They have Long life time as compared to the lamps.
High energy efficiency, High switching speed, High luminous intensity.
They are available in many colours.
Designed to focus its light in a particular direction.
Less radiated heat.
The light emitted by a LED is proportional to the amount of current flowing through it therefore
we can control the current flowing through LEDs to vary their brightness as per the requirements
of the application.
They are suitable at high operating speeds as they take less than 1µs to turn on or off.
LED’s can be easily interfaced with the other electronic circuits.

Disadvantages of LED

Overcurrent can damage it easily.

Output power is affected by changes in temperature.
They need larger power for their operation.
Luminous efficiency of LED is low.

Applications of LED

In motor vehicles and bicycle lights.

In traffic light Indicators, signs and signals.
In seven segment and alphanumeric displays.

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In medical applications and toys.

Non visual applications.
In light bulbs and many more.
In infrared remote controls.

19. Photodiode
A special type of PN junction device which generates current when exposed to light is called as
Photodiode.
It is also known as” photo or light detector” or “photo sensor”. The working principle of photo
diode is just opposite to the working function of LED in a sense that photodiode converts light into
an electrical signal.
The photodiode is a device that operates in reverse bias and it is a form of sensor that converts
light energy into electrical voltage or current.

Symbol

The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an LED but the arrows point inwards as opposed
to outwards in the LED. The following images shows the symbol and construction of a photodiode.

(+) (-)

Anode Cathode

Photodiode Symbol

Construction of Photodiode

The PN junction of the device placed inside a glass material.

The light is always focused through a glass lens on the junction of the photodiode.
As only the junction is exposed to radiation, thus, the other portion of the glass material is painted
black or is metalized.
The overall unit is of exceedingly small dimension nearly about 2.5 mm. It is noteworthy that the
current flowing through the device is in micro-ampere and is measured using an ammeter.

Principle of Photodiode

It works on the principle of “Photoelectric effect”. The operating principle of the photodiode is
such that when the junction of this two-terminal semiconductor device is illuminated, then the
electric current starts to flow through it.
Only minority current flows through the device when certain reverse potential is applied to it.

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Working of Photodiode

Incident photon

wider depletion
layer

Hole Positive Ion Free Electron Negative Ion

The electrons present in the p side and holes present in n side are the minority carriers.
When a certain reverse-biased voltage is applied, then minority carrier holes from n-side
experiences repulsive force from the positive potential of the battery.
Similarly, the electrons present in the p side experience repulsion from the negative potential of
the battery.
This results in recombination of these minority carriers at the junction.
This causes a very small reverse current flows through the device known as dark current.
It is called so because this current is the result of the flow of minority carriers and when the device
is not exposed to radiation i.e. in the absence of light.
When the junction of the device is illuminated with light as shown in figure above, and the light
falls on the surface of the junction, the temperature of the junction increases. This causes the
electron and hole to get separated from each other.
So, we can say the intensity of light energy is directly proportional to the current through the
device.
In forward biased condition the change in current due to light intensity is insignificant. Hence, it
is obvious to use in reverse bias condition.

Characteristics of Photodiode

The figure below shows the VI characteristic curve of a photodiode.

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Reverse Forward
bias voltage bias voltage

-4 -3 -2 -1 0.5
-V +V
Dark current

-100

-200 Reverse
current
-300

-400

μA

Characteristics Curve of Photodiode

Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the device and the horizontal
line represents the reverse-biased potential.
The first curve represents the dark current that generates due to minority carriers in the absence of
light. As we can see in the above figure that all the curve shows almost equal spacing in between
them. This is so because current proportionally increases with the luminous flux.
Dark current: It is the current flowing through a photodiode in the absence of light.
Dark current flows due to the thermally generated minority carriers and hence increases with
increase in temperature. Dark current should be as low as possible.
The reverse current (photocurrent) depends only on the intensity of light incident on the junction.
It is almost independent of the reverse voltage.
The figure below shows the curve for current versus illumination.

800

600

Current
400

200

0 10,000 20,000 30,000 40,000

Illumination, E

Illumination versus current curve

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Advantages of Photodiode

High sensitivity: That means a large change in the photocurrent for the small change in light
intensity.
High speed of operation as compared to LDR (Light Dependent Resistor).

Disadvantages of Photodiode

Dark current increases with temperature.

Poor temperature stability.
External bias voltage is essential for the operation.
Amplification is required as the output current is small in magnitude.

Applications of Photodiode

Photodiodes are applied in safety electronics like fire and smoke detectors.
It is used in TV units.
Utilized in cameras, they act as photo sensors.
Photodiodes are also widely used in numerous medical applications.
In optocouplers.

STEPS & Problem Based on

FORMULA Special Purpose Diode
Vin - Vz
Rs =
IS
For changes in load current
Is = Iz + IL
IS = I z max + I L min and IS = I z min + I L max
For changes in Load Resistance
RL = Vz / IL
RLmin = Vz / ILmax
RLmax = Vz /ILmin
where,
Rs = current limiting resistance / supply resistance
RL = load resistance
Vin = input Voltage
Vz = zener voltage
Is = supply current
IL = load current

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 UNIT-1 | 3rd MILESTONE

E xercise - 1.3
Problem based on 3rd Milestone
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solution.

1. Sketch and explain the V-I characteristics of zener diode.

2. Compare zener breakdown and avalanche breakdown.
3. Draw circuit diagram of zener diode as voltage regulator and explain it.
4. Explain the construction and working principle of LED.
5. List the applications of LED. Mention different material used to generate different colours of
LED.
6. Explain the working of photodiode with its symbol and characteristics.
7. Compare LED and zener diode.
8. Compare LED and photodiode.
9. For the given circuit if Vz = 12 V, Iz min = 1mA, Iz max = 50 mA. Calculate min and max IL and RL
for which Zener diode maintain its regulation.
200Ω
IS

IZ IL

24V VL
RL

10. For a Zener regulator, input voltage varies from 22 V to 28 V, VO = 18 V. The load current varies
from 200 mA to 2 A. Design the suitable zener regulator.
11. Design a zener diode shunt regulator to have an output voltage 7.3 V and load current is changed
from 25 mA to 110 mA. The input voltage applied to the regulator is 12 V.
12. For Zener voltage regulator, if Izmin = 2mA, Izmax = 20mA, Vz = 4.7V. Determine the range of input
voltage over which output voltage remains constant. Rs = 1KΩ, RL = 1KΩ, ZZ = 0Ω.

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