NAME: UM E AREEBA

CLASS: SPM-20-BS (ND)-MC (1)

SUBJECT: BIO CHEMISTRY

PRESENTATION ON: LIPID

DATED: 12 JUNE 2020

COURSE INSTRUCTOR:

SIR SHERAZ SIDDIQUI

LIPID:
Lipid, any of a diverse group of organic compounds including fats, oils, hormones, and
certain components of membranes that are grouped together because they do not
interact appreciably with water. One type of lipid, the triglycerides, is sequestered
as fat in adipose cells, which serve as the energy-storage depot for organisms and also
provide thermal insulation. Some lipids such as steroid hormones serve as chemical
messengers between cells, tissues, and organs, and others communicate signals
between biochemical systems within a single cell. The membranes of cells and
organelles (structures within cells) are microscopically thin structures formed from two
layers of phospholipid molecules. Membranes function to separate individual cells
from their environments and to compartmentalize the cell interior into structures that
carry out special functions. So important is this compartmentalizing function that
membranes, and the lipids that form them, must have been essential to the origin of life
itself.

Lipid structure
Structure and properties of two representative lipids. Both stearic acid (a fatty acid) and
phosphatidylcholine (a phospholipid) are composed of chemical groups that form polar
“heads” and nonpolar “tails.” The polar heads are hydrophilic, or soluble in water,
whereas the nonpolar tails are hydrophobic, or insoluble in water. Lipid molecules of
this composition spontaneously form aggregate structures such as micelles and lipid
bilayers, with their hydrophilic ends oriented toward the watery medium and their
hydrophobic ends shielded from the water.

BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE:
• Fat-soluble vitamins

• Essential fatty acids contained in the fat of natural foods

• Stored in adipose tissue, – thermal insulator in the subcutaneous tissues and around
certain organs

• Myelination electrical insulators, allowing rapid propagation of depolarization waves

along myelinated nerves.

• Lipoproteins Combinations of lipid and protein - important cellular constituents,

occurring both in the cell membrane and mitochondria.

• Means of transporting lipids in the blood.

• Obesity, diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis

• Role of various polyunsaturated fatty acids in nutrition and health.

CLASSIFICATION OF LIPID
Lipids can be classified according to their hydrolysis products and according to
similarities in their molecular structures. Three major subclasses are recognized:

1. SIMPLE LIPID:
(a) Fats and oils which yield fatty acids and glycerol upon hydrolysis.
(b) Waxes, which yield fatty acids and long-chain alcohols upon hydrolysis.
FATS AND OILS
 Both types of compounds are called triacylglycerol’s because they are esters
composed of three fatty acids joined to glycerol, trihydroxy alcohol.
 The difference is on the basis of their physical states at room temperature. It is
customary to call a lipid a fat if it is solid at 25°C, and oil if it is a liquid at the
same temperature.
 These differences in melting points reflect differences in the degree of
unsaturation of the constituent fatty acids.

WAXES:
 Wax is an ester of long-chain alcohol (usually mono-hydroxy) and a fatty acid.
 The acids and alcohols normally found in waxes have chains of the order of 12-
34 carbon atoms in length.

FATTY ACID:
Fatty acids rarely occur as free molecules in nature but are usually found as
components of many complex lipid molecules such as fats (energy-storage compounds)
and phospholipids (the primary lipid components of cellular membranes). This section
describes the structure and physical and chemical properties of fatty acids. It also
explains how living organisms obtain fatty acids, both from their diets and through
metabolic breakdown of stored fats

STRUCTURE:
Biological fatty acids, members of the class of compounds known as carboxylic acids,
are composed of a hydrocarbon chain with one terminal carboxyl group (COOH). The
fragment of a carboxylic acid not including the hydroxyl (OH) group is called an acyl
group. Under physiological conditions in water, this acidic group usually has lost
a hydrogen ion (H+) to form a negatively charged carboxylate group (COO−). Most
 biological fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms because the biosynthetic
pathway common to all organisms involves chemically linking two-carbon units
together (although relatively small amounts of odd-number fatty acids do occur in some
organisms). Although the molecule as a whole is water-insoluble by virtue of its
hydrophobic hydrocarbon chain, the negatively charged carboxylate is hydrophilic. This
common form for biological lipids—one that contains well-separated hydrophobic and
hydrophilic parts—is called amphipathic

In addition to straight-chain hydrocarbons, fatty acids may also contain pairs of

carbons linked by one or more double bonds, methyl branches, or a three-carbon
cyclopropane ring near the center of the carbon chain.

SATURATED FATTY ACID:

The simplest fatty acids are unbranched, linear chains of CH2 groups linked by carbon-
carbon single bonds with one terminal carboxylic acid group. The
term saturated indicates that the maximum possible number of hydrogen atoms are
bonded to each carbon in the molecule. Many saturated fatty acids have a trivial or
common name as well as a chemically descriptive systematic name. The systematic
names are based on numbering the carbon atoms, beginning with the acidic carbon.
The table gives the names and typical biological sources of the most common saturated
fatty acids. Although the chains are usually between 12 and 24 carbons long, several
shorter-chain fatty acids are biochemically important. For instance, butyric acid (C4)
and caproic acid (C6) are lipids found in milk. Palm kernel oil, an important dietary
source of fat in certain areas of the world, is rich in fatty acids that contain 8 and 10
carbons (C8 and C10).

trivial systematic number of carbons

typical sources
name name in chain
n-dodecanoic palm kernel oil,
lauric acid 12
acid nutmeg

myristic n-tetradecanoic palm kernel oil,

14
acid acid nutmeg

palmitic n-hexadecanoic olive oil, animal

16
acid acid lipids

n-octadecanoic cocoa butter,

stearic acid 18
acid animal lipids

n-docosanoic brain tissue, radish

behenic acid 22
acid oil

lignoceric n-tetracosanoic brain tissue,

24
acid acid carnauba wax
UN-SATURATED FATTY ACID
Unsaturated fatty acids have one or more carbon-carbon double bonds. The
term unsaturated indicates that fewer than the maximum possible number of hydrogen
atoms are bonded to each carbon in the molecule. The number of double bonds is
indicated by the generic name—monounsaturated for molecules with one double bond
or polyunsaturated for molecules with two or more double bonds. Oleic acid is an
example of a monounsaturated fatty acid. Common representative monounsaturated
fatty acids together with their names and typical sources are listed in the table. The
prefix cis-9 in the systematic name of palmitoleic acid denotes that the position of the
double bond is between carbons 9 and 10. Two possible conformations, is and can be
taken by the two CH2 groups immediately adjacent to the double-bonded carbons. In
the cis configuration, the one occurring in all biological unsaturated fatty acids, the two
adjacent carbons lie on the same side of the double-bonded carbons. In
the Trans configuration, the two adjacent carbons lie on opposite sides of the double-
bonded carbons.
 trivial systematic number of carbons typical
name name in chain sources
palmitoleic cis-9-hexadecenoic marine algae,
16
acid acid pine oil

cis-9-octadecenoic animal tissues,

oleic acid 18
acid olive oil

cis-9-eicosenoic fish oils (cod,

gadoleic acid 20
acid sardine)

cis-13-docosenoic
erucic acid 22 rapeseed oil
acid

cis-15- sharks, brain

nervonic acid 24
tetracosenoic acid tissue

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID:

• The fatty acid can’t be synthesized by the body and therefore has to be supplied in the
diet.

• Ex: Linoleic Acid, Linoleic Acid

• Archidonic acid becomes essential – precursor linoleic acid is not provided in the diet

FUNCTION OF EFA:
 Membrane structures and functions
  Transport of cholesterol
 Formation of lipoprotein
 Prevention of fatty liver

• DEFICIENCY OF EFA:
Phrynoderma – toad skin

TRIGLYCERIDES:

STRUCTURE:
Triglycerides (chemical name triacylglycerol), the principal means of storing fatty
acids in biological systems, are a class of compounds that consist of glycerol (a three-
carbon trihydroxy alcohol) with a fatty acid linked to each of the three OH groups by
an ester bond. An example of a typical triglyceride is tristearin. Because this molecule
contains only one type of fatty acid, it is referred to as a simple triglyceride. Almost all
naturally occurring triglyceride molecules, however, contain more than one type of
fatty acid; when two or more in a given molecule are different, it is called a mixed
triglyceride. For any specific combination of three fatty acids, three different molecules
are possible, depending upon which of the three fatty acids is bonded to the central
carbon of glycerol. Considering the numbers of common saturated, monounsaturated,
and polyunsaturated fatty acids, it is evident that there are a great many different
triglycerides.
2. COMPLEX LIPIDS
PHOSPHO LIPID
Which yield fatty acids, glycerol, amino alcohol sphingosine, phosphoric
acid and nitrogen-containing alcohol upon hydrolysis.
They may be glycerophospholipids or sphingophospholipid depending upon the
alcohol group present (glycerol or sphingosine).

GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPID:
 Lipids of this class are the most abundant in biological membranes. In
glycerophospholipids, fatty acids are linked through an ester oxygen to carbons 1 and 2
of glycerol, the backbone of the molecule. Phosphate is ester-linked to carbon 3, while
any one of several possible substituents is also linked to the phosphate moiety.
Glycerophospholipids are amphipathic—glycerol and phosphate form the polar end of
the molecule, while hydrocarbon chains form the nonpolar end. Although the fatty
acids can be any of those common in biological systems, usually those attached to
carbon 1 are saturated and those attached to carbon 2 are unsaturated. The various
combinations of two fatty acids give rise to many different molecules bearing the same
substituent group. Since this is true for each head group, there are altogether about a
thousand possible types of glycerophospholipids. The great majority are found in
biological membranes.
SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPID:
A second major class of lipids usually associated with the membranes surrounding
cells is sphingolipids. Sphingolipids are based on an 18-carbon amine alcohol,
sphingosine, and to a much lesser extent on a 20-carbon analog, phytosphingosine. All
but one generic member of this class have a simple or complex sugar linked to the
alcohol on carbon 1. The single deviant member is sphingomyelin, a molecule with a
phosphorylcholine group (the same polar head group as in phosphatidylcholine) instead
of the sugar moiety, making it an analog of phosphatidylcholine. All sphingolipids
have, in addition to the sugar, a fatty acid attached to the amino group of sphingosine.
Among the sphingolipids, only sphingomyelin, a phospholipid, is a major component
of biological membranes.
GLYCOLIPIDS
• Widely distributed in every tissue of the body,

• Particularly in nervous tissue such as brain

• Outer leaflet of the plasma membrane, where they contribute to cell surface
carbohydrates.

• Ex: glycosphingolipid: ceramide and one or more sugars. – Galactosylceramide –

Gangliosides

LIPOPROTEIN:
• Complexes of lipid with protein

• Transport vehicle for lipids

• Five types

– Chylomicron

– Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL)

– Low density lipoprotein (LDL)

– High Density lipoprotein (HDL)

– Free fatty acid complexes

3. DERIVED LIPID
Hydrolysis product of simple and compound lipids is called derived lipids. They
include fatty acid, glycerol, sphingosine and steroid derivatives.
Steroid derivatives are phenanthrene structures that are quite different from lipids made
up of fatty acids
STEROIDS HORMONES
Lipid hormones invoke changes in gene expression; that is, their action is to turn on or
off the instructions issued by deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) to produce proteins that
regulate the biosynthesis of other important proteins. Steroids are carried in the
circulation bound singly to specific carrier proteins that target them to the cells in
particular organs. After permeating the external membranes of these cells, the steroid
interacts with a specific carrier protein in the cytoplasm. This soluble complex migrates
into the cell nucleus, where it interacts with the DNA to activate or repress
transcription, the first step in protein biosynthesis.

All five major classes of steroid hormones produced from cholesterol contain the
characteristic five rings of carbon atoms of the parent molecule progestin are a group of
steroids that regulate events during pregnancy and are the precursors of the other
steroid hormones. The glucocorticoids, cortisol, and corticosterones promote the
biosynthesis of glucose and act to suppress inflammation. The mineralocorticoids
regulate ion balances between the interior and the exterior of the cell. Androgens
regulate male sexual characteristics, and estrogens perform an analogous function in
females. The target organs for these hormones are listed in the table

Organs affected by steroid hormones

hormone class target organs

glucocorticoids liver, retina, kidney, oviduct, pituitary

estrogens oviduct, liver

progesterone oviduct, uterus

androgens prostate, kidney, oviduct

BILE ACID
• synthesized from cholesterol in the liver

• It keep bile cholesterol in a soluble state as micelles and promote the digestion of
lipids in the intestine.

• Primary bile acids: Cholic acid and chenodeoxycholic acid

• Secondary bile acids: lithotomic acid and deoxycholic acid.