Time and Frequency domains: The transmission signal as a function of time and

frequency

Time Domain concepts: In the time domain, an electromagnetic signal is viewed as a function of time.
The signal can be analog or digital.
Modems

A modem is a Modulator/Demodulator, it connects a terminal/computer (DTE) to the Voice

Channel (dial-up line).

13a. Basic Definition

The modem (DCE - Data Communication Equipment) is connected between the

terminal/computer (DTE - Data Terminal Equipment) and the phone line (Voice Channel). A
modem converts the DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) digital signal to an analog signal that the
Voice Channel can use.

A modem is connected to the terminal/computer's RS232 serial port (25 pin male D connector)
and the outgoing phone line with an RJ11 cable connector (same as on a phone extension cord).
Male connectors have pins, female connectors have sockets.

13b. Digital Connection

The connection between the modem and terminal/computer is a digital connection. A basic
connection consists of a Transmit Data (TXD) line, a Receive Data (RXD) line and many hardware
hand-shaking control lines.
The control lines determine: whose turn it is to talk (modem or terminal), if the
terminal/computer is turned on, if the modem is turned on, if there is a connection to another
modem, etc.

Analog Connection

The connection between the modem and outside world (phone line) is an analog connection. The Voice
Channel has a bandwidth of 0-4 kHz but only 300 - 3400 Hz is usable for data communications.

The modem converts the digital information into tones (frequencies) for transmitting through the phone
lines. The tones are in the 300-3400 Hz Voice Band.

13d. External/Internal Modems

There are 2 basic physical types of modems: Internal & External modems. External modems sit next to
the computer and connect to the serial port using a straight through serial cable.

Internal modems are a plug-in circuit board that sits inside the computer. It incorporates the serial port
on-board. They are less expensive than external modems because they do not require a case, power
supply and serial cable. They appear to the communication programs as if they were an external modem
for all intensive purposes.
Modem Types

There are many types of modems, the most common are:

i. Optical Modems
Uses optical fibre cable instead of wire. The modem converts the digital signal to pulses of light
to be transmitted over optical lines. (more commonly called a media adapter or transceiver)

ii. Short Haul Modems

Modems used to transmit over 20 miles or less. Modems we use at home or to connect
computers together between different offices in the same building.

iii. Acoustic Modem

A modem that coupled to the telephone handset with what looked like suction cups that
contained a speaker and microphone. Used for connecting to hotel phones for travelling
salespeople.

iv. Smart Modem

Modem with a CPU (microprocessor) on board that uses the Hayes AT command set. This allows
auto-answer & dial capability rather than manually dialing & answering.

v. Digital Modems
Converts the RS-232 digital signals to digital signals more suitable for transmission. (also called a
media adapter or transceiver)

vi. V.32 Modem

Milestone modem that used a 2400 Baud modem with 4 bit encoding. This results in a 9600 bps
(bits per second) transfer rate. It brought the price of high speed modems below $5,000.
Baud is the speed at which the Analog data is changing on the Voice Channel and bps is the speed that
the decoded digital data is being transferred.

Features of Modems

1. Speed
The speed at which the modem can send data in bps (bits per second). Typically modem speeds
are: 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 14.4K, 19.2K, 28.8K bps

2. Auto Dial /Redial

Smart Modems can dial the phone number and & auto redial if a busy signal is received.

3. Auto Answer
Most modems can automatically answer the phone when an incoming call comes in. They have
Ring Detect capability.

4. Self-Testing
New modems have self-testing features. They can test the digital connection to the terminal
/computer and the analog connection to a remote modem. They can also check the modem's
internal electronics.

5. Voice over Data

Voice over Data modems allow a voice conversation to take place while data is being
transmitted. This requires both the source and destination modems to have this feature.

6. Synchronous or Asynchronous Transmission

Newer modems allow a choice of synchronous or asynchronous transmission of data. Normally,
modem transmission is asynchronous. We send individual characters with just start and stop
bits. Synchronous transmission or packet transmission is used in specific applications.

Physical Connection
 The physical connection determines how many bits (1's or 0's) can be transmitted at a single instance of
time. If only 1 bit of information can be transmitted over the data transmission medium at a time then it
is considered a Serial Communication.

If more than 1 bit of information is transmitted over the data transmission medium at a time then it is
considered a Parallel Communication.

Communications Advantages Disadvantages

Parallel Fast Transfer Rates Short distances only

Serial Long Distances Slow transfer rates

Transmission Media - Guided

 

15. Transmission Media - Guided

There are 2 basic categories of Transmission Media:

Guided and
Unguided.

Guided Transmission Media uses a "cabling" system that guides the data signals along a specific path.
The data signals are bound by the "cabling" system. Guided Media is also known as Bound Media.
Cabling is meant in a generic sense in the previous sentences and is not meant to be interpreted as
copper wire cabling only.

Unguided Transmission Media consists of a means for the data signals to travel but nothing to guide
them along a specific path. The data signals are not bound to a cabling media and as such are often
called Unbound Media.

There 4 basic types of Guided Media:

Open Wire
Twisted Pair
Coaxial Cable
Optical Fibre
 

15a. Open Wire

Open Wire is traditionally used to describe the electrical wire strung along power poles. There is a
single wire strung between poles. No shielding or protection from noise interference is used. We are
going to extend the traditional definition of Open Wire to include any data signal path without
shielding or protection from noise interference. This can include multiconductor cables or single
wires. This media is susceptible to a large degree of noise and interference and consequently not
acceptable for data transmission except for short distances under 20 ft.
 
 

Twisted Pair

The wires in Twisted Pair cabling are twisted together in pairs. Each pair would consist of a wire used for
the +ve data signal and a wire used for the -ve data signal. Any noise that appears on 1 wire of the pair
would occur on the other wire. Because the wires are opposite polarities, they are 180 degrees out of
phase (180 degrees - phasor definition of opposite polarity). When the noise appears on both wires, it
cancels or nulls itself out at the receiving end. Twisted Pair cables are most effectively used in systems
that use a balanced line method of transmission: polar line coding (Manchester Encoding) as opposed to
unipolar line coding (TTL logic).
 

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined specifically by the number of turns per foot.
Increasing the number of turns per foot reduces the noise interference. To further improve noise
rejection, a foil or wire braid shield is woven around the twisted pairs. This "shield" can be woven
around individual pairs or around a multi-pair conductor (several pairs).
 Cables with a shield are called Shielded Twisted Pair and commonly abbreviated STP. Cables without a
shield are called Unshielded Twisted Pair or UTP. Twisting the wires together results in a characteristic
impedance for the cable. A typical impedance for UTP is 100 ohm for Ethernet 10BaseT cable.

UTP or Unshielded Twisted Pair cable is used on Ethernet 10BaseT and can also be used with Token Ring.
It uses the RJ line of connectors (RJ45, RJ11, etc..)

STP or Shielded Twisted Pair is used with the traditional Token Ring cabling or ICS - IBM Cabling System.
It requires a custom connector. IBM STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) has a characteristic impedance of 150
ohms.
 

Coaxial Cable

Coaxial Cable consists of 2 conductors. The inner conductor is held inside an insulator with
the other conductor woven around it providing a shield. An insulating protective coating
called a jacket covers the outer conductor.

The outer shield protects the inner conductor from outside electrical signals. The distance
between the outer conductor (shield) and inner conductor plus the type of material used for
insulating the inner conductor determine the cable properties or impedance. Typical
impedances for coaxial cables are 75 ohms for Cable TV, 50 ohms for Ethernet Thinnet and
Thicknet. The excellent control of the impedance characteristics of the cable allow higher
data rates to be transferred than Twisted Pair cable.

15d. Optical Fibre

Optical Fibre consists of thin glass fibres that can carry information at frequencies in the
visible light spectrum and beyond. The typical optical fibre consists of a very narrow strand of
glass called the Core. Around the Core is a concentric layer of glass called the Cladding. A
typical Core diameter is 62.5 microns (1 micron = 10-6 meters). Typically Cladding has a
diameter of 125 microns. Coating the cladding is a protective coating consisting of plastic, it is
called the Jacket.
  
An
important
characteristi
c of Fibre
Optics is
Refraction.
Refraction is
the
characteristi
c of a
material to
either pass
or reflect
light. When
light passes
through a
medium, it
"bends" as
it passes
from one
medium to
the other.
An example
of this is
when we
look into a
pond of
water.
(See image
1 below)

If the angle
of incidence
is small, the
light rays
are
reflected
and do not
pass into
the water. If
the angle of
incident is
great, light
passes
through the
media but is
bent or
refracted.

(See image
2 below)

Optical
Fibres work
on the
principle
that the
core
refracts the
light and the
cladding
reflects the
light. The
core
refracts the
light and
guides the
light along
its path. The
cladding
reflects any
light back
into the
core and
stops light
from
escaping
through it -
it bounds
the media!

Optical
Transmissio
n Modes

There are 3
primary
types of
transmissio
n modes
using optical
fibre.

They are

a) Step
Index
b) Grade
Index
c) Single
Mode

 
Step Index has a large core the light rays tend to bounce around, reflecting off the cladding,
inside the core. This causes some rays to take a longer or shorted path through the core. Some
take the direct path with hardly any reflections while others bounce back and forth taking a
longer path. The result is that the light rays arrive at the receiver at different times. The signal
becomes longer than the original signal. LED light sources are used. Typical Core: 62.5 microns.

Step Index Mode

Grade Index has a gradual change in the Core's Refractive Index. This causes the light rays to be
gradually bent back into the core path. This is represented by a curved reflective path in the
attached drawing. The result is a better receive signal than Step Index. LED light sources are
used. Typical Core: 62.5 microns.

Grade Index Mode

Note: Both Step Index and Graded Index allow more than one light source to be used (different
colours simultaneously!). Multiple channels of data can be run simultaneously!

Single Mode has separate distinct Refractive Indexes for the cladding and core. The light ray
passes through the core with relatively few reflections off the cladding. Single Mode is used for
 a single source of light (one colour) operation. It requires a laser and the core is very small: 9
microns.

Single Mode

Comparison of Optical Fibres

(See image below)

The Wavelength of the light sources is measured in nanometers or 1 billionth of a meter. We

don't use frequency to talk about speed any more, we use wavelengths instead.

Indoor cable specifications:

 LED (Light Emitting Diode) Light Source

 3.5 dB/Km Attenuation (loses 3.5 dB of signal per kilometre)
 850 nM - wavelength of light source
 Typically 62.5/125 (core dia/cladding dia)
 Multimode - can run many light sources.

Outdoor Cable specifications:

 Laser Light Source

 1 dB/Km Attenuation (loses 1 dB of signal per kilometre)
 1170 nM - wavelength of light source
 Monomode (Single Mode)

Advantages of Optical Fibre:

 Noise immunity: RFI and EMI immune (RFI - Radio Frequency Interference, EMI
-ElectroMagnetic Interference)
 Security: cannot tap into cable.
 Large Capacity due to BW (bandwidth)
 No corrosion
  Longer distances than copper wire
 Smaller and lighter than copper wire
 Faster transmission rate

Disadvantages of Optical Fibre:

 Physical vibration will show up as signal noise!

 Limited physical arc of cable. Bend it too much & it will break!
 Difficult to splice

The cost of optical fibre is a trade-off between capacity and cost. At higher transmission
capacity, it is cheaper than copper. At lower transmission capacity, it is more expensive.
15e. Media versus Bandwidth
The following table compares the usable bandwidth between the different Guided
Transmission Media

Cable Type Bandwidth

Open Cable 0 - 5 MHz
Twisted Pair 0 - 100 MHz
Coaxial Cable 0 - 600 MHz
Optical Fibre 0 - 1 GHz

16. Transmission Media - Unguided

Unguided Transmission Media is data signals that flow through the air. They are not guided
or bound to a channel to follow. They are classified by the type of wave propagation.

16a. RF Propagation
There are 3 types of RF (Radio Frequency) Propagation:

 Ground Wave,
 Ionospheric and
 Line of Sight (LOS) Propagation.

Ground Wave Propagation follows the curvature of the Earth. Ground Waves have carrier
frequencies up to 2 MHz. AM radio is an example of Ground Wave Propagation.
  

Ionospheric Propagation bounces off of the Earths Ionospheric Layer in the upper
atmosphere. It is sometimes called Double Hop Propagation. It operates in the frequency
range of 30 - 85 MHz. Because it depends on the Earth's ionosphere, it changes with weather
and time of day. The signal bounces off of the ionosphere and back to earth. Ham radios
operate in this range. (See image 1 below)

Line of Sight Propagation transmits exactly in the line of sight. The receive station must be in
the view of the transmit station. It is sometimes called Space Waves or Tropospheric
Propagation. It is limited by the curvature of the Earth for ground based stations (100 km:
horizon to horizon). Reflected waves can cause problems. Examples of Line of Sight
Propagation are: FM Radio, Microwave and Satellite.

 
  

Radio Frequencies
(see table below)

Radio Frequencies are in the range of 300 kHz to 10 GHz. We are seeing an emerging
technology called wireless LANs. Some use radio frequencies to connect the workstations
together, some use infrared technology.

16c. Microwave
Microwave transmission is line of sight transmission. The Transmit station must be in visible
contact with the receive station. This sets a limit on the distance between stations depending
on the local geography. Typically the line of sight due to the Earth's curvature is only 50 km to
the horizon! Repeater stations must be placed so the data signal can hop, skip and jump
across the country.

(see image below)

Radio frequencies

The frequency spectrum operates from 0 Hz (DC) to Gamma Rays (1019 Hz).

Name Frequency (Hertz) Examples

Gamma Rays 10^19 +
X-Rays 10^17
Ultra-Violet Light 7.5 x 10^15
Visible Light 4.3 x 10^14
Infrared Light 3 x 10^11
EHF - Extremely High Frequencies 30 GHz (Giga = 10^9) Radar
SHF - Super High Frequencies 3 GHz Satellite & Microwaves
UHF - Ultra High Frequencies 300 MHz (Mega = 10^6) UHF TV (Ch. 14-83)
VHF - Very High Frequencies 30 MHz FM & TV (Ch2 - 13)
HF - High Frequencies 3 MHz2 Short Wave Radio
MF - Medium Frequencies 300 kHz (kilo = 10^3) AM Radio
LF - Low Frequencies 30 kHz Navigation
VLF - Very Low Frequencies 3 kHz Submarine Communications
VF - Voice Frequencies 300 Hz Audio
ELF - Extremely Low Frequencies 30 Hz Power Transmission
Microwaves operate at high operating frequencies of 3 to 10 GHz. This allows them to carry
large quantities of data due to the large bandwidth.

Advantages:

a. They require no right of way acquisition between towers.

b. They can carry high quantities of information due to their high operating frequencies.
c. Low cost land purchase: each tower occupies small area.
d. High frequency/short wavelength signals require small antenna.

Disadvantages:

a. Attenuation by solid objects: birds, rain, snow and fog.

b. Reflected from flat surfaces like water and metal.
c. Diffracted (split) around solid objects
d. Refracted by atmosphere, thus causing beam to be projected away from receiver.

16d. Satellite
Satellites are transponders that are set in a geostationary orbit directly over the equator. A transponder
is a unit that receives on one frequency and retransmits on another. The geostationary orbit is 36,000
km from the Earth's surface. At this point, the gravitational pull of the Earth and the centrifugal force of
Earths rotation are balanced and cancel each other out. Centrifugal force is the rotational force placed
on the satellite that wants to fling it out to space.
The uplink is the transmitter of data to the satellite. The downlink is the receiver of data.
Uplinks and downlinks are also called Earth stations due to be located on the Earth. The
footprint is the "shadow" that the satellite can transmit to. The shadow being the area that can
receive the satellite's transmitted signal.
 16e. Iridium Telecom System
The Iridium telecom system is a new satellite sytem that will be the largest private aerospace project. It
is a mobile telecom system to compete with cellular phones. It relies on satellites in Lower Earth Orbit
(LEO). The satellites will orbit at an altitude of 900 - 10,000 km and are a polar non-stationary orbit. They
are planning on using 66 satellites. The user's handset will require less power and will be cheaper than
cellular phones. There will be 100% coverage of the Earth.

They were planning to launch starting 1996-1998 and having 1.5 million subscribers by end of
the decade. Unfortunately at the time of this writing, the Iridium project looked very financially
unstable.