Dr.
Nasiruddin Shaikh Advanced Thermodynamics (ME 541)
Lecture 2
Properties consideration for a simple compressible
substance:
A simple compressible substance is the one for which the only
reversible mode of work is the boundary work.
In addition to P, T & V, we will consider some other
thermodynamic properties
o u (internal energy)
o S (Entropy)
o h = u + Pv (Enthalpy)
o a = u -Ts (Helmholtz function)
o g = h – Ts (Gibbs Function)
o Specific Heats (1)
Using the equation of first law of thermodynamics
o du = δq + δw
o δw = -pdv, (-ve if work done by the system)
o δq = Tds (+ve if heat is added in the system)
o h = u + pv
Two important relations are obtained
Tds = du + pdv (2)
Tds = dh – vdp (3)
For an Ideal Gas:
Pv = RT, cp – cv =R,
From (1) dh = cp dT & du = cv dT
From equation 2 and 3 we get
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Dr. Nasiruddin Shaikh Advanced Thermodynamics (ME 541)
(4)
and
(5)
Integrating all these equations we get
h2 – h1 = cp(T2 – T1)
u2 – u1 = cv(T2 – T1)
s2 – s1 = cv ln(T2/ T1) + R ln(v2/v1) (6)
s2 – s1 = cp ln(T2/ T1) - R ln(P2/P1) (7)
Note these relations are based on the assumption that cp and cv
are constant, actually they are temperature dependent but varies
very slowly with temperature.
For an isentropic process, equation 6 &7 can be manipulated
as:
And
For an incompressible fluid dv = 0, and integration of
equation 4 for an incompressible fluid gives:
s2 – s1 = c ln(T2/ T1)
Ideal Gases with Variable specific heats:
If the specific heats cp & cv varies with temperature, than from
equation 1, h and u can be computed as:
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Dr. Nasiruddin Shaikh Advanced Thermodynamics (ME 541)
To solve the above integral, equation for cp and cv as a
function of temperature must be known.
In most of the cases this relationship is not available and
therefore we rely on property tables.
In these tables the arbitrary value of href and uref is assigned to
be zero at Tref = 0.
Δh and Δu between the two states can be obtained from the
table as the deference between the two points as
For variable specific heat, entropy evaluation (eq 5) gives
s2 – s1 = s2o – s1o - R ln(P2/P1)
where,
For an isentropic flow s2o – s1o = R ln(P2/P1)
Incompressible Materials:
Over limited temperature range, many solids and liquids are
insensitive to pressure.
This behavior of incompressibility is approximated by:
v = constant
For incompressible materials: cp = cv = c and therefore,
du =cdT,
dh =cdT + vdp
ds = cdT/T
or
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Dr. Nasiruddin Shaikh Advanced Thermodynamics (ME 541)
u2-u1=c(T2-T1),
h2-h1=c(T2 –T1)+v(P2-P1)
s2-s1=cln(T2/T1)
Standard Tables of Properties:
Standard tables are used to obtain the properties of
substances, exist either as saturated liquid, saturated vapour or
superheated vapour.
compressed or sub-cooled liquid is treated as an
incompressible liquid and therefore the properties of saturated
liquid at the temperature of sub-cooled liquid are considered
as the properties of sub-cooled liquid.
Remember, for liquid vapour mixture temperature and
pressure depends on each other.
For liquid vapour mixture the quality x is defined as:
The properties of liquid vapour mixture are determined as:
Adiabatic or First law efficiency:
Most of the mechanical devices are approximately adiabatic.
The comparison of irreversible performance and isentropic
performance of a device is termed as adiabatic, isentropic or
first law efficiency of that device.
First Law efficiency of a turbine:
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Dr. Nasiruddin Shaikh Advanced Thermodynamics (ME 541)
First Law efficiency of a compressor and pump:
Uncoupled and coupled systems
Engineering thermodynamics deals with energy conversion
devices.
Energy conversion devices can be categorized into two groups
o Work input to work output devices (Pelton wheel)
o Heat input to workout devices (Engine)
Both of the above are the example of coupled systems.
Uncoupled System:
For an uncoupled system, each heat or work interaction bring
changes in different and unique form of energy of the system.
The energy balance can be written as:
Q + W1 + W2 + ……. = ∆U + ∆E1 + ∆E2 + ……..
where Q = ∆U, W1 = ∆E1, and W2 = ∆E2
means Q only effects ∆U,
W1 only effects ∆E1, and
W2 only effects ∆E2
Not only the interactions are separated but the energy storage
modes are also separated.
Example: Consider a block of mass m and specific heat c.
initially at position Z1, velocity V1 and temperature T1. By
heat and work interactions its final state changes to Z2, V2, T2.
For an overall process:
Heat interaction doesn’t affect V or Z
W1 interaction doesn’t affect T or Z
W2 interaction doesn’t affect T or V
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Dr. Nasiruddin Shaikh Advanced Thermodynamics (ME 541)
The above example shows known concepts and equations,
illustrating that for an uncoupled system a separate energy
storage system is associates with each type of heat or work
interaction.
Coupled system:
In coupled systems two or more interactions (of heat or work)
affect the same mode of energy storage.
Coupled systems are primarily important for engineering
systems, in which internal energy is affected by both heat and
work interactions.
Also a heat or work interaction alone can change the thermal
and mechanical properties of a system.
Conservative system: is the one within which heat and work are
fully recovered during a cycle.
Mathematically: and
In actual systems, due to presence of various types of frictions
the work is not recoverable during a cyclic process and
therefore the system is called non conservative system.
Heat input to workout devices produced net work output in
cyclic operation. Therefore for such coupled devices:
and
However, to satisfy the principle of energy conservation the
sum of the above two integrals must be zero.
Intrinsic and extrinsic Energies:
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Dr. Nasiruddin Shaikh Advanced Thermodynamics (ME 541)
Definitions of intrinsic (depend on the nature of substance)
and extrinsic (independent of the nature of the substance)
quantities are already discussed in the previous lecture.
Heat is an intrinsic form of energy whereas work has both
intrinsic or extrinsic components.
For a closed system, conservation of energy principle can be
written in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic energies as:
(A)
Note that intrinsic form of energy only affects intrinsic energy
of the system and the extrinsic form of energy only affects
extrinsic energy of the system.
Total KE of the system is the sum of macroscopic
translational KE, macroscopic rotational KE and microscopic
KE of the molecules within the system which is the part of
internal energy of the system.
Translational KE and rotational KE are independent of the
nature of the substance and therefore are the extrinsic form of
energies whereas, KE of molecules depends on the substance
and therefore is intrinsic form of energy.
The total PE includes extrinsic gravitational PE, PE due to
stationary and moving charges (electrostatic & magnetic) and
intrinsic PE of the molecules within the system
Five of the seven above kinetic and potential energies are
extrinsic.
The sum of two intrinsic energies is defined as the internal
energy of the system.
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Dr. Nasiruddin Shaikh Advanced Thermodynamics (ME 541)
On the basis of above discussion, equation can be write as:
However all the extrinsic forms of work are uncoupled on a
one-to-one basis with their corresponding extrinsic form of
stored energies.
Note that in the above equation is the sum of all extrinsic works.
Dropping out the uncoupled terms from the above equation we get
The above equation is the intrinsic or coupled energy balance
equation.
