MODULE – 2

Topics :- Air Pollution, Effects of Air Pollution; Water pollution- sources, Sustainable wastewater treatment,
Solid waste - sources, impacts of solid waste, Zero waste concept, 3 R concept. Global environmental issues-
Resource degradation, Climate change, Global warming, Ozone layer depletion, Regional and Local
Environmental Issues. Carbon credits and carbon trading, carbon foot print.

Air Pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials
into Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, allergies, death to humans, damage to other living organisms such as
animals and food crops, or the natural or built environment.
Types of Pollutants
In order to understand the causes of Air pollution, several divisions can be made. Primarily air
pollutants can be caused by primary sources or secondary sources. The pollutants that are a direct result of the
process can be called primary pollutants. A classic example of a primary pollutant would be the sulfur-dioxide
emitted from factories
Secondary pollutants are the ones that are caused by the inter mingling and reactions of primary

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pollutants. Smog created by the interactions of several primary pollutants is known to be as secondary pollutant.
Causes of Air pollution
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Burning of Fossil Fuels: Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum
and other factory combustibles is one the major cause of air pollution. Pollution emitting from vehicles
including trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, airplanes cause immense amount of pollution. We rely on them to
fulfill our daily basic needs of transportation. But, there overuse is killing our environment as dangerous
gases are polluting the environment. Carbon Monoxide caused by improper or incomplete combustion
and generally emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen Oxides, that is
produced from both natural and man-made processes.
 Agricultural activities: Ammonia is a very common by product from agriculture related activities and
is one of the most hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides, pesticides and fertilizers in
agricultural activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful chemicals into the air and can also
cause water pollution.
 Exhaust from factories and industries: Manufacturing industries release large amount of carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby depleting the quality of
air. Manufacturing industries can be found at every corner of the earth and there is no area that has not

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 been affected by it. Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that
pollute the air and also cause land pollution.
 Mining operations: Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large
equipments. During the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing massive air pollution.
This is one of the reason which is responsible for the deteriorating health conditions of workers and
nearby residents.
 Indoor air pollution: Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic chemicals in the air
and cause air pollution. Suspended particulate matter popular by its acronym SPM, is another cause of
pollution. Referring to the particles afloat in the air, SPM is usually caused by dust, combustion etc.
Effects of Air pollution
 Respiratory and heart problems: The effects of Air pollution are alarming. They are known to create
several respiratory and heart conditions along with Cancer, among other threats to the body. Several
millions are known to have died due to direct or indirect effects of Air pollution. Children in areas
exposed to air pollutants are said to commonly suffer from pneumonia and asthma.
 Global warming: Another direct effect is the immediate alterations that the world is witnessing due
to Global warming. With increased temperatures worldwide, increase in sea levels and melting of ice

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from colder regions and icebergs, displacement and loss of habitat have already signaled an impending

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disaster if actions for preservation and normalization aren’t undertaken soon.
Acid Rain: Harmful gases like nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are released into the atmosphere
during the burning of fossil fuels. When it rains, the water droplets combines with these air pollutants,
becomes acidic and then falls on the ground in the form of acid rain. Acid rain can cause great damage
to human, animals and crops.
 Effect on Wildlife: Just like humans, animals also face some devastating effects of air pollution. Toxic
chemicals present in the air can force wildlife species to move to new place and change their habitat.
The toxic pollutants deposit over the surface of the water and can also affect aquatic organisms.
 Depletion of Ozone layer: Ozone exists in earth’s stratosphere and is responsible for protecting humans
from harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays. Earth’s ozone layer is depleting due to the presence of
chlorofluorocarbons, hydro chlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere. Thin ozone layer allows the passage
of harmful UV rays onto earth and can cause skin and eye related problems. UV rays also have the
capability to affect crops.

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Methods to reduce Air Pollution
 Use public mode of transportation: Encourage people to use more and more public modes of
transportation to reduce pollution. Also, try to make use of car pooling. If you and your colleagues come
from the same locality and have same timings you can use same vehicle at a time to save energy and
money.
 Conserve energy: Switch off fans and lights when you are going out. Large amount of fossil fuels are
burnt to produce electricity. We can save the environment from degradation by reducing the amount of
fossil fuels to be burned.
 Understand the concept of Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not throw away items that are of no use.
In-fact reuse them for some other purpose or recycle them to produce new products.
 Emphasis on clean energy resources: Clean energy technologies like solar, wind and geothermal are
utilized effectively these days. Governments of various countries have been providing grants to
consumers who are interested in installing solar panels for their home. This will go a long way to curb
air pollution.
 Use energy efficient devices: CFL lights consume less electricity as against their counterparts. They
live longer, consume less electricity, lower electricity bills and also help you to reduce pollution by
consuming less energy.
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Monitor Air quality in industry periodically to identify irregularities in pollutants level in air and keep
pollutant level within limits.

Water Pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies(e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). This
form of environmental degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water
bodies without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Sources of Water Pollution
There are various classifications of water pollution. The two chief sources of water pollution can be seen
as Point and Non Point.
Point refers to the pollutants that belong to a single source. An example of this would be emissions from
factories into the water.
Non Point on the other hand means pollutants emitted from multiple sources. Contaminated water after rains
that has traveled through several regions may also be considered as a Non point source of pollution.

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Causes of Water Pollution
 Industrial waste: Industries produce huge amount of waste which contains toxic chemicals and
pollutants which can cause air pollution and damage to us and our environment. They contain pollutants
such as lead, mercury, sulphur, nitrates and many other harmful chemicals. Many industries do not have
proper waste management system and drain the waste in the fresh water which goes into rivers, canals
and later in to sea. The toxic chemicals have the capability to change the color of water, increase the
amount of minerals, also known as Eutrophication, change the temperature of water and pose serious
hazard to water organisms.
 Sewage and waste water: The sewage and waste water that is produced by each household is
chemically treated and released in to sea with fresh water. The sewage water carries harmful bacteria
and chemicals that can cause serious health problems. Pathogens are known as a common water
pollutant. Microorganisms in water are known to be causes of some very deadly diseases and become
the breeding grounds for other creatures that act like carriers. These carriers inflict these diseases via
various forms of contact onto an individual. Eg:- Malaria.
 Mining activities: Mining is the process of crushing the rock and extracting coal and other minerals
from underground. These elements when extracted in the raw form contains harmful chemicals and can

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increase the amount of toxic elements when mixed up with water which may result in health problems.

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Mining activities emit several metal waste and sulphides from the rocks and get mixed with water.
Marine dumping: The garbage produce by each household in the form of paper, aluminum, rubber,
glass, plastic, food etc are sometimes deposited into water bodies.. These items take 2 weeks to 200
years to decompose. When such items enter the sea, they not only cause water pollution but also harm
aquatic organisms.
 Accidental Oil leakage: Oil spill pose a huge concern as large amount of oil enters into the sea and
does not dissolve with water; there by opens problem for local marine wildlife such as fish, birds and sea
otters. For e.g.: a ship carrying large quantity of oil may spill oil if met with an accident and can cause
varying damage to species in the ocean depending on the quantity of oil spill, size of ocean, toxicity of
pollutant.
 Burning of fossil fuels: Fossil fuels like coal and oil when burnt produce substantial amount of ash in
the atmosphere. The particles which contain toxic chemicals when mixed with water vapor result in acid
rain.
 Chemical fertilizers and pesticides: Chemical fertilizers and pesticides are used by farmers to protect
crops from insects and bacterias. They are useful for the plants growth. However, when these chemicals
are mixed up with water produce harmful for plants and animals. Also, when it rains, the chemicals

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 mixes up with rainwater and flow down into rivers and canals which pose serious damages for aquatic
animals.
 Leakage from sewer lines: A small leakage from the sewer lines can contaminate the underground
water and make it unfit for the people to drink. Also, when not repaired on time, the leaking water can
come on to the surface and become a breeding ground for insects and mosquitoes.
 Radioactive waste: Nuclear energy is produced using nuclear fission or fusion. The element that is used
in production of nuclear energy is Uranium which is a highly toxic chemical. The nuclear waste that is
produced by radioactive material needs to be disposed off to prevent any nuclear accident. Nuclear
waste can have serious environmental hazards if not disposed off properly. Few major accidents have
already taken place in Russia and Japan.
 Urban development: As population has grown, so has the demand for housing, food and cloth. As more
cities and towns are developed, they have resulted in increased use of fertilizers to produce more food,
soil erosion due to deforestation, increase in construction activities, inadequate sewer collection and
treatment, landfills as more garbage is produced, increase in chemicals from industries to produce more
materials.
 Leakage from the landfills: Landfills are nothing but huge pile of garbage that produces awful smell

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and can be seen across the city. When it rains, the landfills may leak and the leaking landfills can pollute

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the underground water with large variety of contaminants.
Animal waste: The waste produce produce by animals is washed away into the rivers when it rains. It
gets mixed up with other harmful chemicals and causes various water borne diseases like cholera,
diarrhea, jaundice, dysentery and typhoid.
 Underground storage leakage: Transportation of coal and other petroleum products through
underground pipes is well known. Accidentals leakage may happen anytime and may cause damage to
environment and result in soil erosion.

Methods to reduce water pollution

 Sewage treatments: The household water should be treated properly so that they become
environmentally safe. Adequate care should be taken to ensure that effective sewage treatment process is
in place and that contaminated water does not get mixed with the environment. in order to prevent water
pollution, human and animal excreta should be prevented from mixing with its sources. Construction of
pit toilet and proper sewage treatments can offer some solution to this problem.
 Prevent river water to get polluted: The flowing water of the river cannot be cleaned easily by natural
process. Since, a large number of external substances are discharged into the water, the river water

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 becomes polluted. This may cause diseases to the people using river water. Thus, every effort should be
made to prevent the river water to get contaminated. People should not be allowed to throw wastes into
the river water.
 Treatment of wastes before discharge: Factories are expected to treat its effluent wastes prior to
discharge. Toxic material must be treated chemically and converted into harmless materials. If possible,
factories should try to recycle the treated water.
 Strict adherence to water laws: Laws and legislation relating to pollution should be strictly followed
by all.
 Treatment of drainage water: It cities, a huge amount of water is put into drains every day. The water
that flows through the city drainage system should be properly treated. Harmful pollutants must be
removed, before they are introduced into reservoirs.
 Treatment plants: Big cities and towns usually have effluent treatment plants. These plants filter out
undissolved materials. Chemical treatment is also given to separate out unwanted dissolved chemicals.
The treated water is either allowed to go into the water reservoirs or refused in houses. Occasionally, the
treated water is used for farming if the fields to be irrigated lie in the vicinity of the water treatment
plants.
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Routine cleaning: Ponds, lakes and wells meant for human use should be routinely cleaned and treated,

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so that it remains fit for human use. It is an essential step that should not be avoided. A system of regular
testing of pond and lake water can be introduced to ensure the safety of the water.
 Self hygiene: Self hygiene must be maintained and drinking water must not be polluted. Drinking water
should be kept undercover in a clean place. One should not put his hands into the drinking water
containers. Also, the practice of cleaning the drinking water reservoirs on a regular basis needs to be
strictly followed. The water meant for drinking should be purified prior to use. In the absence of good
water purifier, it is recommended to drink boiled water.
 Sanitation: Sanitation system must be improved. The benefits of cleanliness on human health need to be
understood. Human contact with hazardous materials should be prevented.
 Public Awareness: Common public should be aware about the effect of water pollution. Voluntary
organization should go door-to-door to educate the people about environmental problems. They should
perform street plays for creating awareness about the environment. They should run environmental
education centers. Students can impart health education to enable people to prevent water pollution

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Solid waste Management
Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from human activities in residential,
industrial or commercial areas.
Solid waste management is a term that is used to refer to the process of collecting and treating solid
wastes. It also offers solutions for recycling items that do not belong to garbage or trash. As long as people have
been living in settlements and residential areas, garbage or solid waste has been an issue. Solid waste
management should be embraced by each and every household including the business owners across the world.
Various Sources of Solid Waste
 Residential: Residences and homes where people live are some of the major sources of solid waste.
Garbage from these places include food wastes, plastics, paper, glass, leather, cardboard, metals, yard
wastes, ashes and special wastes like bulky household items like electronics, tires, batteries, old
mattresses and used oil.
 Industrial: Industries are known to be one of the biggest contributors of solid waste. They include light
and heavy manufacturing industries, construction sites, fabrication plants, canning plants, power and
chemical plants. These industries produce solid waste in form of housekeeping wastes, food wastes,
packaging wastes, ashes, construction and demolition materials, special wastes, medical wastes as well
as other hazardous wastes.
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 Commercial: Commercial facilities and buildings are yet another source of solid waste today.
Commercial buildings and facilities in this case refer to hotels, markets, restaurants, go downs, stores
and office buildings. Some of the solid wastes generated from these places include plastics, food wastes,
metals, paper, glass, wood, cardboard materials, special wastes and other hazardous wastes.
 Institutional: The institutional centers like schools, colleges, prisons, military barracks and other
government centers also produce solid waste. Some of the common solid wastes obtained from these
places include glass, rubber waste, plastics, food wastes, wood, paper, metals, cardboard materials,
electronics as well as various hazardous wastes.
 Construction and Demolition Areas: Construction sites and demolition sites also contribute to the
solid waste problem. Construction sites include new construction sites for buildings and roads, road
repair sites, building renovation sites and building demolition sites. Some of the solid wastes produced
in these places include steel materials, concrete, wood, plastics, rubber, copper wires, dirt and glass.
 Municipal services: The urban centers also contribute immensely to the solid waste crisis in most
countries today. Some of the solid waste brought about by the municipal services include, street
cleaning, wastes from parks and beaches, wastewater treatment plants, landscaping wastes and wastes
from recreational areas including sludge.

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  Treatment Plants and Sites: Heavy and light manufacturing plants also produce solid waste. They
include refineries, power plants, processing plants, mineral extraction plants and chemicals plants.
Among the wastes produced by these plants include, industrial process wastes, unwanted specification
products, plastics, metal parts just to mention but a few.
 Agriculture: Crop farms, orchards, dairies, vineyards and feedlots are also sources of solid wastes.
Among the wastes they produce include agricultural wastes, spoiled food, pesticide containers and other
hazardous materials.
 Biomedical: This refers to hospitals and biomedical equipment and chemical manufacturing firms. In
hospitals there are different types of solid wastes produced. Some of these solid wastes include syringes,
bandages, used gloves, drugs, paper, plastics, food wastes and chemicals. All these require proper
disposal or else they will cause a huge problem to the environment and the people in these facilities.

Effects of Poor Solid Waste Management

 Due to improper waste disposal systems particularly by municipal waste management teams, wastes
heap up and become a problem. People clean their homes and places of work and litter their
surroundings which affects the environment and the community.

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 Dumping of waste materials forces biodegradable materials to rot and decompose under improper,
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unhygienic and uncontrolled conditions. After a few days of decomposition, a foul smell is produced
and it becomes a breeding ground for different types of disease causing insects as well as infectious
organisms. On top of that, it also spoils the aesthetic value of the area.
 Solid wastes from industries are a source of toxic metals, hazardous wastes, and chemicals. When
released to the environment, the solid wastes can cause biological and physicochemical problems to the
environment and may affect or alter the productivity of the soils in that particular area.
 Toxic materials and chemicals may seep into the soil and pollute the ground water. During the process
of collecting solid waste, the hazardous wastes usually mix with ordinary garbage and other flammable
wastes making the disposal process even harder and risky.
 When hazardous wastes like pesticides, batteries containing lead, mercury or zinc, cleaning solvents,
radioactive materials, e-waste and plastics are mixed up with paper and other scraps are burned they
produce dioxins and gasses. These toxic gases have a potential of causing various diseases including
cancer.

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Methods of Solid Waste Management
 Sanitary Landfill: This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today. Garbage is
basically spread out in thin layers, compressed and covered with soil or plastic foam. Modern landfills
are designed in such a way that the bottom of the landfill is covered with an impervious liner which is
usually made of several layers of thick plastic and sand. This liner protects the ground water from being
contaminated because of leaching or percolation. When the landfill is full, it is covered with layers of
sand, clay, top soil and gravel to prevent seepage of water.
 Incineration: This method involves burning of solid wastes at high temperatures until the wastes are
turned into ashes. Incinerators are made in such a way that they do not give off extreme amounts of heat
when burning solid wastes. This method of solid waste management can be done by individuals,
municipalities and even institutions. The good thing about this method is the fact that it reduces the
volume of waste up to 20 or 30% of the original volume.
 Recovery and Recycling: Recycling or recovery of resources is the process of taking useful but
discarded items for next use. Traditionally, these items are processed and cleaned before they are
recycled. The process aims at reducing energy loss, consumption of new material and reduction of
landfills.

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 Composting: Due to lack of adequate space for landfills, biodegradable yard waste is allowed to
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decompose in a medium designed for the purpose. Only biodegradable waste materials are used in
composting. Good quality environmentally friendly manure is formed from the compost and can be used
for agricultural purposes.
 Pyrolysis: This is method of solid waste management whereby solid wastes are chemically decomposed
by heat without presence of oxygen. This usually occurs under pressure and at temperatures of up to 430
degrees Celsius. The solid wastes are changed into gases, solid residue and small quantities of liquid.

Zero Waste Concept

Zero Waste Concept is a philosophy that encourages the redesign of resource life cycles so that all products
are reused and no wastes will be produced. The process recommended is one similar to the way that resources
are reused in nature.
Zero Waste concept requires :-
 designing and managing products and processes to systematically avoid and eliminate the volume and
toxicity of waste and materials,
 conserving and recovering all resources,

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  investment in community waste reduction and recovery systems
 Public participation in recycling.
 Eliminate all discharges to land, water or air that are a threat to planetary, human, animal or plant health.
 Adopting 3R concepts ( reduce, reuse, recycle)
 Acquiring waste to energy technologies.
Zero waste is more of a goal or ideal rather than a hard target. Zero Waste provides guiding principles for
continually working towards eliminating wastes. Zero waste promotes not only reuse and recycling, but, more
importantly, it promotes prevention and product designs that consider the entire product life cycle.

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Benefits proposed include:
 Saving money---Since waste is a sign of inefficiency, the reduction of waste can reduce costs.
 Faster Progress-- A zero waste strategy improves upon production processes and improving environmental
prevention strategies which can lead to take larger, more innovative steps.
 Supports sustainability---A zero waste strategy supports all three of the generally accepted goals of
sustainability - economic well-being, environmental protection, and social well-being.
 Improved material flows-- A zero waste strategy would use far fewer new raw materials and send no waste
materials to landfills. Any material waste would either return as reusable or recycled materials or would be
suitable for use as compost.

3R Concept of waste management

Reduce, Reuse and Recycle (R3) are the three essential components of environmentally-responsible consumer
behavior.

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 Reduce
 Lower the consumption of
products through hiring,sharing,borrowing
etc
 Reduce number of components in
product design
 Minimise wastes.

Here's how the 3R might apply to computers:

 The concept behind the first R, reduce, is that you should limit the number of purchases that you make in
the first place. So, for example, you might limit your household to a single computer.
 The concept behind the second R, reuse, is that you should reuse items as much as possible before replacing
them. For example, it generally makes more environmental sense to update your computer rather than get
rid of it and buy a new one. However, if you do replace your computer, you should ensure that it, or its

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components, are reused. Many charitable organizations welcome donations of second-hand computers.
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The concept behind the third R, recycle, is that you should ensure that items or their components are put to
some new purpose or create something new as much as possible. If your computer is not fit for reuse , you
can donate it to one of several organizations, which will refurbish it or recycle its electronic components to
manufacture new electronic devices.
Advantages of 3R
 Protects environment and natural resources.
 Reduces energy consumption
 Reduces pollution, global warming etc
 Reduces waste generation
 Creates jobs at recycling sites.

Waste Management Hierarchy: The waste

management hierarchy is a nationally and
internationally accepted guide for prioritising
waste management practices.

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Green House Effect
Greenhouse effect is a natural
phenomenon which refers to the rise in
temperature of the earth due to the presence of
certain greenhouse gases (watervapour, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide etc) in the
atmosphere. These gases are transparent to the
incoming ultraviolet solar radiations but trap the
outgoing infrared radiations, reflected back
from the earth’s surface. If these gases were not
present, the annual average temperature of the
earth would be much lower( -18 0 C) than they
are now( 150 C).But the excess amount of greenhouse gases will create problems . Excess amount of greenhouse
gases will create excess hot conditions all over the earth.
Global Warming
Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to the presence of excess amount of

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greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, methane etc which trap heat that would otherwise escape from
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Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide,sulphur hexafluoride, hydro fluorocarbons
and perfluorocarbons.

Greenhouse Gas Formula 100-year GWP

Carbon dioxide CO2 1

Methane CH4 25

Nitrous oxide N2O 298

Sulphur hexafluoride SF6 22,800

Releasing 1 kg of methane is equivalent to releasing 25 kgs of CO2

Releasing 1 kg of nitrous oxide is equivalent to releasing 298 kgs of CO2

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Global Warming is caused by :
 Burning of fossil fuels
 Refrigerants and air conditioners release CFC
 Deforestation – carbon dioxide intake is reduced when forests are cut down.
 Methane emission occurs due to anaerobic decomposition at huge landfills.
 Methane emission from livestock (animal farm)
Global Warming Impacts
1. Rising Seas--- inundation of fresh water marshlands (the everglades), low-lying cities, and islands with
seawater.
2. Changes in rainfall patterns --- droughts and fires in some areas, flooding in other areas.
3. Increased likelihood of extreme events--- such as flooding, hurricanes, etc.
4. Melting of the ice caps --- loss of habitat near the poles. Polar bears are now thought to be greatly
endangered by the shortening of their feeding season due to dwindling ice packs.
5. Melting glaciers - significant melting of old glaciers is already observed.
6. Widespread vanishing of animal populations --- following widespread habitat loss.
7. Spread of disease --- migration of diseases such as malaria to new, now warmer, regions.

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8. Bleaching of Coral Reefs due to warming seas and acidification due to carbonic acid formation --- One

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third of coral reefs now appear to have been severely damaged by warming seas.

Measures to control global warming

 Promote renewable energy usage (solar energy,wind energy etc)
 Depend more on public transport system to reduce the use of fossil fuels.
 Afforestation and reforestation
 Adopt 3R concept whenever possible.
 Reduce energy consumption at home, office etc

Climate Change
Climate change refers to a change in average weather conditions, that exists for an extended period of
time. Many frequent changes in climate had occurred on our earth. A number of natural factors like continental
drift, earth’s tilt, ocean currents etc were responsible for such climatic changes. Recently , many anthropogenic
(originating in human activity) causes have led to an alarming variations in climatic patterns all over the world.
These include :-

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  Increase in the usage of fossil fuels : Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas ) are used as energy sources
all over the world. Burning of fossil fuels produce CO2 ,which spreads into the atmosphere leading to
global warming and increase in the temperature.
 Deforestation: When trees are cut down on a large scale, the amount of atmospheric CO2 increases,
leading to global warming and increase in the temperature.
 Population growth, urbanization and industrial revolution: More and more needs of the people have to
be satisfied for which cities were developed and industries were set up on a large scale. All these have
led to an increase in the amount of greenhouse gases resulting in global climatic changes.

Effects of climatic change

 Increase in global surface temperature: climatic changes lead to increase in temperature levels all over
the world and thereby disturbing the balance of whole eco-system.
 Changes in climate can put pressure on the whole natural system, leading to ecological imbalance.
 Melting of glaciers : It leads to rise in sea levels
 Ocean acidification: oceans absorb CO2 into the atmosphere, making them more acidic.
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Availability of fresh water decreases.

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Changes in rainfall pattern (high and low rainfall) may occur.

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 Occurrence of drought, heat waves and flood.
 Breeding pattern, migration pattern and the entire life cycle of plants and animals are disturbed due to
climatic change.
 Climatic change will increase the distribution of mosquitoes , bugs etc leading to diseases like malaria,
dengue fever etc

Control measures
 Promote renewable energy usage(solar energy, wind energy etc)
 Depend more on public transport system to reduce the use of fossil fuels.
 Afforestation and reforestation
 Adopt 3R concept whenever possible.
 Reduce energy consumption at home, office etc

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Ozone Layer depletion
Ozone layer is a deep layer in earth’s atmosphere that contains ozone which is a naturally occurring
molecule containing three oxygen atoms. These ozone molecules form a gaseous layer in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere called stratosphere. This lower region of stratosphere containing relatively higher concentration of
ozone is called Ozonosphere. The ozonosphere is found 15-35 km (9 to 22 miles) above the surface of the earth.
The ozone layer forms a thick layer in stratosphere, encircling the earth, which has large amount of ozone in it.
It protects our planet from the harmful UV radiations. The ozone layer was discovered in 1913 by the French
physicists Charles Fabry and Henri Buisson. The ozone layer has the capability to absorb almost 97-99% of the
harmful ultraviolet radiations that sun emits and which can produce long term devastating effects on human
beings as well as plants and animals.
Ultraviolet radiation can destroy the organic matter. For humans, excessive exposure to ultraviolet
radiation leads to higher risks of cancer (especially skin cancer) and cataracts. It is calculated that every 1
percent decrease in ozone layer results in a 2-5 percent increase in the occurrence of skin cancer. Other ill-
effects of the reduction of protective ozone layer include – increase in the incidence of cataracts, sunburns and
suppression of the immune system.
Human activities had resulted in considerable reduction in the ozone layer of the atmosphere. Ozone

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depletion occurs when destruction of the stratospheric ozone is more than the production of the molecule. The

in Polar Regions.
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scientists have observed reduction in stratospheric ozone since early 1970s. It was found to be more prominent

Man-made causes for ozone layer depletion:

The main reason for the depletion of ozone is determined as excessive release of chlorine and bromine
from man-made compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), halons,
CH3CCl3 (Methyl chloroform), CCl4 (Carbon tetrachloride), HCFCs (hydro-chlorofluorocarbons),
hydrobromofluorocarbons and methyl bromide are found to have direct impact on the depletion of the ozone
layer. These are categorized as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Chlorofluorocarbons are released into the
atmosphere from:
 Cleaning Agents  Air conditioning
 Coolants in refrigerators  Aerosol spray cans etc.
The problem with the Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODS) is that they are not washed back in the form of rain
on the earth and in-fact remains in the atmosphere for quite a long time. With so much stability, they are
transported into the stratosphere. The emission of ODS account for roughly 90% of total depletion of ozone
layer in stratosphere. These gases are carried to the stratosphere layer of atmosphere where ultraviolet radiations
from the sun break them to release chlorine (from CFCs) and bromine (from methyl bromide and halons). The

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chlorine and bromine free radicals react with ozone molecule and destroy their molecular structure, thus
depleting the ozone layer.
- Halogen molecules in CFC‘s ( CFCl3 ) are converted into an active free radical by photochemical
decomposition:
CFCl3 + hv CFCl2 + Cl
- This chlorine reacts with ozone, and as a result chlorine monoxide and oxygen are formed:
Cl + O3 ClO + O2
- Chlorine Monoxide react with nascent oxygen ( formed by decomposition of ozone) to form chlorine again.
O3 + hv O2 + O
O + ClO O2 + Cl
- Chlorine again reacts with ozone and this cycle continues. One chlorine atom can break more than 1, 00,000
molecules of ozone. Bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more destructive than chlorine molecules.
The implementation of Montreal Protocol in the year 1987 has helped to reduce the presence of ODS in
the atmosphere. Montreal Protocol is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out
the production of numerous substances that are responsible for ozone depletion.
Carbon credit

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A carbon credit (often called a carbon offset) is a financial instrument or permit representing the right

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to emit one tonne of CO2 (carbon dioxide) or CO2 e (carbon dioxide equivalent gases) into the atmosphere. It
represents the amount of GHG s removed or reduced from the atmosphere from an emission reduction project.
This carbon credit can be used by governments, industry or private individuals to offset damaging carbon
emissions that they are generating. Thus carbon credits are used as a permit to emit certain amount of CO2 into
the atmosphere.
So, in a nutshell, carbon credit (often called carbon offset) is a credit for greenhouse emissions reduced
or removed from the atmosphere from an emission reduction project, which can be used, by governments,
industry or private individuals to compensate for the emissions they are generating.
One carbon credit corresponds to one tonne of CO2 .
Carbon credits are acquired through :-
 Project based transactions--- credits are acquired as a result of successful implementation of carbon
reduction projects. For eg:- If a private organization has successfully implemented afforestation project
and if it is found to have reduced carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, then that private company can
acquire carbon credits equivalent to their reduction levels.

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  Allowance based transactions ---Regulatory authority issues allowances or permits to industries. If one
carbon credit is issued to an industry, it means that they can emit one tonne of carbon dioxide or
equivalent.
Carbon trading: It refers to buying and selling of carbon credits that have been either distributed by a
regulatory authority or generated by GHG emissions reduction projects. In cap & trade mechanism, a
regulatory authority limits (cap) the amount of GHG to be released over a period of time. If organizations have
a shortfall or surplus in GHG allowances, they can engage in trade with each other.
Company A Company B
Alloted : 10 carbon credits 12 Carbon credits
Used : 8 carbon credits 14 carbon credits
2 carbon credits not used 2 carbon credits overused
Here company A can sell 2 carbon credits to company B for financial benefit. Thus a carbon market is created.
How Does Carbon Credits Work?
Carbon credits are typically measured in tonnes of CO2-equivalents (or CO2e) and are bought and sold
through number of international brokers, online retailers and trading platforms. Businesses that find it hard to
comply with the carbon emissions, purchase carbon credits to offset their emissions by making finance readily

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available to renewable energy projects, forest protection and reforestation projects around the world. These

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renewable energy and energy efficiency projects replace fossil fuel and industrial processes. This all helps
businesses in mitigating their emissions and comply with the global standards.
Offsetting one tonne of carbon means there will be one less tonne of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
than there would otherwise have been. For e.g.: when solar energy companies sell carbon offsets, this helps
them as these projects become more viable. The buyers of the credits benefit as they can use these credits to
overcome their greenhouse gas emissions. Many types of activities can generate carbon offsets. Projects which
acquire carbon credits include wind, solar, geothermal, biomass projects which replace fossil fuel powered
plants, low cost household device projects that can eliminate need for extra energy, methane capture from
landfill gas and agriculture, different afforestation projects, forest protection from illegal logging, destruction of
heat trapping greenhouse gases from the atmosphere and many more.

Carbon Tax
A carbon dioxide tax is a tax on businesses and industries that produce carbon dioxide through their operations.
The tax is designed to reduce the output of greenhouse gases and carbon dioxide. The tax is imposed with the
goal of environmental protection.

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Carbon footprint
It is a measure of the total amount of carbon dioxide emissions that is
directly and indirectly caused by an activity, individual, organization etc.
In other words: When you drive a car, the engine burns fuel which
creates a certain amount of CO2, depending on its fuel consumption and
the driving distance. When you heat your house with oil, gas or coal, then
you also generate CO2. Even if you use electricity, the generation of the
electrical power may also have emitted a certain amount of CO2 (thermal
power plants). When you buy food and goods, the production of the food
and goods also emitted some quantities of CO2.Your carbon footprint is
the sum of all emissions of CO2 (carbon dioxide), which were induced by
your activities in a given time frame.

Each of us contributes to the greenhouse gas emissions either by the way

we travel, the food we eat, the amount of electricity we consume and
many more. Every individual, organization, business unit etc should focus
to reduce their carbon footprints.

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Primary footprint—direct emission of carbon dioxide as in the case of
burning of fossil fuels
Carbon footprint
Secondary footprint --- indirect emissions associated with manufacture of a
product
Main Contributors to Carbon Footprint
 Population – more people lead to more carbon emission
 Energy – Here, carbon footprint emissions are collective, coming from a variety of sources, namely
industrial processes, transport and electricity and fuel emissions.
 Industrialization – Since the industrial revolution began during the middle of the twentieth century,
CO2 has continued to rise unchecked and at alarming rates.
 Agriculture – Most agricultural processes within developed and developing nations are still being
carried out commercially with the result that mass production of livestock has led to large levels of
methane gas being released into the atmosphere.

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  Human action (and inaction) – Ultimately, the way humankind has become accustomed to doing
things every day, keeping pace with the need to do things more quickly and with more convenience,
has contributed towards the exponential increase in carbon footprints on an annual basis.

Ways to Reduce Your Carbon Footprint

 Energy efficiency at home – All appliances that are not being used must be switched off
immediately. And all electrical outlets not in use must also be switched off. Hot-water geysers should
be switched off for the entire day and only turned on when needed. These are simple, yet practical
lifestyle habits which are easy to adopt.
 Buy renewable energy – It is quite possible to power your own home with environmentally-
sustainable alternatives of energy production without compromising your lifestyle and waiting for
national grids to be connected via green energy supply sources. For instance, technology is now
available for you to install your own solar power panels.
 Recycle and re-use – Vegetable produce can be converted into compost (or manure) for gardens,
even vegetable gardens. Instead of buying more food containers, plastic containers sourced from the
supermarket can be refashioned as ideal kitchen utensils. Also, where plastic waste is no longer

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required, seek out recycling depots rather than relying on your supplied garbage disposal units.


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Plant a Tree – One of the best way to give it back to the environment is to plant trees. Plants absorb
CO2 and release oxygen that is then used by humans and animals. According to the Urban Forestry
Network, a single young tree absorbs 13 pounds of carbon dioxide each year.
 Buy local – Adding to the above remark, buying local, organic produce effectively counters mass-
produced agricultural outcomes. There is a dramatic reduction in the amount of plastic being used to
package products and fuel usage during long road transits is also reduced.

Question from University Examinations

1) i) Give any 3 examples of air pollutants and their effect on human health. (3)
(ii) Illustrate a typical sustainable waste water treatment system with block diagram. (2)
2) i) What is carbon credit? Explain in not more than five sentences. (2)
(ii) Among the major constituents of municipal solid waste, list any three of the most hazardous waste
and highlight their impact on the health/human environment. (3)
3) i) Suggest any two methods of sustainable waste water treatment (2 marks)
ii) Explain the phenomenon of ozone layer depletion (3 marks)

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 4) Explain the significance of carbon footprint. Suggest two methods to reduce the carbon footprint in your
house ( 5 marks)
5) Densely populated areas are suffering major issues in the field of solid waste and waste water
management.
i) Relate this statement with the current situation in our state. (2)
ii) Suggest any three sustainable methods each for the solid waste and waste water management system.
6) a) A comprehensive campaign to address air pollution need to be launched through school children,
what programme would you envisage for this. What is the outcome anticipated? (3)
(b) There is a sudden decision to remove all vehicles from the road that fails to meet specified norms of
emission level within a specified time period. As part of citizen forum you are requested to give views
on the enforced regulation. State your views on this. (3)
(c) A massive campaign on environmental degradation is to be initiated. Bring out a slogan and the key
message that need to be addressed. (2)
(d) Suppose you are a Carbon Credit Auditor appointed to assess the greenhouse gas emission reduction
strategies. Identify a component of assessment and brief the methodology that could be adopted in
connection with this. (2)

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7) Explain Zero Waste Concept.
Explain 3R Concept.
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8) Write a short note on any local environmental issues. (5 marks)
9) Case study 1 :

a) Identify the least and most polluted Indian city from the above table.

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(b) Arrange Indian cities in the decreasing order of pollution.
(c) List out any three effects of air pollution.
(d) List out any three methods to control air pollution.

10) Case study 2

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11) Referring to Figures I and Figure II, answer the following questions
a) Compare and contrast the average monthly rainfall at Kochi in the month of July as a pie
chart showing as a percentage of total rainfall' (4)
b) Identify the period of North west Monsoon from the figures.
c) Point out any two major reasons for the change of rainfall pattern at Kochi' (2+2=4)

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