UN Specialised Training Materials on

United Nations Military Observers

Based on the Department of Peace Operations

UN Specialised Training Materials
Military Observers for United Nations Peace Operations

Series Editor

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

PELP
Peace Operations Training Institute®
PARTNERSHIP FOR
E-LEARNING ON
PEACE OPERATIONS

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UN Specialised Training Materials on
United Nations Military Observers

Cover photo: UNIFIL’s Indonesian peacekeepers

on patrol along the Blue Line in south Lebanon.
16 November 2020. UN Photo by Haidar Fahs/
UNIFIL.

Based on the Department of Peace Operations

UN Specialised Training Materials
Military Observers for United Nations Peace Operations

Series Editor

Harvey J. Langholtz, Ph.D.

PELP
PARTNERSHIP FOR

Peace Operations Training Institute® E-LEARNING ON

PEACE OPERATIONS

Study peace and humanitarian relief any place, any time

These course materials have been sourced
directly from the United Nations Peacekeeping
Resource Hub under a revocable licence issued
by the Integrated Training Service.

Peace Operations Training Institute

1309 Jamestown Road, Suite 202
Williamsburg, VA 23185 USA
www.peaceopstraining.org

The material contained herein does not necessarily reflect the views of the Peace Operations Training Institute (POTI),
the Course Author(s), or any United Nations organs or affiliated organizations. The Peace Operations Training Institute
is an international non-profit NGO registered as a 501(c)(3) with the Internal Revenue Service of the United States
of America. The Peace Operations Training Institute is a separate legal entity from the United Nations. Although
every effort has been made to verify the contents of this course, the Peace Operations Training Institute and Course
Author(s) disclaim any and all responsibility for facts and opinions contained in the text. This course was written to be a
pedagogical and teaching document, consistent with existing UN policy and doctrine, but this course does not establish
or promulgate doctrine. Only officially vetted and approved UN documents may establish or promulgate UN policy or
doctrine. Information with diametrically opposing views is sometimes provided on given topics, in order to stimulate
scholarly interest, and is in keeping with the norms of pure and free academic pursuit.

Versions of this course offered in other languages may differ slightly from the primary English master copy. Translators
make every effort to retain the integrity of the material.
Specialised Training Materials on
United Nations Military Observers

Table of Contents

Background    x

General Guidance    xii

Method of Study    xiii

Module 1 At a Glance: Conceptual Framework   14

Lesson 1.1 UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping   17
Section 1.1.1 Roles and Responsibilities   20

Section 1.1.2 Distinctive Identity   21

Section 1.1.3 Deployment in Non-Permissive Environments   22

Section 1.1.4 Arming UNMO    22

Lesson 1.2 UNMO Command and Control and Structure   27

Section 1.2.1 UNMO Command and Control and Structure   28

Section 1.2.2 Responsibilities    29

Section 1.2.3 Composition of Teams and Tasks   29

Section 1.2.4 UNMO Operating Rhythm   32

Lesson 1.3 UNMO Concept of Support 37

Section 1.3.1 UNMO Support Structure   39

Section 1.3.2 UNMO Support Considerations and Requirements   40

Section 1.3.3 C asualty Evacuation (CASEVAC) Support   41

Section 1.3.4 Security Support      42

Section 1.3.5 Communications/Technology   42

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Lesson 1.4 United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence   46

Section 1.4.1 Importance of UN Peacekeeping Intelligence (PKI)   48

Section 1.4.2 Principles    49

Section 1.4.3 Military Peacekeeping - Intelligence (MPKI) Cycle   52

Lesson 1.5 Safety and Security   61

Section 1.5.1 Safety and Security Overview   62

Section 1.5.2 United Nations Security Management System (UNSMS)   63

Section 1.5.3 Responsibilities for UNMO Safety and Security   64

Section 1.5.4 Application and Implementation   69

Annex A: UN Security Management System Policy Manual*   73

Conceptual Framework Wrap Up    76

Module 2 At a Glance: Legal Framework 77

Lesson 2.1 International Legal Framework   79
Section 2.1.1 Hierarchy of Norms   81

Section 2.1.2 International Human Rights Law (IHRL)   82

Section 2.1.3 International Humanitarian Law (IHL)   83

Section 2.1.4 Main Sources of International Law   85

Section 2.1.5 International Humanitarian Law: Conduct of Hostilities   88

Section 2.1.6 Protected Persons Under IHL   91

Section 2.1.7 Six Grave Violations Against Children in Armed

Conflict (UNSC Resolution 1612)   93

Section 2.1.8 Conflict-Related Sexual Violence (CRSV)   95

Section 2.1.9 International Refugee Law   96

Lesson 2.2 United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal

Framework 104
Section 2.2.1 Security Council Mandate   107

Section 2.2.2 Agreement with Host State (SOMA/SOFA)   109

Section 2.2.3 Authority to Use Force   113

Section 2.2.4 UN Policy Framework: Secretary-General Polices and

Bulletins    115

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Section 2.2.5 UN Policy Framework: DPO-DOS Policies and

Guidelines    116

Section 2.2.6 Peacekeeping Intelligence: Legal Limits   118

Legal Framework Wrap Up 122

Module 3 At a Glance: UNMO Operational

Framework    123
Lesson 3.1 Basic UN Investigation and Verification
Techniques . 125
Section 3.1.1 Definition of Verification   127

Section 3.1.2 Phases of a Verification/Inspection    127

Section 3.1.3 Investigation    129

Section 3.1.4 Evidence    132

Annex B: Lesson 3.1 Learning Activity: Basic Investigation and

Verification Techniques Role Playing Exercise*   135

Lesson 3.2 Liaison and Coordination   139

Section 3.2.1 Definition and Aim of Liaison and Coordination   140

Section 3.2.2 UNMO Liaison and Coordination Tasks   141

Section 3.2.3 Types of Liaison and Coordination   143

Section 3.2.4 Methods of Conducting Liaison and Coordination in

UN Peacekeeping Operations   146

Annex C: Lesson 3.2 and 3.4 Learning Activity: Liaison and

Interviewing Techniques Role Playing Exercise*   147

Lesson 3.3 Negotiation and Mediation   151

Section 3.3.1 Definition of Negotiation/Mediation   153

Section 3.3.2 Purpose, Principles, and Techniques of Negotiation/

Mediation    153

Section 3.3.3 Phases of Negotiation/Mediation   155

Annex D: Lesson 3.3 Learning Activity: Negotiation, Mediation and

Use of Language Assistants Role Playing Exercise*   161

Lesson 3.4 Interviewing Techniques   165

Section 3.4.1 Planning and Interviewing Techniques   167

Section 3.4.2 Types of Questions   171

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Section 3.4.3 Do's and Don'ts    173

Section 3.4.4 Personal Qualities   175

Lesson 3.5 Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition   179

Section 3.5.1 Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW)   180

Section 3.5.2 Military Vehicles Description   182

Section 3.5.3 Aircraft Types and Description   184

Lesson 3.6 Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration

(DDR)  190
Section 3.6.1 What is Disarmament, Demobilization, and
Reintegration (DDR)?   192

Section 3.6.2 Participants and Beneficiaries   197

Section 3.6.3 UNMO Roles in DDR   197

Annex E: Lesson 3.6 Learning Activity: Disarmament, Demobilization

and Reintegration (DDR) Role Playing Exercise*   200

Lesson 3.7 Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised

Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis   204
Section 3.7.1 Mines and Explosive Remnants of War (ERW)   207

Section 3.7.2 Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)   211

Section 3.7.3 Safety and Best Practices   216

Section 3.7.4 Crater Analysis    221

Lesson 3.8 Language Assistants   228

Section 3.8.1 Who are Language Assistants?   230

Section 3.8.2 Administration of Language Assistants   230

Section 3.8.3 Planning and Preparation   230

Section 3.8.4 Challenges    232

Section 3.8.5 Work with Language Assistants   232

Lesson 3.9 Media Relations .  236

Section 3.9.1 Peacekeeping and the News   238

Section 3.9.2 Impacts of Media Reporting   239

Section 3.9.3 Public Information Office (PIO)   239

Section 3.9.4 UNMO Responsibilities   240

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Section 3.9.5 Relating to the Media   240

Section 3.9.6 Do's and Don'ts    241

Section 3.9.7 Managing an Interview   242

Section 3.9.8 Sample Media Questions   242

Annex F: Lesson 3.9 Learning Activity: Media Relations Role Playing

Exercise*   245

Lesson 3.10 Procedures for Reporting   249

Section 3.10.1 Reporting Requirements   251

Section 3.10.2 Writing and Submission   252

Section 3.10.3 Information Centres   256

Annex G: Lesson 3.10 Learning Activity: Reporting Procedures Role

Playing Exercise*    259

Annex H: Formats — All Reports*   261

Operational Framework Wrap Up    264

Appendix A: Learning Activity - UNMO STM Table Top Exercise*   265

Appendix B: List of Acronyms    266

Appendix C: Current Peacekeeping Operations   274

Instructions for the End-of-Course Examination   275

* These materials are available in full as supplemental

materials accessible through the POTI student
classroom.
The precise contents of these handouts will not be covered on the End-of-Course
Examination but will be useful in supplementing your studies.

PowerPoints from the original training document can also be found in the student
classroom.

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

Background

The UN Department of Peace Operations (DPO) has developed a suite of training packages to
prepare peacekeepers for their deployment in missions. Amongst these packages are the Specialised
Training Materials for specific military duties and military units.

In the current peacekeeping environment, United Nations Military Observers (UNMO) are frequently
unarmed and operating in remote areas with fragile security conditions. UNMO roles of monitoring and
supervising ceasefires, truces, and armistice are evolving and adapting in this new complex operational
environment. UNMO are required to undergo a more robust pre-deployment training programme in
accordance with DPO's Operational Readiness Assurance and Performance Standards.

This revised Specialised Training Material packet will provide you with the UN pre-deployment
requirements and materials specifically designed for UNMO. This STM replaces the guidelines and
training materials outlined in United Nations Military Experts on Mission (MEOM/March 2010) designed
for Military Liaison Officers (MLOs), UNMO, and Military Advisors (MILADs).

Aim

The aim of these training materials is to provide you with a comprehensive training package that
combines the Conceptual, Legal, and Operational Frameworks. The STM mainstreams relevant aspects
of the protection of civilians, gender, Security Risk Management (SRM), and improvised explosive device
(IED) safety into the frameworks and materials. The STM includes small learning activities/exercises,
as well as a more comprehensive scenario-based exercise, which you can complete to strengthen your
understanding of how better to operate in a UN peacekeeping environment. The training packages are
designed for application in both pre-deployment and in-mission training. Specific training guidance is
also included in Annexes.

Target Audience

The priority target audience for this STM package is military decision makers, staff officers, and
Military Observers. However, leadership at all levels that supervise, support, and coordinate training for
Military Observers may benefit from this material. Additionally, it is noted that the military leadership
from member states and their national peacekeeping training institutions, course directors, and
instructors of Military Observer courses will benefit from these materials.

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Structure of the Training Materials

The package is constructed in three modules:

» Module 1: Conceptual Framework

» Module 2: Legal Framework

» Module 3: Operational Framework

Available in the student classroom:

» PowerPoint Slide Lesson Presentations

» Learning Activities and Table Top Exercise (TTX)

» References and Background Materials

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General Guidance

General Considerations

This package is a compendium of critical training content for UNMO operating in UN peacekeeping.
No training material can cover the entire spectrum of complexity in a peacekeeping environment, with all
its challenges, complexity, and activities. The STM package should therefore be viewed as the baseline
to underpin related training efforts for military peacekeepers.

Concerning necessary competencies for you to benefit from this training package, it is recommended
that you be proficient in military tasks (individually and collectively) at the tactical and technical level.
Also, it is expected that you are capable of performing proficiency in the following skills: Language,
writing, reporting, briefing, mediation, negotiation, and use of language assistants. It is critical for you
to have received the Core Pre-Deployment Training Materials (CPTM) as a pre-requisite to this training.
The CPTM contains fundamental principles, concepts, and ideas to UN peacekeeping operations (UN
PKO), which should be grasped before participating in the UNMO STM course.

The STMs can be downloaded from: http://research.un.org.

Table Top Exercise (TTX) Considerations

Contained in the STMs are TTXs available in your Online Classroom. These exercises are scenario/
situational driven learning activities to help consolidate learning outcomes and help reinforce the
lesson's "Take Away". TTXs will help you to consider the principles and concepts when operating in a
United Nations peacekeeping operation, using the hypothetical NARALAND scenario and unit-specific
situations. The exercises help you to better understand the manifestation of integrating units in a
peacekeeping environment.

Methodology: Using your national problem-solving doctrine, methodology, military decision-making

processes, and troop-leading procedure, you will analyze situations and missions and present Courses
of Action (COAs) to be executed in a UN peacekeeping operation. You will focus on the adequacy of
the core elements and principles when operating in support of peacekeeping operations. This course
should assist you in bridging gaps in the transition from standard military operations to peacekeeping
operations. Command and control (C2), operations conducted with incomplete information, support
structure, and the coordination/collaboration with the various actors and interlocutors in a UN peace
operation can be a challenge.

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Method of Study

This self-paced course aims to give students flexibility in their approach to learning. The
following steps are meant to provide motivation and guidance about some possible strategies
and minimum expectations for completing this course successfully:

• Before you begin studying, first browse through the entire course material. Notice the module,
lesson, and section titles to get an overall idea of what will be involved as you proceed.

• The material is meant to be relevant and practical. Instead of memorizing individual details,
strive to understand concepts and overall perspectives in regard to the United Nations system.

• Set personal guidelines and benchmarks regarding how you want to schedule your time.

• Study the lesson content and the learning objectives. At the beginning of each lesson,
orient yourself to the main points. If possible, read the material twice to ensure maximum
understanding and retention, and let time elapse between readings.

• At the end of each lesson, take the End-of-Lesson Quiz. Clarify any missed questions by re-
reading the appropriate sections, and focus on retaining the correct information.

• After you complete all of the modules, prepare for the End-of-Course Examination by taking
time to review the main points of each lesson. Then, when ready, log into your online student
classroom and take the End-of-Course Examination in one sitting.

» Access your Online Classroom at

<www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user_login>
from virtually anywhere in the world.

• Your exam will be scored electronically. If you achieve a passing grade of 75 per cent or higher
on the exam, you will be awarded a Certificate of Completion. If you score below 75 per cent,
you will be given one opportunity to take a second version of the End-of-Course Examination.

Key Features of Your Online Classroom »

• Access to all of your courses;

• A secure testing environment in which to complete your training;

• Access to additional training resources, including multimedia course

supplements; and

• The ability to download your Certificate of Completion for any completed

course.

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MODULE
At a Glance:
1 Conceptual Framework

Module 1 provides an
overview of the conceptual
framework related to United
Nations Military Observers
(UNMO) operating in a UN
peacekeeping operation
(UN PKO) to support and
help contribute towards a
successful achievement of the
mandate.
UN Photo by John Isaac.

Module 1 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Lesson 1.1 UNMO Overview in UN • Understand the concept of UNMO.

Peacekeeping
• Learn the nature and characteristics, roles
and identity of UNMO, and the nature of
Lesson 1.2 UNMO Command and Control
challenges in missions, especially in non-
and Structure
permissive environments.
Lesson 1.3 UNMO Concept of Support
• Recognize the logistical and administrative
support to UNMO.
Lesson 1.4 United Nations Peacekeeping

Intelligence • Explain the organizational principles,

flexibility, and adaptability of UNMO.
Lesson 1.5 Safety and Security
• Recognize command and control,
Conceptual Framework Wrap Up responsibilities of key mission leaders, and
sections.

• Learn the UN policies on arming UNMO.

• Describe the use of intelligence in the UN and

how it relates to the UNMO.

• Explain the concepts of safety and security

for UNMO in a UN mission.
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 MODULE 1 | AT A GLANCE: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Ahmed Himmiche (right), head of the group of unarmed UN Military Observers (UNMO) recently dispatched to Syria, speaks with
children on the streets of Homs as he and his team patrol the city. 21 April 2012. UN Photo by Neeraj Singh.

Overview
The module also examines the nature, capabilities,
and characteristics of UNMO and how they support the UN
mission components and, in some cases, the host nation.

United Nations Military Observers (UNMO) contribute

decisively and in support of the successful achievement
of the mission's mandate. To date, UNMO have deployed
to peacekeeping operations in many of the UN missions.
To acknowledge the nature and characteristics of UNMO
and their complementarity with the force and the other
components in the mission, it is essential for us to be
familiar with their conceptual framework.

The aim of Module 1 is to provide you an overview of

UNMO in order to employ them in an appropriate manner
and to familiarize you with the conceptual framework of
how UNMO support UN missions.

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 MODULE 1 | AT A GLANCE: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

It should be emphasized that the aim of this course is to provide you with a comprehensive training
package that combines the Conceptual, Legal, and Operational Frameworks for the employment of
UNMO, starting here with the Conceptual Framework. This Specialised Training Material (STM) will also
help mainstream aspects of protection of civilians and gender into the frameworks and materials. The
STM includes learning exercises and discussions, as well as a more comprehensive scenario-based
exercise/Table Top Exercise (TTX), which can be conducted at the end of the course to help strengthen
our understanding of how better to employ UNMO in a UN peacekeeping environment. This training
package is designed for application in both pre-deployment and in-mission training.

The audience for this STM package includes personnel identified to deploy as UNMO in a UN PKO,
military decision makers, staff officers, and tactical unit leaders, who during their UN deployment may
be assigned to, employ, coordinate, or perform missions with UNMO. However, leadership at all levels
that supervise, train, prepare, support, and coordinate with UNMO may also benefit from this material.

For all practical purposes, throughout these Specialised Training Materials, we will use
the abbreviation/acronym "UNMO" to refer to the United Nations Military Observers both in
singular and in plural forms.

This module addresses the conceptual framework for UNMO operating in a UN PKO. UNMO activities
are always conducted in compliance with peacekeeping principles and ethos in mind. More importantly,
UNMO should always operate within the context of the mission's mandate.

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON
UNMO Overview in UN
1.1 Peacekeeping

As UNMO are a special

asset creating effects that
contribute to the achievement
of operational-level
objectives, it is crucial that
military decision makers, staff
officers, and tactical level unit
leaders who employ or work
with UNMO are aware of their
capabilities and limitations.

UN Photo by JG.

Lesson 1.1 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 1.1.1 Roles and Responsibilities • List UNMO's main roles.

Section 1.1.2 Distinctive Identity • Explain how to maintain and display a

distinctive identity as UNMO.
Section 1.1.3 Deployment in Non-

Permissive Environments • Explain when and how UNMO are deployed

into non-permissive environments.
Section 1.1.4 Arming UNMO
• Describe the UN policy on arming UNMO.

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 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

Peacekeepers from the United Nations Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan speak with the local population near Bhimbar UN
Field Station, Pakistan as visible representatives of the UN. Their mandate is to be a neutral party in the India-and-Pakistan situation.
20 October 2005. UN Photo by Evan Schneider.

We will give an overview of the roles and employment

concept of UNMO to the current complex UN PKO Suggested Reading »
environment. This means, from this point forward, you Read Guidelines
should try to be in the mind-set of wearing the Blue March 2017: United
Beret that represents the UN in a complex peacekeeping Nations Military
environment. Observers (UNMO)

The UNMO must be fully integrated into the mission in Peacekeeping

and force concepts, as well as the tactical, operational, Operations.

and strategic information/intelligence frameworks.

Available from: <http://dag.un.org/
The UNMO has its own unique characteristics that add
bitstream/handle/11176/400972/
a dimension to the accomplishment of the mission's
Annex%20D%20-%20
mandate.
References%20%28Guidelines%20
for%20UNMO%29.
pdf?sequence=30&isAllowed=y>.

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 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

Figure 1.1.1

It is important to understand that the UNMO is deployed as part of the military structure of the UN
mission that may have a myriad of roles and supporting tasks.

Figure 1.1.1 lists subject areas we will be covering. This lesson content covers the roles and aim of
UNMO employment, as well as the operational environment. Finally, we will discuss other considerations
that are needed to optimize UNMO in a mission.

It is important to understand up front that UNMO do not operate in total isolation but work in close
coordination with other United Nations stakeholders, including the mission's military/police contingents,
civilian components, and other agencies.

UNMO is an enabling asset that facilitates the accomplishment of the mandate through verification,
coordination, negotiations, force protection, protection of civilians (POC), and current information/
intelligence. We should understand and consider UNMO as a unique, effective asset presenting the Force
Commander (FC) with specific capabilities.

As in all good training practices, let's review the learning outcomes. At the end of the lesson, our
aim is for you to be able to assimilate the essential roles and responsibilities and how the UNMO fits in
the UN structure. Please take a moment to read and understand the requirements:

• List UNMO's main roles.

• Explain how to maintain and display a distinctive identity as UNMO.

• Explain when and how UNMO are deployed into non-permissive environments.

• Describe the UN policy on arming UNMO.

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 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

Section 1.1.1 Roles and Responsibilities

Core Roles of UNMO

There are four main types of roles that are expected of UNMO in the field.

Observation, monitoring, and reporting:

• UNMO primarily observe and monitor military/peace agreements between parties to a conflict,
ceasefire, armistice, withdrawal, or separation of forces.

• UNMO observe and monitor humanitarian situations impacting human rights violations, abuses
against children, incidents, trends of conflict, sexual violence, and the return of refugees or
displaced persons.

• UNMO are part of an early warning framework reporting on security, POC, and political and
humanitarian situations. Often, this is done in cooperation with civilian mission components,
like the UN Mine Action Service, Human Rights Division, and Disarmament, Demobilization,
and Reintegration (DDR) team.

Assessment and verification:

• UNMO conduct assessments and verification of information concerning armed groups, ceasefire
allegations, post-conflict agreements, presence of explosive hazards, or any matter directed
by the Head of Military Component/Force Commander (HOMC/FC). Verification is increasingly
pertaining to cantonment, demobilization, and reintegration of armed groups, as well as the
collection, storage, and decommissioning of weapons.

Negotiation and mediation:

• UNMO facilitate or conduct formal and informal negotiations between persons and groups in
the field and/or represent the United Nations mission in such negotiation/mediation.

• Negotiation and mediation tasks address a range of issues, including de-escalating violence,
persuading parties on a peaceful resolution, exchange of prisoners, freedom of movement, or
assisting the return of refugees and internally displaced persons. UNMO should refer to subject
matter experts for technical assistance.

Liaison and coordination:

• UNMO get involved in outreach and establishment of military liaison and coordination between
the mission and other field entities.

• Liaison and coordination with mission components, host nation local governments, host nation
military forces, security institutions, armed groups; international agencies, UN partners, and
non-governmental organizations.

• Civil society groups include human rights organizations, women's groups, youth groups, and
disabled person's organizations; the humanitarian assistance community.

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 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

UNMO Team Site

UNMO teams are mission-tailored. The size and composition of teams depend on the mission
mandate and area of responsibility. At a minimum, the teams should be multinational and comprise
six military officers in the rank of Captain to Lieutenant Colonel (with a Lieutenant Colonel as Team
Leader). Each team site should ideally have female UNMO. Female UNMO are critically important in
providing better access and outreach to local communities, especially women and children.

In order to improve the working efficiency of a team site, UNMO should be assigned specific
responsibilities within the team such as personnel, operations, logistics, communications, and liaison.
This is essential for the team to maintain operational effectiveness. These responsibilities include:

• Team Site Leader (TSL)

• Deputy Team Site Leader (DTSL) and Operations Group Leader

• Operations Officer

• Military Information/Intelligence Officer (1/2)

• Movement/DDR and Civil-Military Coordination (CIMIC) Officer (1/2)

• Training Officer

• Team Site (TS) Chief Administration Officer

• Administration and Logistics Officer (1/2)

Section 1.1.2 Distinctive Identity

UNMO Distinctive Identity

• Vehicle markings
• Mission ID cards
• Armbands
• Vests
• UNMO flags: vehicles and accommodation
• Mission public information
Figure 1.1.2

UNMO are outreach-oriented, impartial, and unarmed. Being unarmed is an important means by
which UNMO build trust in their roles in the mission.

To maintain their identity and enhance their personal security, UNMO should be easily distinguishable
from the mission's armed contingents, particularly when conducting operations while escorted by armed
contingents.

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 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

UNMO include clear markings on their vehicles in both English and the local language; for example,
markings may include "UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS". UNMO should also be provided with
military ID cards, distinctive armbands, and/or easily recognizable, highly visible vests. In addition to
the United Nations flag, UNMO vehicles and accommodations bear a distinctive UNMO flag designed/
flown so that their premises are easily identifiable to parties to the conflict, as well as the local civilian
population.

The UN mission's public information messages should also include information about the UNMO's
presence, tasks, and activities for the benefit of stakeholders and the local population.

Section 1.1.3 Deployment in Non-Permissive Environments

UNMO deployed in non-permissive environments may face unpredictable and potentially life-
threatening situations. Unstable security situations do not permit UNMO to perform their functions
effectively and independently.

In non-permissive environments, the deployment of UNMO may be delayed until the HOMC/FC
determines that the security situation is conducive to UNMO operations. This is determined through a
comprehensive threat and risk management assessment of the area of responsibility (AOR).

Risks for UNMO in non-permissive environments could be mitigated by co-locating them with
military or police contingents that provide armed escort. However, sometimes risks cannot be effectively
mitigated, and UNMO should not be deployed in their normal small team sites in isolated areas.

Section 1.1.4 Arming UNMO

UNMO enjoy a special and advantageous status as impartial and unarmed when dealing with local
stakeholders. UNMO are perceived as non-threatening, relying only on reason and skill rather than force
to achieve goals. Remember from earlier in the lesson that this is the basis of their distinctive identity.

In most cases, UNMO do not carry weapons or ammunition, whether issued by their home
country or personally owned. They should not buy, own, or export weapons or ammunition while on
mission.

On an exceptional basis and in high-risk areas, the HOMC/FC may recommend to the HOM
(Head of Mission) arming UNMO after completing a structured risk assessment of the mission.
Arming UNMO may only be authorized by the Under-Secretary-General (USG), Department of Peace
Operations (DPO), in consultation with the Under-Secretary-General for Safety and Security (DSS USG).

Situations where this might arise could include where there are numerous armed groups outside the
peace process or terrorist groups seeking recognition by targeting United Nations personnel.

If the USG DPO approves the arming of UNMO, then they will include a specific directive for the
use of firearms by UNMO. This directive identifies principles, parameters, and conditions for the use
of force by the UNMO. Similarly, the mission should draft standard operating procedures (SOPs), in
consultation with UN Headquarters (UNHQ), on the carrying of arms by individual UNMO.

22
 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

Nonetheless, there have been recurring suggestions that UNMO should carry personal weapons
when operating in non-permissive environments. This is a sensitive issue for many, with debate in the
following areas:

• Arming UNMO may increase and not reduce risks to their security.

• Armed UNMO may give the impression that they are part of armed contingents.

• Armed incidents could negatively affect the ability of UNMO to conduct open interaction with
the local population and other parties to the conflict.

Lesson Take Away

Key Message: As UNMO is a key asset that contributes to the achievement of UN operational-level
objectives, it is crucial that deploying UNMO, military decision makers, staff officers, other Military
Experts on Mission, and tactical level unit leaders have an understanding of their roles, capabilities, and
limitations to better employ UNMO and work within a United Nations operational environment.

To this end, we should be aware of the following:

• UNMO have several key mission roles, staff roles to ensure their team site functions effectively.

• UNMO roles include observation, monitoring, and reporting; assessment and verification;
negotiation and mediation; liaison and coordination.

• UNMO have a distinctive identity that separates them from other identities in a mission, which
facilitates their specific roles. This should be visibly displayed on vehicles, on their persons,
and on their accommodation using flags, armbands, and IDs.

• When and how UNMO are deployed into non-permissive environments depends on the security
risk assessment. If warranted and given special authorization, UNMO can be armed; however,
there are certain limitations on how they conduct their tasks.

Ahmed Himmiche (centre left), the head of the UN Military Observers (UNMO) group dispatched
to Syria, and his team speak with members of the opposition in El Karak. 26 April 2012. UN
Photo by Neeraj Singh.

23
 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

Summary

Let us continue to review. The UNMO is a key asset creating effects that contribute to the achievement
of the mission mandate, and it is crucial that military decision makers, staff officers, and tactical level
unit leaders who during the course of their UN deployment may be required to employ or work with
UNMO and should be aware of their capabilities and limitations. Here are a few areas to take away from
this lesson:

• UNMO have several key mission roles, and they are also expected to perform staff roles to
ensure that their UNMO team functions effectively.

• UNMO have a distinctive identity, different from other parts of the mission, which facilitates
their specific roles. This should be visibly displayed on vehicles, on their persons, and on their
accommodation using flags, armbands, and IDs.

• When and how UNMO are deployed into non-permissive environments depends on the security
risk assessment.

• In some cases, that may lead to the FC and HOM requesting the USG DPO in coordination with
DSS to approve the arming of UNMO. This is an exception to the general principle and may
have an impact on UNMO's effectiveness in the AOR.

24
 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. What are some of the main roles of 7. What are some of the reasons why
UNMO on mission? UNMO carrying personal weapons
when operating in non-permissive
A. Observation, monitoring, and reporting
environments is a sensitive issue?
B. Assessment and verification
A. Arming UNMO may increase and not reduce
C. Liaison and coordination
risks to their security.
D. All of these
B. Armed UNMO may give the impression that

2. How should UNMO maintain their they are part of armed contingents.
distinctive identity on mission? C. Armed incidents could negatively affect the

A. UNMO should try to blend in as much as ability of UNMO to conduct open interaction

possible. with the local population and other parties

B. They should fly their national flags on to the conflict.

vehicles and accommodation. D. All of these

C. They should display clearly identifiable

8. _____ are an operational asset that
markings on vehicles, carry mission IDs,
represents a capability that should
wear high visibility vests, and fly UN flags. be employed for achieving specific
D. They should rely ONLY on public information objectives in support of the mandate.
messaging from the mission about where A. UNMO
UNMO are and what they are doing. B. HOMs
C. DPOs
3. How can risks for UNMO in non-
permissive environments be mitigated? D. SOPs

4. If an UNMO is armed, what are some of 9. True or False: Risks can always be
the issues and procedures? effectively mitigated when UNMO are in
non-permissive environments.

5. True or False: To maintain their identity A. True

and enhance their personal security, B. False
UNMO should be easily distinguishable
from the mission's armed contingents, 10. True or False: UNMO always carry
particularly when conducting operations ammunition.
while escorted by armed contingents.
A. True
A. True
B. False
B. False

6. True or False: UNMO already carry

personal weapons when operating in
non-permissive environments.
A. True
B. False

Answer Key provided on the next page.

25
 LESSON 1.1 | UNMO Overview in UN Peacekeeping

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. D

2. C

3. Risks to UNMO can be mitigated by co-locating them with

military or police contingents that provide armed escort.

4. In general, UNMO must not carry weapons on mission.

However, the USG DPO may approve arming UNMO
if requested by the HOM/FC following a security risk
assessment and SOP.

5. A. True

6. B. False

7. D

8. A

9. B. False

10. B. False

26
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON
UNMO Command and Control
1.2 and Structure

Let us proceed with more of

the conventional framework
that forms the UNMO
organization and structure.

UN Photo by Martine Perret.

Lesson 1.2 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 1.2.1 UNMO Command and • Explain the concept and structure of UNMO.
Control and Structure
• Describe UNMO responsibilities and command
Section 1.2.2 Responsibilities and control (C2).

Section 1.2.3 Composition of Teams and • Describe the UNMO team structure and
Tasks tasks.

Section 1.2.4 UNMO Operating Rhythm • Explain the operating rhythm for the UNMO
team.

• Describe the planning, operational, and

reporting requirements.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

27
 LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

Ahmed Himmiche (centre), head of the UN Military Observers (UNMO) dispatched to Syria, is approached by citizens of Homs as he
and his team patrol the city. 21 April 2012. UN Photo by Neeraj Singh.

Section 1.2.1 UNMO

Suggested Reading »
Command and
Read "DPO/DOS Policy on
Control and
Authority, Command and
Structure
Control in United Nations
Unity of command is an important aspect Peacekeeping Operations",
in the UN which is achieved through a clear (Ref. 2019.23) (25 October
chain of command. The HOMC/FC reports 2019).
to the Head of Mission and is responsible
Available from: <http://dag.un.org/
for implementing the military tasks and
handle/11176/400959>.
exercising operational control over all
United Nations military personnel, including
UNMO. The HOMC/FC usually exercises
operational control over all UNMO through
the Deputy Force Commander (DFC), who is
usually the Chief Military Observer (CMO) in
multidimensional peacekeeping operations.

28
 LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

Section 1.2.2 Responsibilities

Force Commander has full operational control (OPCON) over all UNMO and sometimes delegates
the command and control responsibility to the DFC.

Chief Military Observer is delegated to provide C2 to ensure daily routine UNMO tasks are carried
out efficiently/effectively. CMO is responsible for good order and discipline for the UNMO.

Section 1.2.3 Composition of Teams and Tasks

Composition of Force Headquarters (FHQ) UNMO

Senior Military Observer (SMO) coordinates the activities of all UNMO in the Force Headquarters
(FHQ) and team sites (TS). Each TS is under Tactical Control (TACON) of the SMO. The SMO is the
deputy to the CMO in all matters concerning UNMO.

The UNMO Branch in the FHQ manages all UNMO matters at the FHQ level and coordinates the
work of the TS, which are most times co-located with the Sector Headquarters (SHQ) in the missions. A
relief system ensures the accomplishment of all tasks assigned to the FHQ UNMO Branch and the TS
in the absence or temporary unavailability of any UN Military Observers (MILOB).

UNMO composition may change from mission to mission. The FHQ UNMO Branch is headed by the
SMO and is divided into an Operations Section with six UNMO (led by the Chief Operations Officer, or
COO) and an Administration and Logistics Section with two UNMO (led by the Chief Administration
Officer, or CAO).

FHQ UNMO Branch

Operations Section includes the following:

• Chief Operations Officer/Deputy SMO (D SMO): The COO is the deputy to the SMO who leads,
controls, and supervises the activities of the UNMO in the FHQ UNMO Branch.

• Operations Officer

• Mixed Observation and Verification Team (MOVT)

• Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)/Civil-Military Coordination (CIMIC)

Officer

• Training Officer

• Gender focal point

Administration and Logistics Section includes:

• Chief Administration Officer: Responsible for all administrative functions, services, and financial
certification and for the proper implementation of the UN rules and regulations

• Logistics/Transport Officer

29
 LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

FHQs Related Appointments

FHQs UNMO Related Appointments

CMO (Maj Gen / Brig)

SMO (Col)

OPS SECTION
ADM SECTION
(COO)
(CAO)

Ops Offr MOVT Offr DDR/CIMIC Tng Offr Log/Tpt Offr

Figure 1.2.1

Major General (Maj Gen); Brigadier General (Brig); Colonel (Col); Operation Section (Ops Section); Administration Section (ADM
Section); Operations Officer (Ops Offr); Mixed Observation and Verification Team Officer (MOVT Offr); Training Officer (Tng Offr);
Logistics/Transportation Officer (Log/Tpt Offr)

Figure 1.2.1 shows an example of a simple organization chart of the UNMO appointments within the
Force Headquarters. We have gone over the duties and responsibilities of the officers in green; now, let
us look at the Operations Section that the COO is responsible for in more detail.

UNMO Operations Officer (Lt Col/Major) reports to the UNMO COO and controls, plans, and supervises
the operations and activities of all the team sites. Also, they monitor, maintain situational awareness of
TS Areas of Responsibility (AORs), analyze reports, and assume the responsibilities of the COO in their
absence.

UNMO MOVT/DDR/CIMIC Officers (Lt Col/Major) are responsible for seeking information on events
pertaining to human rights, ceasefire violations, POC issues, and DDR in the AOR and apprising the COO
accordingly. They remain in close coordination/liaison with the mission Joint Operations Centre (JOC)
and liaise with all agencies and divisions (like Political Affairs, Human Rights, Civil Affairs, etc.) working
with the mission.

UNMO Training Officer (Lt Col/Major) is responsible for planning, coordinating, and controlling the
training activities of all UNMO. They liaise with the FHQ U7 about UNMO training matters.

UNMO Team and Appointments

In the field, at the TS, UNMO will be assigned to one of these two groups: The operations and the
administration group. It should be noted that all TS personnel are UNMO that do patrol in their respective
AOR. The normal rank structure for the positions you see here is Lieutenant Colonel, Major, or Captain
equivalent. Let's go into more detail on a few of the UNMO individuals and their responsibilities.

30
 LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

UNMO Team Site Composition

TSL
(Lt Col)

Ops Gp Adm Gp

DTSL DDR/CIMIC DDR/CIMIC Trg Offr

Ops Offr MIO 1 MIO 2
(Lt.Col/ /MOVT /MOVT
Major) Offr 1 Offr 2

Military Information/Intelligence Officer (MIO);

Operations Officer (Ops Offr); Training Officer (Trg Offr);
Administration Officer (Admin Offr) CAO Admin Admin
Offr 1 Offr 2
Figure 1.2.2

It is the responsibility of the respective TS leader (TSL) to ensure UNMO perform up to the standards.
The TSL is in close coordination with the Operations Group (Ops Gp) Leader who organizes the daily
Patrol Plan in a way to ensure that all tasks assigned to TS are fulfilled in priority of importance. TSL
report to the SMO and often will participate in patrol duties, especially when conducting Key Leadership
Engagement in the AOR.

Ops Gp Leader is normally the Deputy Team Site Leader (DTSL) who assumes the responsibilities
of TSL in their absence. Ops Gp Leader is responsible for operational matters pertaining to the effective
functioning of the team, updates the operational situation within the AOR and prepares the weekly
patrol summary, and disseminates the daily patrol programme.

The MIO or Military Information/Intelligence Officer is responsible for tracking and ensuring that
Priority Information Requirements are integrated into Patrol Plans and reports. MIO helps build the
intelligence assessments within the AOR and maintains a close liaison with the U2–Intelligence and
Information Branch at FHQ.

The DDR/CIMIC/MOVT Officers advise the TSL on all matters pertaining to the POC, humanitarian/
human right issues, ceasefire violations, and DDR within the AOR. Also, they coordinate with the DDR/
CIMIC/MOVT at FHQs and liaise with all agencies and divisions (like Political Affairs, Human Rights,
Civil Affairs, etc.) working with the UN mission, local civil administration, and all local humanitarian
organizations pertaining to the POC, humanitarian/human rights issues, and ceasefire violations in the
AOR as required. They provide input to the TS MIO's assessments and analysis in these disciplines.

The TS Chief CAO advises the TSL on all matters pertaining to personnel administration, logistics,
and transport issues. They are responsible for coordinating and supporting the administrative and
logistic needs of the TS.

31
 LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

Figure 1.2.3 is an example of a team Team Site Broad Layout

site broad layout. It is important that the TS
operations room establishes an SOP and manning
rotation. It is important that the TS Operations
Room personnel maintain communications,
logs, and an updated map. All personnel should
have an overall situational awareness of events,
incidents, and patterns in the AOR. Finally, a
good hand-over/brief should be given prior to
and after shift changes.

Section 1.2.4 UNMO

Operating Figure 1.2.3

Rhythm

The UNMO team site's operating rhythm should consist of a series of operations, planning, and
reporting requirements to higher HQ and other activities synchronized by time and purpose. In developing
the team's operating routine, higher headquarters' operating rhythm, reporting, and operational
requirements should be considered. The rhythm should remain flexible and be updated regularly. The
Team Leader oversees the rhythm and balances team members' duties and responsibilities. Figure 1.2.4
provides a suggested UNMO team site operating rhythm.

Team Site Operating Rhythm

Period

Daily
Example
Event

Morning brief
Participating/Reporting line

All team Members

Daily Two short range patrols (as defined by Weekly patrol plan
FHQ)
Daily Daily Situational Report Higher Headquarters
Once a week One Long Range Patrol (as defined by Weekly patrol plan
FHQ)
Twice a month One overnight patrol (at least) Patrol plan

2 hours after the completion Patrol / Operations Report Higher Headquarters

Weekly Weekly Team Meeting All team Members

Weekly Operation coordination meeting Contingents, UNPOL and other UN
agencies deployed in AOR

Weekly Weekly Patrol Plan Team leader, Team operations officer

& Higher Headquarters

Weekly Weekly Activity and Information Higher Headquarters

Summary
Weekly Weekly Report of Equipment and Higher Headquarters
Vehicles status

Monthly Monthly Attendance Report Higher Headquarters

Monthly Monthly Logistic Report Higher Headquarters

Immediately as required Flash Report Higher Headquarters
Immediately as required Notification of Casualty (NOTICAS) Higher Headquarters
Slide 12

Figure 1.2.4

32
LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

Figure 1.2.5

33
 LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

Figure 1.2.5 shows the overall UNMO C2 structure. We have discussed all the UNMO components
and the key individuals from the mission and Force Headquarters down to the TS that manages the day-
to-day activities of the UNMO on patrol.

In the Force Headquarters, the Senior Military Observer or Deputy Chief Military Observer (DCMO)
leads the UNMO Operations/Administration Cell. This cell manages UNMO operational activities and
directs UNMO.

Sector Team Leaders plan, refine, and execute tasks. The SMO/DCMO reports to the HOMC/FC
through the CMO. Each UNMO team deployed within a sector is under TACON of the UNMO Sector Team
Leader (STL).

Sector Headquarters and the Regional Head of Offices have no formal command and control
responsibility over the UNMO deployed within their area of operations (AOO) unless delegated by the
HOMC/FC.

Summary

These topics are part of the conceptual C2, and the structural framework for the employment
of UNMO represents the core of this lesson. We should have a general knowledge of the C2/UNMO
structure. Let us take a few minutes to address these bullet points.

• The strength of the UN military component is based on unity of command.

• HOMC/FC reports to HOM and is responsible for military tasks and exercising OPCON over all
UNMO.

• HOMC/FC usually exercises OPCON through the DFC (typically the CMO).

• In Force HQs, SMO, or DCMO leads UNMO Operations/Administration Cell.

• The cell manages UNMO operations and directs UNMO Sector Team Leaders.

• UNMO teams deployed in the sector are under the TACON of the UNMO STL.

• Sector HQs and Regional Head of Offices have no C2 responsibility over the UNMO deployed
unless delegated by HOMC/FC.

• FHQs should develop an UNMO SOP.

• In high-risk areas, the movements of UNMO are with an armed escort from the contingent
forces. SOPs should address security escort arrangements.

34
 LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. _____ has full operational control 5. The _____ ensures UNMO perform up
(OPCON) over all UNMO and sometimes to the standards, reports to the Senior
delegates the C2 responsibility to the Military Observer (SMO), and often will
Deputy Force Commander (DFC). participate in patrol duties.
A. Force Commander (FC) A. UNMO Operations Officer
B. Chief Military Observer (CMO) B. Team Site Leader (TSL)
C. Senior Military Observer (SMO) C. Force Commander (FC)
D. Chief Operations Officer (COO) D. Chief Military Observer (CMO)

2. _____ coordinates the activities of all 6. The _____ is responsible for tracking
UNMO in the Force Headquarters (FHQ) and ensuring that Priority Information
and team sites (TS). Requirements are integrated into Patrol
Plans and reports, helps build the
A. Force Commander (FC)
intelligence assessments within the AOR,
B. Chief Military Observer (CMO) and maintains a close liaison with the
C. Senior Military Observer (SMO) U2–Intelligence and Information Branch
D. Chief Operations Officer (COO) at FHQ.
A. Military Information/Intelligence Officer
3. _____ is responsible for all
(MIO)
administrative functions, services, and
financial certification and for the proper B. Operations Group (Ops Gp) Leader
implementation of the UN rules and C. Chief Military Observer (CMO)
regulations. D. Senior Military Observer (SMO)
A. Force Commander (FC)
7. True or False: UNMO composition may
B. Chief Military Observer (CMO)
change from mission to mission.
C. Chief Operations Officer (COO)
A. True
D. Chief Administration Officer (CAO)
B. False

4. _____ are responsible for seeking

information on events pertaining to 8. In the field, at the TS, UNMO will be
human rights, ceasefire violations, assigned to one of these two groups: the
protection of civilians (POC) issues, _____ group and the _____ group.
and Disarmament, Demobilization, and A. security; administration
Reintegration (DDR) in the AOR and B. operations; security
apprising the Chief Operations Officer
C. operations; administration
(COO) accordingly.
D. None of these
A. UNMO MOVT/DDR/CIMIC Officers
B. Force Commanders (FC)
C. Chief Military Observers (CMO)
D. Chief Administration Officers (CAO)

Answer Key provided on the next page.

35
 LESSON 1.2 | UNMO Command and Control and Structure

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

9. Who coordinates the activities of all

UNMO in the Force Headquarters (FHQ)
and team sites (TS)?
A. Head of Military Component (HOMC)/Force
Commander (FC)
B. Military Information/Intelligence Officer
(MIO)
C. Operations Group (Ops Gp) Leader
D. Senior Military Observer (SMO)

10. The Deputy Force Commander (DFC) is

usually the _____ in multidimensional
peacekeeping operations.
A. Chief Military Observer (CMO)
B. Military Information/Intelligence Officer
(MIO)
C. Operations Group (Ops Gp) Leader
D. Senior Military Observer (SMO)

Answer Key »
1. A

2. C

3. D

4. A

5. B

6. A

7. A. True

8. C

9. D

10. A

36
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

1.3 UNMO Concept of Support

It is important that we
understand the UN mission
support structure and
concept that supports the
UNMO.

UN Photo by Justyna Melnikiewicz.

Lesson 1.3 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 1.3.1 UNMO Support Structure • Explain UNMO support structure.

Section 1.3.2 UNMO Support • Explain the UNMO concept of support and
Considerations and special requirements and Mission Subsistence
Requirements Allowance (MSA).

Section 1.3.3 Casualty Evacuation • Understand planning considerations for

(CASEVAC) Support medical support.

Section 1.3.4 Security Support • Explain UNMO considerations for security

support.
Section 1.3.5 Communications/Technology

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

37
 LESSON 1.3 | UNMO Concept of Support

Military personnel of the United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF) on security detail of the observation post. 30
January 2006. UN Photo by Gernot Maier.

The UNMO must request enabling

Suggested Reading »
support. Some aspects of support are
uniquely challenging for UNMO, given Review the "DPO/DOS Policy on
the remote nature of their deployment. Authority, Command and Control
This lesson describes the UN Mission in United Nations Peacekeeping

Support Concept Framework. Operations", (Ref. 2019.23) (25

October 2019). The FC has OPCON
At the end of this lesson, you
authority (inherent in OPCON is
should be able to perform the actions
tasking authority of UNMO). The Civilian Support
described in Learning Outcomes. Please
Leadership (Director, Chief, and Service Delivery/
take a moment to read and understand
DMS/CMS) is responsible to the HOM for logistics and
the requirements. This may help you to
support that include support to UNMO. There has to
focus on the most relevant aspects of
be a good working relationship between the mission
the lesson. HQs, FHQs, UNMO/MILOB leaders, the UNMO Logistic
and Admin Support Cells/Officers, and the Office
of the DMS/CMS for this concept to work properly.
Additionally, review the UN Mission Subsistence
Allowance (MSA) policies. In most of the UN missions,
UNMO buy their own food, water, and basic supplies on
the local economy using MSA. Available from:
<http://dag.un.org/handle/11176/400959>

38
 LESSON 1.3 | UNMO Concept of Support

Section 1.3.1 UNMO Support Structure

Logistics support to deployed forces is generally a national responsibility; however, this is not the
case with UNMO. UN logistics support is provided through a complicated system comprised of lead nation
support tasks, civilian contracts, force logistics and administrative support units, or a combination of
all three. UNMO are not normally deployed with communications equipment and medical, explosive
ordnance disposal (EOD), security, and other such types of support, and as such, these must be
requested. Support requirements must be coordinated with various entities and the C2/supporting
relationships clearly established. This functional support will often primarily be coordinated with the
Force or Sector HQs and the Director of Mission Support/Chief of Mission Support (DMS/CMS) logistic
staff.

UNMO Support Structure

HOM

CMS

FHQs MILOB Branch

• Administration andLogistics Section
• ChiefAdministration Officer(COA)
• Logistics /TransportOfficer

UNMO TeamSite
• TS CAO
4
Figure 1.3.1

SRSG: Special Representative of the Secretary-General ADV: advisor (ADV)

DSRSG: Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary-General UNICEF: United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
RC/HC: Resident and Humanitarian Coordinator UNHCR: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
JMAC: Joint Mission Analysis Centre WFP: World Food Programme
UNDP: United Nations Development Programme NGO: non-governmental organization (NGO)
OCHA: United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian CMO: Chief Military Observer
Affairs MO: Military Officer

39
 LESSON 1.3 | UNMO Concept of Support

As you can see in Figure 1.3.1, there is a coordination line to the DMS/CMS. And in some missions,
this line can be solid when the force component is primarily UNMO. The DMS/CMS is responsible for
coordinating support across the entire UN mission of thousands of personnel, mainly through contracted
support, military logistics units (MLUs), and support from the host nation (HN). If special support
arrangements have been agreed to in the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) or Letter of Assist
(LOA), then the DMS/CMS will likely be coordinating that support. (Examples: Fuel, bulk water, vehicle
maintenance, etc. Note: Close and continuous coordination with FC staff and DMS staff is essential).

You can imagine that it would be easy for an UNMO to be overlooked in such a massive operation
unless there is careful coordination of logistics, maintenance, and security arrangements. In many
cases, arrangements for logistics support are provided in the UN's Generic Guidelines for TCCs for
Deploying Military Units to the UN Peacekeeping Mission and in the UN's Contingent Owned Equipment
Manual. At the component level, the Mission Support Plan is published under the authority of the DMS/
CMS. The Mission Support Plan is the authoritative basis for the planning and management of logistics
support in the UN mission. The UNMO will receive sustainment beyond national logistics capabilities
through the DMS/CMS.

Lastly, the DMS/CMS will provide common support to the mission, units, staff, Experts on Mission/
UNMO based on the Mission Support Plan, SOPs, MOUs, LOA, and contracts with troop-contributing
countries (TCCs) and individuals. In many missions, UNMO receive Mission Subsistence Allowance
(MSA); we will cover this in a later section.

Section 1.3.2 UNMO Support Considerations and Requirements

It is critical that UNMO are familiar with the Mission Support Plan, other agreements, and the
support structure.

UNMO Team Site Chief Administration Officer and/or the Logistics and Administration Officers
are responsible for ensuring that UNMO are logistically and administratively supported to be able to
successfully conduct their assigned tasks. Here are key support branches/cells/individual cells that
facilitate the UNMO support framework:

• At the FHQs UNMO Branch, the section that coordinates logistics and administrative support
is the Administration and Logistics Section. The Chief Administration Officer (CAO), under
the authority of the Head of Mission, is responsible for all administrative functions and services.
The CAO is also responsible for all administrative and financial certification and for the proper
implementation of UN rules and regulations. The Logistics/Transport Officer facilitates/
coordinates these activities.

• At the team sites (TS), the TS Chief Administration Officer advises the TS leader on all
matters pertaining to personnel administration, logistics, and transport issues. They
are responsible for coordinating and supporting the administrative and logistic needs of the TS.

Personal equipment and self-sustainment include:

• Personal protective equipment (PPE)

• Personal items

• Food and water

40
 LESSON 1.3 | UNMO Concept of Support

• Lodging

• Mission Subsistence Allowance

Common Requests for Support

Here are some of the most common support requirements that are coordinated through the Force/
Sector HQs or DMS/CMS.

• Security/escorts
Exercise »
• Transportation/fuel
Come up with a list of five
• Communications
external support requirements
• Maintenance
that you feel are important in
• Interpreters UNMO missions.
• Emergency services

Operational demands on UNMO have become increasingly complex in response to evolving political,
military, and humanitarian requirements. Consequently, the safety and security of UNMO can become a
serious challenge in some missions.

As they are generally unarmed, UNMO are vulnerable to harassment, attack, and hostage-taking.
They represent a soft target for belligerents seeking visibility and recognition or otherwise attempting to
influence peace operations. Also, because UNMO often operate in remote locations, special planning and
coordinating considerations are required for medical, security, and communications.

Lesson 1.5 will provide further elaboration on safety, security, and force protection for UNMO.

Section 1.3.3 Casualty Evacuation (CASEVAC) Support

Casualty Evacuation (CASEVAC) is one of the most critical external support requirements for UNMO.
It is important to differentiate between the terms CASEVAC and Medical Evacuation (MEDEVAC).

MEDEVAC is the evacuation of mission personnel due to any number of illnesses or injuries. This
could be a broken leg in the camp or an illness requiring long-term care. CASEVAC, on the other hand,
is an immediate requirement for the evacuation of severely injured personnel from the point of injury
to definitive care.

The planning factors and standards for CASEVAC vary by mission. The general planning figures
in UN missions are 10 minutes for self/buddy care, one hour to get to the care of medically trained
personnel, and two hours to arrive at definitive care. UNMO personnel and support staff need to keep
these factors in mind during mission planning.

The UNMO team will not have the internal assets to accomplish CASEVAC effectively. They will
require support through a plan with the DMS and CMS. However, this plan can include military component
support. UNMO must understand what the CASEVAC plan is for a given mission, AOR, and sector and
what the primary and alternate methods for executing that CASEVAC by air and by ground are. Of note,
it is imperative that the Force HQs and DMS/CMS office may need to be tied into, coordinated, and
rehearsed to ensure an effective, comprehensive UNMO CASEVAC plan is in place.

41
 LESSON 1.3 | UNMO Concept of Support

Section 1.3.4 Security Support

Coordination for security includes:

• Route security

• Requests and coordination

– Host nation military/police

– UN components (military/police/civilian)

– Mission partners

– Local Authorities

– Parties to the conflict

– Force/Sector HQs

UNMO are more often unarmed and may require, in

certain environments, to rely on mission components and
forces to provide armed security. This will vary by mission
and depend on the situation. The host country is also
responsible for the security of the UNMO.

During the mission planning cycle, threat analysis,

risk assessment, and risk mitigation management need Nepalese peacekeepers serving with the United
to be considered before every patrol. If required, these Nations Mission in South Sudan engaged in a mass
deployment exercise at the UN House base in
risks may be mitigated by requesting security. Security
Juba. The exercise included Quick Response Force
must be coordinated and planned for early to ensure Mobilization, Stand-to, Reinforcement of Troops,
proper execution of the patrol and proper procedures, C2, and Casualty Evacuation, also known as CASEVAC,
depicting worst-case scenarios. 25 August 2014.
and communications are followed. The security element/
UN Photo by JC McIlwaine.
escort must understand the requirements of the UNMO,
and the UNMO must understand the same for the security
element. Mission SOPs and directives assist in codifying
these procedures.

Host nation security forces can be instrumental in reducing risks and the time required to respond
and to control the local populace. Coordinating for interpreters and Liaison Officers with the host nation
security forces requires prior coordination to ensure timely and effective support.

Section 1.3.5 Communications/Technology

Communications support includes:

• Equipment

• UN force/inter-sector communications

• Communications with HN security forces

The availability of reliable and efficient high frequency (HF) and very high frequency (VHF)
communications equipment is the most common UNMO concern. Given the challenging communications

42
 LESSON 1.3 | UNMO Concept of Support

environment in a typical mission area, the mission should provide reliable communications: both
ground-to-air radio and satellite telephone communications.

The equipment for communications between the mission, Force or Sector HQs, and the UNMO
is predominantly provided by the UN as UN-Owned Equipment (UNOE). This ensures that the UNMO
have a secure, standardized military-grade communications system within the force and the mission's
communications network. The UNMO internal communications are normally provided and maintained by
the DMS/CMS.

The availability of new technology plays an important role in UNMO responsiveness to mission
requirements and operational effectiveness. Key equipment that might be required for safe movements,
observation, surveillance, and monitoring includes:

• Video and sound recorders

• Night vision binoculars/goggles

• Infra-red sensors

• GPS and vehicle tracking technology

• Satellite imagery and ground sensors

• Devices for detecting and marking landmines and unexploded ordnance

• Improvised explosive device (IED) jamming devices

Based on geography and threat and risk assessments, the mission should provide appropriate
vehicles for UNMO, including armoured or Mine Protected Vehicles. These vehicles should be equipped
with HF/VHF radios, a robust secondary communications system, first aid, Post-Exposure Prophylaxis
(PEP) kits, and medical trauma equipment.

Summary

You should retain the following topics from this lesson. Let us review these bullet points:

• MSA is a mechanism used by many missions to support UNMO in the field.

• DMS/CMS is responsible for much of the logistic support to UNMO.

• In the UNMO organizational structure, the following individuals/cells request, coordinate, and
track support to UNMO: Sustainment Coordinator, the COA, and Log/Admin Officers.

• Because UNMO often operate in remote locations, special planning and coordinating
considerations are required for medical, security, and communications.

43
 LESSON 1.3 | UNMO Concept of Support

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. List the two documents that provide 6. True or False: As they are generally
arrangements for logistics support. armed, UNMO are not vulnerable to
harassment, attack, and hostage-taking.
2. _____ are responsible for ensuring A. True
that UNMO are logistically and
B. False
administratively supported to be able
to successfully conduct their assigned
7. _____ is the evacuation of mission
tasks.
personnel due to any number of illnesses
A. UNMO Team Site Chief Administration or injuries. This could be a broken leg in
Officer and/or the Logistics and the camp or an illness requiring long-
Administration Officers term care.

B. The Security Council and/or the General A. CASEVAC

Assembly B. SOPs
C. The Head of Mission and/or the Force C. MOUs
Commander D. MEDEVAC
D. None of these
8. _____ is an immediate requirement
3. Which of the following coordinates for the evacuation of severely injured
logistics and administrative support? personnel from the point of injury to
definitive care.
A. Security Council
A. MEDEVAC
B. Administration and Logistics Section
B. CASEVAC
C. General Assembly
C. SOPs
D. Host nation
D. MOUs
4. The _____ is responsible for
coordinating support across the entire 9. List three types of equipment that
UN Mission of thousands of personnel, might be required for safe movements,
mainly through contracted support, observation, surveillance, and
military logistics units (MLUs), and monitoring.
support from the host nation (HN).
10. List the equipment vehicles for UNMO
A. Security Council
should have.
B. General Assembly
C. Director or Chief of Mission Support (DMS/
CMS)
D. Director of the Department of Peace
Operations

5. True or False: Close and continuous

coordination with FC staff and DMS staff
is essential.
A. True
B. False

Answer Key provided on the next page.

44
 LESSON 1.3 | UNMO Concept of Support

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. UN's Generic Guidelines for TCCs for Deploying Military Units to the UN
Peacekeeping Mission and the UN's Contingent Owned Equipment Manual

2. A

3. B

4. C

5. A. True

6. B. False

7. D

8. B

9. Video and sound recorders; Night vision binoculars/goggles; Infra-red sensors; GPS
and vehicle tracking technology; Satellite imagery and ground sensors; Devices for
detecting and marking landmines and unexploded ordnance; IED jamming devices

10. HF/VHF radios; A robust secondary communications system; First aid; Post-
Exposure Prophylaxis (PEP) kits; Medical trauma equipment

45
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON
United Nations Peacekeeping
1.4 Intelligence

This lesson will provide a

general overview of the
intelligence framework in the
UN.

UN Photo by Martine Perret.

Lesson 1.4 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 1.4.1 Importance of UN PKI • Explain why UN PKI is important to UN

missions.
Section 1.4.2 Principles
• Explain UN PKI and MPKI principles.
Section 1.4.3 MPKI Cycle
• Identify the stages of the MPKI cycle.

• Describe the MPKI management tools.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

46
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

A Military Observer of the UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (MONUSCO) during
an observation mission on Munigi Hill, as the DR Congo Armed Forces (FARDC) conduct an attack on M23 rebel positions in
Kanyaruchinya, near Goma. 15 July 2013. UN Photo by Sylvain Liechti.

A Military Observer is a strategic asset to a

peacekeeping operation. They gather information
Suggested Reading »
on patrol and during verifications, interviews, and Review the 2019
during daily tasks. UNMO will find themselves doing Peacekeeping-
essential soldiering (e.g. vehicle maintenance, Intelligence Policy.
cleaning of the containers, driving, map reading, Available from:
and radio communications, etc.) as well as living and <http://dag.un.org/
shopping in local communities. In this perspective, handle/11176/400928>.
an UNMO must understand the importance of their
Review the Policy
special contribution towards the peacekeeping
on the Protection
intelligence framework as a human sensor having
of Civilians in
access to an integral part of the local environment.
United Nations
For intelligence to be effective, all UN
Peacekeeping.
organizations must work collaboratively. Intelligence
Available from: <https://
is considered a "Team Sport". The force, sector, and
peacekeeping.un.org/sites/default/
battalion intelligence organizations, UNMO, UN Police
files/poc_policy_2019_.pdf>.
and mission components, etc. should all support and
learn from each other.

47
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

The fundamental purpose of peacekeeping intelligence is to enable missions to produce timely,

accurate, relevant intelligence products to support planning and operations; to provide early warning of
imminent threats, including threats to life, property, and movement restrictions; and to provide mission
leadership with information and understanding about shifts in the operational landscape and emerging
trends. This lesson will provide a general overview of the intelligence framework in the UN.

As an UNMO, you are a limited special asset creating effects at the tactical level that contribute to
the achievement of both strategic and operational-level objectives. It is crucial that military decision
makers, staff officers, and tactical level unit leaders who employ or work with UNMO are aware of your
capabilities and contribution to United Nations peacekeeping intelligence (UN PKI).

You should be in the mind-set of wearing the Blue Beret and being fully integrated into the mission
concept, operational and information, and intelligence frameworks. The UNMO has its own unique skills,
characteristics that add a dimension to the accomplishment of the mission's mandate. Because you
are a trained and experienced officer, you can provide an advanced perspective of what is happening
on the ground and help populate the common operating picture (COP). With your observations and
perspective, you are key to feeding information into the UN PKI framework.

Section 1.4.1 Importance of UN Peacekeeping Intelligence

Figure 1.4.1

Figure 1.4.1 is the United Nations Department of Peace Operations Policy on Peacekeeping Intelligence.

Why has the UN embraced intelligence instead of information? As mandates and operating
environments of United Nations peacekeeping missions have evolved, so too have the capabilities,
processes, and procedures required to gather and analyze information.

In high-tempo, complex, and dangerous environments, asymmetric, hybrid, and transnational threats
pose serious dangers to peacekeepers and the population and impact the mandate implementation. In
these environments, there is a need for peacekeeping missions to better understand their operating

48
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

environments. This also includes maintaining a strategic overview of developments and anticipated
strengths and weaknesses of threats/spoilers that may have an impact on the ability of peacekeepers
to effectively execute their mandate.

The Department of Peace Operations Office of Military Affairs (OMA) has developed the UN Military
Peacekeeping-Intelligence Handbook, which supports the military component who interact with the
Military Peacekeeping-Intelligence (MPKI) systems. The way the UN conducts peacekeeping intelligence
may differ from your own national methodology; it is important to understand these differences.

Why UN Peacekeeping Intelligence

Here are three main reasons that member states and DPO have embraced UN peacekeeping
intelligence. Can you think of any other reasons? The protection of civilians is always integrated into
these three areas and always a major concern for all missions.

• Support the common operational picture.

• Provide early warning of imminent threats.

• Identify risks and opportunities.

Section 1.4.2 Principles

Figure 1.4.2

There are two major sets of principles guiding the PKI framework. One is the overarching set of
principles from the UN Peacekeeping-Intelligence Policy, and the other set, on the right side, is the
practical principles from the UN Military Peacekeeping-Intelligence Handbook. The Handbook provides
us with operating principles to help guide us in our duties.

49
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

These principles inform all activities of United Nations peacekeeping operations at all stages of the
management of peacekeeping intelligence. All subordinate guidance, directives, plans, and operations
shall comply with and apply these principles.

Under Rules
Interactive »
All peacekeeping missions start with a Security Council
Give examples of possible
resolution that establishes a mandate. The mission members
clandestine activities in
must follow the intent, goals, tasks, rules, and regulations covered
peacekeeping operations.
in the mandate. Every activity conducted in peacekeeping
Think about the meaning
intelligence complies with the UN legal framework,
and specific examples of
international, humanitarian rights, and host nation laws.
clandestine activities. Is it
Non-Clandestine appropriate to represent
yourself to others as
Clandestine activities are:
something other than what you
• Conducted in such a way as to assure secrecy and are, for example, as individuals
concealment of activities working for an NGO? Can the
• Inconsistent with the legal framework UN pay sources? The response

• Illicit and outside the boundaries of peacekeeping in both cases is no.

intelligence

The UN peacekeeping (UNPK) principle of non-clandestine is best described by what we cannot

do, as shown above. Clandestine activities are defined as the acquisition of information or intelligence
conducted in such a way as to assure secrecy and concealment of activities. Because such activities are
illicit and/or inconsistent with the legal framework, principles, policies, and mandates of UN peacekeeping
operations, they are outside the boundaries of peacekeeping intelligence and shall not be undertaken
by participating mission entities.

Areas of Application

The production of UN peacekeeping intelligence shall be limited to the following: To enhance

situational awareness; to assure the safety and security of personnel; and to inform
operations and activities related to the protection of civilians.

While this may seem restrictive, it establishes quite broad parameters within which the MPKI cell
can operate.

Respect for State Sovereignty

A UN peacekeeping operation is deployed with the consent of the host government. Therefore,
the sovereignty of states, including host and neighbouring states, must always be respected.

Independence

UN peacekeeping intelligence activities will be fully autonomous from and independent in

all aspects of any national intelligence system or other operations and maintain their exclusively
international character.

50
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

Interactive »
Is it ever permissible to acquire information on host nation security forces? The response here
is yes — if it relates to tasks that UN MPKI is designed to support, for example, if host nation
security forces act or are about to act to undermine the security of civilians. However, it is a
very sensitive topic. List what you think is not permissible in terms of information acquisition.
Moreover, while it may appear that there are many limitations, the permissible areas of application
support most acquisition activity.

However, missions may liaise with non-mission entities for the purpose of receiving intelligence
and may share specific peacekeeping intelligence with non-mission entities, including host states,
provided they do so under conditions and within the parameters to be explained later in the part about
information sharing.

Generally, it is the Head of Mission's responsibility to determine the entities that the mission can
share intelligence with, but he/she must be cognizant of source protection and ensure that he/she is
satisfied that UN MPKI products will be used in such a way that aligns with the UN Charter and principles
of consent, impartiality, and non-use of force except in self-defence and defence of the mandate.

Accountability, Capability, and Authority

Those who are given the authority to make decisions with regard to peacekeeping intelligence
activities must have the appropriate capabilities to execute these functions and remain
accountable for the effective execution of these responsibilities within their respective chains of
command to the Head of Mission and ultimately to the Secretary-General.

It is important to note that authority for the overall PKI cycle resides with the Head of Mission.
However, the HOM will often delegate such authority for UN Military PKI to the Force Commander.

Security and Confidentiality

MIO peacekeeping intelligence shall be stored and shared in a secure manner while ensuring
access for those who require it for decision-making and operational planning.

Missions should assess risk involving information security and put in place procedural, technological,
and physical security measures to ensure secure information management within the peacekeeping
intelligence system.

Peacekeeping intelligence should be disclosed to mission

personnel only if access to said information is required
Interactive »
for them to carry out official duties. It also requires a written What is the difference between
delegation of authority from the originator or staff member who "need to know" and "need
originally applied the classification level. to share"? There is no point
in producing an excellent
It implies that peacekeeping intelligence is only disclosed
intelligence product if it does not
to trusted personnel, where disclosure is likely to endanger
get to the right people.
the safety or security of any individual or group, violate rights,
or invade privacy.

51
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

Section 1.4.3 Military Peacekeeping-Intelligence (MPKI) Cycle

MPKI Command-Led

Practical principles are available in the UN Military

Peacekeeping-Intelligence Handbook.

Peacekeeping intelligence is a centrally coordinated

process through which information inputs from decentralized
entities, often deployed over a wide geographic area, are
combined with different functions and expertise.

There is thus a requirement for a senior peacekeeping

intelligence officer to not only be a peacekeeping intelligence
professional but also ensure that the MPKI structure is being
command-led. The requirement for MPKI leadership is United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia
military and civilian police jointly patrol in the Gali
continuous.
sector of Abkhazia region, Georgia. 28 January
2005. UN Photo by Justyna Melnikiewicz.
Centralized Control, Decentralized Execution

It is an accepted principle that peacekeeping intelligence systems thrive under centralized control
but with decentralized execution.

This principle means both the peacekeeping intelligence effort is explicitly linked to the commander's
requirement and that the MPKI organization is operating as a homogenous system. Decentralized
execution means that the disparate elements of the MPKI structure should be trusted to execute their
part in the Information Acquisition Plan (IAP), within the parameters laid out by the Intelligence
Support Plan (ISP), without unnecessary interference.

Centralized control also means that unwanted duplication of acquisition effort is avoided.

Objectivity

Peacekeeping intelligence must never be distorted to fit a preconceived idea or to conform

to strongly held views of senior leadership.

An UNMO must have the moral courage to report what it considers to be the most accurate
assessment and avoid analytical biases. Equally, analysts must not become too emotionally invested
in their assessments, as it may skew their judgements.

Accessibility and Timeliness

Peacekeeping intelligence is useless unless it reaches those who need to know in time to apply, use,
or exploit the intelligence. There is also a requirement to protect peacekeeping intelligence sources
and conform to UN Information Handling protocols. However, there is also a requirement to ensure
that assessments are "written for release" and therefore are widely available as deemed possible.
Good peacekeeping intelligence that cannot be accessed by the staff that requires it or that reaches a
commander after the decision has been made is worthless.

52
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

Invest in ISP and Battle-Rhythm

Note »
An ISP is the foundational document for in-mission
Most UN missions will have several
PKI, not just MPKI. An ISP is a document that is supposed
intelligence organizations and/or
to regulate the activity of all information acquiring
information acquiring entities such as
entities, including the MPKI section. It should establish
the JMAC, United Nations Department
the parameters within which these entities must work,
of Safety and Security (UNDSS), the
the policy and rules they must adhere to, and allocate
JOC, Political and Civil Affairs units,
clear responsibilities. The ISP will also refer to and, where
and UN Police (UNPOL). The activities
necessary, create SOPs and will regulate other things such
of these units must be centrally
as reports and returns, timings, and battle rhythm. A
regulated.
strong ISP sets the MPKI structure up for success.

The mission must invest time to ensure that ISP is clear, up-to-date, well understood, and
disseminated to those that need it. It needs to be made clear what an ISP is. This should not be an
acronym at this point. This is not within the remit of the MPKI section. This will be drawn up by the Chief
Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence Coordination Mechanism (MICM)/JMAC.

MPKI Cycle

Figure 1.4.3

The MPKI cycle is the process by which data and/or information is converted into intelligence and
made available to users. It is the mechanism used to produce MPKI. It is typically represented as a closed
cyclical path of activities that takes you through direction, acquisition, analysis, and dissemination.

It is termed a "cycle", as it is an ongoing process both because the production of peacekeeping

intelligence is a constant throughout a peacekeeping mission and also because disseminated
peacekeeping intelligence may feed and drive further direction, and so the cycle starts again.

53
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

It is important to note that if any part of this cycle fails, then the process does not work. If the
direction is poor, then the wrong type of information is acquired. If the acquisition is poor, then the
information may not be acquired at all. In both those cases, even if the MPKI section has the world's
best analysts, the adage "garbage in, garbage out" applies, whereby poor information is analyzed,
thereby giving a poor final intelligence product. If the information is good, yet the analysis is poor, it is
an issue.

Once again, this will ensure the delivery of a poor final intelligence product. Finally, if dissemination
practices are poor, the intelligence product — however brilliant it may be — will not reach the right
customer at the right time. There is no point in predicting that an armed group will attack at dawn if the
commander does not receive it until 10:00 am.

Direction

Clear direction from the commander is the start point for

Note »
the MPKI cycle. Direction outlines to the MPKI staff what the
commander wants to know and ensures that the peacekeeping While the 4-step cycle in
intelligence staff has a clear focus for their acquisition efforts. the Military Peacekeeping-
Intelligence Handbook
Direction is often taken from the following: Commander's
slightly differs in appearance
intent, the mission, the mandate, the MPKI cell's knowledge
from the 5-step cycle in the
of the operating environment, and Commander's Priority
Peacekeeping-Intelligence
Intelligence Requirements (PIRs) and Critical Information
Policy, the former incorporates
Requirements (CCIRs).
examination and collation into
Often the MPKI cell will have to present an IAP to the a single step within analysis,
commander and his/her staff for approval, rather than being which is more common
given PIRs. However, it is vital that this IAP is endorsed by the among military intelligence
commander to give it the weight of an order. professionals.

Acquisition

The acquisition of the data or information is the next step, which is required to feed the analytical
step of the cycle.

Acquisition involves the tasking of mission acquisition

assets to acquire information that will satisfy the
Acquisition »
Commander's Critical Information or Priority Intelligence • It is the data feed-analytical step
Requirements. of the cycle.

It is important to note that the MPKI section will • The process involves the
rarely have tasking authority over acquisition assets, identification, coordination, and
as the Operations Section will normally be the tasking tasking of assets.
authority. Therefore, the MPKI cell must work to build
• Data and information come from
relationships with other units, particularly the Operations
the broadest sources.
Section, thereby fostering mutual understanding and
encouraging mutual support.

54
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

It is also important that the MPKI cell gives feedback, whether positive or negative, to acquisition
assets. This will serve to improve the acquisition process and to build and maintain a positive relationship.

It is important to note that missions do not rely only on organic acquisition assets. Missions may
also receive intelligence provided by member states as well as other non-mission entities and shall
establish mechanisms to facilitate the secure receipt and handling of such products. Modalities for
sharing and the legal acquisition of information will be contained in the mission ISP.

Analysis
Note »
Analysis is a key part of the MPKI cycle, where raw,
The best intelligence product
unprocessed data and/or information is converted into all-
ever produced would still
source, fused peacekeeping intelligence through the collation, be considered a failure if it
evaluation, analysis and interpretation, and the preparation did not reach its intended
of intelligence products in support of known or anticipated audience in a timely fashion.
user requirements.

• Analysis: The methodical breaking down of information into its component parts; the
examination of each to find the interrelationships and the application of reasoning

• Interpretation: The interpretation of the new peacekeeping intelligence against existing

knowledge and assessment in order to refine predictive assessments

Analysis should strive to be predictive. It should consider an event/incident, trend, or threat and
establish why such a thing is occurring, what is likely to come next, and what the implications are for
the UN mission.

Strong analysis gives advance warning of events or courses of action that could threaten effective
mandate implementation relating to the protection of UN personnel and civilians.

Dissemination
Dissemination »
The final stage of the MPKI cycle is the process of
• It is the process of distributing
conveying or distributing peacekeeping intelligence in
formatted intelligence products.
a suitable form to decision makers and other relevant
mission personnel. The dissemination of peacekeeping • It is for users in decision-making

intelligence products shall be done in compliance with and planning.

the "Need to Know/Need to Share" concepts. It should • It follows "need to know/need to

be noted that human rights and humanitarian law share" concepts.
violations, including trafficking, conflict-related sexual • Human rights and humanitarian
violence (CRSV), and crimes against children, have law violations must be reported.
mandatory reporting requirements.

Some information must be communicated directly to leadership if there is no time for it to be fully
processed. Examples of such information include time-sensitive data such as threats to the civilian
population and/or to force protection. However, this information must be adequately caveated if it
has not been processed. For example, the commander must be informed that it has not yet been
corroborated or validated if this is the case or that it is a single source.

55
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

Strong dissemination protocols must be in place to ensure that the intelligence products reach
leadership in a timely and secure manner.

UN Information Security Classification

Figure 1.4.4

The nature of intelligence being sensitive requires its classification on a need-to-know basis.
Intelligence that is mishandled will likely jeopardize peacekeeping operations. Information sensitivity,
classification, and handling are outlined in UN ST/SGB/2007/6. Sensitive information shall include
documents whose disclosure is likely to endanger individuals or prejudice the security of a UN operation/
activity.

Classification levels are used to identify information as "unclassified", "confidential", or "strictly

confidential":

• UN UNCLASSIFIED shall apply to information or material whose unauthorized disclosure could

reasonably be expected not to cause damage to the work of the UN.

• UN CONFIDENTIAL applies to information or material whose unauthorized disclosure could

reasonably be expected to cause damage to the work of the UN.

• UN STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL applies to information or material whose unauthorized disclosure

could reasonably be expected to cause exceptionally grave damage to or impede the conduct
of the work of the UN.

Information Handling requires the application of several processes. Accounting and control of
classified information received/produced are paramount to effective security.

Originators and recipients should maintain a record of the movement of classified information and
material. This includes the continued storage or destruction of classified information or material.

Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence Coordination Mechanism

Missions should establish mechanisms for the management of peacekeeping intelligence.

Because requirements and capacities for the management of peacekeeping intelligence differ significantly
across mission settings, the mechanisms and tools required may likewise differ. As such, the application
of these tools to mission peacekeeping intelligence systems shall be appropriately calibrated to the
specific conditions of the mission.

56
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

The purpose of the mechanism is to provide centralized control, direction, and coordination of the
mission's peacekeeping intelligence system. It may be a standalone body, while in other cases,
the functions may be played by the JMAC.

The functions of the MICM shall preferably be coordinated by the Mission Chief of Staff in
his/her role as the Chair of the Mechanism. The primary responsibilities of the MICM include drawing
strategic guidance from the senior mission leadership and translating this guidance into PIRs and
Information Requirements (IRs), developing and maintaining ISP, and management of the IAP and the
acquisition effort, satisfying all leadership IRs.

Ideally, the MICM would allocate specific PIRs and IRs to the various mission components within
their areas of competence. For example, PIRs relating to political issues would likely be allocated to
the JMAC, while PIRs relating to security might be given to the Under-Secretary-General for Safety and
Security, to the military component, and to United Nations Police (UNPOL). This mission-level IAP is a
tool for de-conflicting acquisition activities.

Coordination Mechanism

Figure 1.4.5

The MICM coordinates the mission-wide PKI function. Figure 1.4.5 highlights the importance of a
Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence Coordination Mechanism.

As you can see, there are various peacekeeping intelligence entities in a UN peacekeeping mission,
each with its own roles and responsibilities.

It is imperative that a Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence Coordination Mechanism is established

to exercise centralized control of peacekeeping intelligence activities to ensure unity of peacekeeping
intelligence effort throughout the mission.

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 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence Support Plan

The Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence Support Plan (MISP) describes the boundaries within which
the peacekeeping intelligence cycle will be executed and identifies key considerations to be observed
when providing direction to the peacekeeping intelligence cycle or executing tasks within it. This
document may be classified if deemed appropriate by the chair of the Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence
Coordination Mechanism in consultation with the Head of Mission.

Mission Information Acquisition Plan

The Mission Information Acquisition Plan (MIAP) is the most important direction tool
and is the catalyst for the peacekeeping intelligence cycle. It is a living document, constantly
changing in line with a developing situation, new CCIRs, new plans, and new operational tasks.
The commander signs the CCIR (direction) because it requires resources. When ready, it is important
that the IAP is communicated to all acquisition sensors according to their capabilities and in such a
way that makes sense.

Mission components should produce their own Component Peacekeeping-Intelligence Acquisition

Plan bringing all mission-imposed and deducted tasks and including Component leadership new CCIRs
and tasking Components assets, according to the commander's priorities and assets capabilities.

IAP is the basis of an execution order. It may be written and published in the operation order
format in accordance with the mission's SOP. The staff use the IAP to task, direct, and manage
acquisition assets (both assigned and attached assets) to acquire against the requirements. It is worth
noting that the Operations Officer tasks information acquisition assets that are not OPCON to the
MPKI cell. Generally, the MPKI cell will only have tasking authority over Intelligence, Surveillance, and
Reconnaissance (ISR) assets.

Summary

• In conclusion, those peacekeeping intelligence principles, processes, and parameters that

have been set out to manage the peacekeeping intelligence cycle are key to the success of
peacekeeping intelligence.

• MPKI principles inform all activities of UN peacekeeping operations at all stages of the
management of peacekeeping intelligence.

• The MPKI cycle is the process by which MPKI is acquired, analyzed, and disseminated based on
clearly identified requirements.

• MPKI management tools ensure effective intelligence support to military decision-making and
mandate implementation.

Learning Activity 1.4 »

Why is peacekeeping intelligence important, and how can the UNMO support the intel cycle?

58
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. For intelligence to be effective, all UN 8. A(n) _____ is the document that is

organizations must work _____. supposed to regulate the activity of all
information acquiring entities, including
A. collaboratively
the Military Peacekeeping-Intelligence
B. independently (MPKI) section.
C. quickly
A. SOFA
D. slowly
B. SOMA

2. Why has the UN embraced intelligence C. ISP

instead of information? D. MOU

3. All peacekeeping missions start with 9. The _____ cycle is the process by which
a(n) _____. data and/or information is converted
into intelligence and made available to
A. General Assembly resolution
users and is typically represented as
B. order from the Secretary-General a closed cyclical path of activities that
C. mandate from the host nation takes you through direction, acquisition,
D. Security Council resolution
analysis, and dissemination.
A. MPKI
4. The production of UN peacekeeping B. PKO
intelligence shall be limited to what?
C. SITREPs
D. UNPK
5. True or False: The sovereignty of states,
including host and neighbouring states,
must always be respected during a 10. The _____ is the most important
peacekeeping operation. direction tool and is the catalyst for the
peacekeeping intelligence cycle.
A. True
A. MICM
B. False
B. SCR

6. True or False: Missions may NEVER C. MOU

liaise with non-mission entities for the D. MIAP
purpose of receiving intelligence and
may NEVER share specific peacekeeping
intelligence with non-mission entities.
A. True
B. False

7. Peacekeeping intelligence systems

thrive under _____ control and _____
execution.
A. decentralized; centralized
B. centralized; decentralized
C. centralized; centralized
D. decentralized; decentralized

Answer Key provided on the next page.

59
 LESSON 1.4 | United Nations Peacekeeping Intelligence

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. A

2. In high-tempo, complex, and dangerous environments, asymmetric, hybrid, and

transnational threats pose serious dangers to peacekeepers and the population
and impact the mandate implementation. In these environments, there is a need
for peacekeeping missions to better understand their operating environments. This
also includes maintaining a strategic overview of developments and anticipated
strengths and weaknesses of threats/spoilers that may have an impact on the
ability of peacekeepers to effectively execute their mandate.

3. D

4. To enhance situational awareness; To assure the safety and security of personnel;

To inform operations and activities related to the protection of civilians.

5. A. True

6. B. False

7. B

8. C

9. A

10. D

60
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

1.5 Safety and Security

UNMO are generally deployed

for one year. UNMO team
sites are frequently located
in remote areas with fragile
security conditions.

UN Photo by Staton Winter.

Lesson 1.5 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 1.5.1 Safety/Security Overview • Explain the difference between risks and
threats.
Section 1.5.2 United Nations Security

Management System • Describe the responsibilities of key individuals

(UNSMS) that are responsible for implementing the UN
Security Management System (UNSMS).
Section 1.5.3 Responsibility for UNMO

Safety and Security • Explain security arrangements for UNMO.

Section 1.5.4 Application and • Describe personal peacekeeper security

Implementation measures.

Annex A UN Security Management

System Policy Manual

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

61
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo peacekeepers provide security at the trial of those
accused in the killing of the Military Observers in Mongwalu on 13 May 2003. 19 February 2007. UN Photo by Martine Perret.

Section 1.5.1 Safety and

Recommended Course »
Security
It is recommended
Overview
that you complete
Normally unarmed, UNMO are vulnerable the BSAFE course.
to harassment, attack, and hostage-taking. Available from:
They represent a soft target for belligerents <https://training.dss.
seeking visibility, recognition, or otherwise un.org/course/category/6>.
attempting to influence peace operations.

62
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

Section 1.5.2 United Nations Security Management System

(UNSMS)
Military personnel do not fall under the United Nations
Security Management System (UNSMS). Heads of police Safety and Security »
and military components are responsible for the security • Safety: Protection against
arrangements of their personnel and units. Heads of police and accidental events
military components also work closely with Security Advisors in • Security: Protection
the mission area in support of their plans and policies. against intentional
Depending on the mission, UNMO can fall under the Force damages

Commander (military component) or be treated as a staff

member or expert on a mission where they are integrated into the civilian UNSMS strategy. Also,
because many UNMO lodge in the local community, they are responsive to area Wardens.

Before we get into the main substance of this lesson, it is important that we understand some key
safety and security terms.

• Safety: Protection against accidental events

• Security: Protection against intentional damages

• Threat: A person or a thing that causes harm

• Risk: The likelihood of a threat occurring as a result of vulnerabilities

• Vulnerability: A weakness that makes one susceptible to harm

Definitions
THREAT RISK
Things that could Likelihood of being harmed
harm us by THREAT and impact of it

Vulnerability: a weakness which makes one susceptible to harm

Figure 1.5.1

UNMO are soft targets for belligerents seeking visibility, recognition, and influence on peace
operations. UNMO may be deployed in isolated team sites and hence are vulnerable to harassment and
attacks by belligerents and other criminal or terrorist groups.

63
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

These definitions are important in that they are the baseline for safety and threat security analysis
and planning mitigation measures.

Possible Threats

• Armed conflict • Civil unrest

• Terrorism • Kidnapping/hostage

• IED • Hazards

• Crime • Epidemic diseases

A threat is a person or a thing that causes harm. Categories of threats within the mission area may
include the following:

• Armed conflict — organized violence by groups

fighting each other; indirectly affects the UN and
other non-involved parties

• Terrorism — violence by individuals or groups

against civilians or other non-combatant targets;
terrorism affects the UN indirectly or directly;
example: Extremist attacks

• Crime — illegal activities undertaken for economic

or personal gain; may or may not involve violence;
indirectly or directly affects the UN; example:
Theft and robbery

• Civil unrest — organized demonstrations or

unauthorized disturbances to public order;
example: Rioting and looting

• Hazards — natural events, such as earthquakes,

extreme weather, large-scale industrial accidents,
A United Nations vehicle drives through the
and vehicle accidents village of Alaimbata that was burnt to the ground
during civil unrest in Timor-Leste. 27 August
Note the other threats. In the current environment, the
2007. UN Photo by Martine Perret.
threat of IEDs and kidnappings has been on the rise.

Section 1.5.3 Responsibilities for UNMO Safety and Security

Safety and security for UNMO and properties of the UN is the responsibility of the host government,
UNDSS under UNSMS, and the individual UNMO.

The inherent function of every state is to maintain order and protect persons under its jurisdiction.
Consequently, the host government has lead responsibility for the safety, security, and protection of UN
personnel and property. There may instances where the host government will be unwilling or incapable/
unable to take that responsibility, especially during post-conflict or conflict situations.

64
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

The UN reinforces or, in certain cases, supplements the host government's capacity for safety and
security with the UNSMS.

Host Government — Primary

The host nation's responsibility for the safety and security of UN personnel during certain periods
may be lacking due to partial or total breakdown of law and order. Also, the unwillingness of the host
nation's security forces to provide safety and security for UN personnel can be problematic.

In these cases, the responsibility for the security and protection of United Nations personnel and
other individuals is covered by the UNSMS.

UNSMS — Reinforces

UNMO fall under the UNSMS. The UN has the duty as an employer to reinforce and supplement the
capacities of the host nation under UNSMS.

The goal of the UNSMS is to achieve a robust and cohesive system to enable the conduct of United
Nations activities while ensuring the safety, security, and well-being of personnel and the security of
United Nations premises and assets.

The UNSMS:

• Enables conduct of UN work

• Ensures safety, security, and well-being of staff

• Ensures security of UN buildings and assets

To establish and maintain operations in an insecure and unstable environment, UNSMS adopts the
approach of "how to stay" as opposed to "when to leave" as a tenet. The UN has made progress in
achieving risk acceptable in the operational environment. The focus is to stay and deliver.

Principles

The three principles of UNSMS are:

• Determination of acceptable risk

• Provision of adequate and sustainable resources to manage the risk to personnel and their
eligible dependents, premises, and assets

• Development and implementation of security policies and procedures

Policies, procedures, standards, and arrangements of the UN Security Management System are
applicable to the following personnel:

• UN personnel and volunteers

• UN temporary staff: International or local recruitment (except locally recruited paid by the
hour)

• UN military and Police, Military Observers, Military Liaison Officers, Military Advisors, and staff
officers

• Military members of national contingents or members of Formed Police Units not deployed with
their contingent or unit

65
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

UNSMS

11
Figure 1.5.2

Figure 1.5.2 shows a diagram of the UNSMS structure. Note that the structure is both in-country/
mission and supported by UNHQs. We will go into more details in this lesson on the in-country structure.

The Security Risk Management (SRM) Process has replaced the General Threat Assessment
process. In short, the SRM is a more holistic and common-sense approach process to mitigating risk.
Also, it helps missions use resources more effectively by focusing on mitigating the proper levels of
risks. In short, the process you see in Figure 1.5.3 is executed using the following rationale:

• For a given place and time period

• In a specific operational context UNSMS

• An analysis of specific threats and our
vulnerability to them is done

• An evaluation of their impact and

likelihood to happen

• Indicates a certain risk level

• Steps are taken to address and

mitigate the risks

Figure 1.5.3
12
66
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

Security Risk Management

(SRM)

Figure 1.5.4
13

Figure 1.5.4 describes the SRM concept. In the SRM process, likelihood and impact are assessed
on a 1–5 scale and combined in a risk matrix as shown above. SRM is the process of identifying future
harmful events ("threats") that may affect the achievement of United Nations objectives. It involves
assessing the likelihood and impact of these threats to determine the assessed level of risk to the
United Nations and identifying an appropriate response. Security Risk Management involves four key
strategies: Controlling, avoiding, transferring, and accepting security risk. Security risks are controlled
through prevention (lowering the likelihood) and mitigation (lowering the impact).

The SRM evaluates the five categories of threats: Armed conflict, terrorism, crime, civil unrest, and
hazards — natural and human-made.

UN Structure and Key Actors

Figure 1.5.5 describes some of the key personnel responsible for UNSMS in a UN mission.

Note that the green-blue structure is the individuals and cells appointed by Under-Secretary-General
for Safety and Security to support and execute the UNSMS in a specific area/mission. The yellow
structure comprises many UN country and mission leadership. Let's look at some of the responsibilities
of these key individuals.

Designated Official:

• Normally the senior UN official in the mission

• Country, the area where the UN is present

• Senior UN official normally appointed

• Responsible for security of UN personnel and premises

• The Secretary-General delegates authority to make security-related decisions

67
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

UN Structure and Key Actors

Chief Security Advisor- DESIGNATED OFFICIAL (DO)
works for DO & SMT
And reports to UNDSS

SECURITY MANAGEMENT TEAM (SMT)

MISSION
(HoA, DSRSG, FC, CIVPOL, others)
SECURITY
SECURITY STRUCUTRE
CELL WITH DSS POSTS
AREA SECURITY
INTEGRATED
COORDINATORS & ASMT

WARDENS WARDENS

UN Personnel UN Personnel

Figure 1.5.5

Principal/Chief Security Advisor/Security Advisor:

• Principal Security Advisor (PSA)/Chief Security Advisory (CSA)/Security Advisor (SA) — trained
UN security professional appointed by Under-Secretary-General for Safety and Security

• Advises and reports to the Designated Official (DO)

• Maintains technical line of communication to UNDSS

Area Security Coordinator (ASC):

• Appointed by the DO

• Office separated from capital/HQs

• Develops area-specific security plans

• Appoints Wardens to areas of responsibility

• Coordinate and manage security arrangements

• Part of the Area Security Management Team (ASMT)

• Advises on security matters

68
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

Field Security Coordinator-Officers:

• Implements Security Risk Management, crisis readiness, and security preparedness for
locations in the country and area

• Prepares country security plans and listings of personnel

• Establish contacts with law enforcement agencies for best protection

• Conduct security surveys of residences and premises

Wardens:

• Regularly inform personnel regarding security arrangements and residual security risks

• The critical link between DO/ASC and staff

• Assists in implementing security plans

As UNMO, you will most likely have dealings and relationships with Wardens.

Section 1.5.4 Application and Implementation

Contingent-Supplement Plans

UNMO deployed in Non-Permissive Operative Environments (NPOE) may face dangerous and life-
threatening situations. Unstable security situations do not permit UNMO to perform their functions
effectively and independently. If for operational reasons UNMO must deploy, the approval has to be from
HOMC/FC in consultation with UNDSS. Also, UNMO must only be deployed after a risk assessment and
analysis has been done and reviewed by leadership.

Under certain circumstances, risks can be mitigated by co-locating with military or police contingents
that can provide armed escorts and security. UNMO should not be deployed in small team sites in
isolated areas; instead, they should be co-located with military or police contingents.

The Force Headquarters should have SOPs with directives specifying which headquarters and unit
have this responsibility. Force headquarters should also ensure that SOPs clearly designate specific
units to provide a Quick Reaction Force (QRF): Planning, training, and rehearsals with UNMO, Sector
Headquarters, contingents, and medical and aviation assets.

The decision to arm an UNMO cannot be taken lightly, as it may undermine their credibility with
stakeholders. UNMO can be armed in exceptional situations on the approval of USG DPO. Armed UNMO
must follow formal conditions:

• Training and directives on the use of firearms

• Understanding of the Rules of Engagement (ROE)

• Conditions for the use of force

• SOP on carrying of arms

• Security of the firearms

69
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

UNMO-Essential

The UNSMS mandated that all security policies, procedures, standards, and other security
arrangements are applicable to UNMO. This includes security briefing, evacuation and contingency
planning, and warded systems.

UNMO should be aware that there are procedures, policies, and nested plans for security; some
examples include:

• Country security plan

• Area security plan — in-country plan

• Local security plan — in-country and area plans

• Office security plan

• UN Field Security Handbook; UNSMS policy

There is mandatory UN security training. All UN personnel must complete Basic Security in the Field
(BSAFE). There is a suite of DSS courses tailored for select personnel and mission.

Peacekeepers Can Do
Abide by UNSMS policies, guidelines,
directives, plans, procedures, and training
requirements
Required for all UN personnel

UNDSS bsafe Course

Basic Security in the Field

Travel Request Information Process

17
TRIP stands for Travel Request Information Process. TRIP lets UN personnel process mandatory
security clearances online. A security clearance is an official requirement. Unforeseen events may
endanger staff or family members.

A security clearance is required by the UN to know where staff members are and assist
them in times of danger or emergency. UN personnel need security clearances for official travel,
regardless of security Level. Usually, clearance will be automatic; however, when the DO needs to
control the movement of personnel, security clearances may be carried out manually.

The UN also recommends using TRIP for personal travel. The UN can then provide security support
if needed. TRIP can provide UN personnel with updated information and where to reach personnel if
security measures are needed.

70
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

Security Guidelines »
Here are a few safety and security measures and
guidelines for UNMO.

• Receives security briefings before

deployed

• Living residence assessed by a security

officer

• Be included in UNSMS security plans

United Nations Organization Mission in the Democratic • Maintain liaison with Wardens
Republic of the Congo peacekeepers from South Africa
provide security at the trial of those accused in the killing
• Contingency plan exercise with
of the UN Military Observers in Mongwalu on 13 May 2003. evacuation force
19 February 2007. UN Photo by Martine Perret.
• Communication equipment functional

Figure 1.5.6 shows you an example of

an individual's evacuation bag, also known
Security Plan
as a "Go Bag" or "Run Bag". These items
will be of use in a time of an emergency
or evacuation.

Safe and Defensive Driving

Every year many UN personnel are

killed and injured on the road. The UN has
implemented measures to mitigate risks.
Here are a few:

• Mission driving test

• Training and maintenance

• Defensive driving behaviour

20
Figure 1.5.6
• Driving rules and regulations

Prevention of Diseases

In the area of safety, here are the diseases that may be in the area of operations that require
the same risk analysis and a way ahead to mitigate those risks. Proper measures, immunization, and
hygiene practices are essential in reducing the risks.

• Ebola

• Malaria

• Cholera

• Typhoid

71
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

Ivan Šimonovic, former United Nations Assistant Secretary-General for Human Rights, visits South Sudan to assess the human rights
situation in the country. Mr. Šimonovic arrives in Juba from the African Union Summit in Addis Ababa. He is seen here undergoing
Ebola screening upon arrival. 1 February 2015. UN Photo by JC McIlwaine.

Summary

You should retain the following from this lesson; let us review these topics:

• Threat is that which causes harm; and risk is the likelihood of a threat occurring as a result of
vulnerabilities, a weakness that makes one susceptible to harm.

• The host nation is responsible for the safety and security of UN personnel; if it is lacking, the
UN implements the UN Security Management System (UNSMS).

• Area Security Coordinators (ASC) and Wardens are key security individuals UNMO should be
familiar with and may coordinate with in the field.

• UNSMS determines acceptable risk, provides sustainable resources to manage risk to UN

personnel, and develops and executes security policies and procedures.

• HOM, FC, and individual UNMO have the responsibility to ensure that UNMO deployed in today's
complex PKO environments mitigate risks to UNMO.

• Mitigate risks by co-locating with military or police and travelling with armed escorts and
security.

• UNMO have an individual responsibility for safety and security and must complete mandatory
UNDSS training.

72
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

Annex A: UN Security Management System Policy Manual »

UNITED NATIONS SECURITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Policy Manual

Chapter

II
UNITED NATIONS SECURITY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

SECTION Framework of Accountability for

the United Nations Security
B Management System

Date: 04 February 2011

This is quoting from UN guidance.

Further Reading »
To read the entire document, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

73
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. True or False: Military personnel do not 6. Which of the following parties is

fall under the UNSMS. responsible for the safety and security of
UNMO and properties of the UN?
A. True
B. False A. Host government
B. Under-Secretary-General for Safety
2. _____ is the protection against and Security under the UN Security
accidental events. Management System (UNSMS)
A. Safety C. UNMO themselves
B. Security D. All of these
C. Threat
D. Risk 7. The _____ evaluates the five categories
of threats: Armed conflict, terrorism,
3. _____ is a person or a thing that causes crime, civil unrest, and hazards.
harm. A. Security Risk Management (SRM)

A. Safety B. standard operating procedure (SOP)

B. Security C. Liaison Officer (LO)

C. Threat D. Memorandum of Understanding (MOU)

D. Risk
8. List the three principles of the UN
4. _____ is violence by individuals or Security Management System (UNSMS).
groups against civilians or other non-
combatant targets. 9. The goal of the _____ is to achieve a
robust and cohesive system to enable
A. Rioting
the conduct of United Nations activities
B. Terrorism while ensuring the safety, security, and
C. Looting well-being of personnel and the security
D. Civil unrest
of United Nations premises and assets.
A. host government
5. Examples of _____ include rioting and B. UN Security Management System (UNSMS)
looting.
C. General Assembly
A. armed conflict
D. UNMO themselves
B. terrorism
C. security 10. _____ are natural events, such as
D. civil unrest
earthquakes, extreme weather, large-
scale industrial accidents, and vehicle
accidents.
A. Hazards
B. Armed conflict
C. Terrorism
D. Crime

Answer Key provided on the next page.

74
 LESSON 1.5 | Safety and Security

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. A. True

2. A

3. C

4. B

5. D

6. D

7. A

8. Determination of acceptable risk; Provision of

adequate and sustainable resources to manage
the risk to personnel and their eligible dependents,
premises, and assets; Development and
implementation of security policies and procedures

9. B

10. A

75
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

MODULE
Conceptual Framework
1 Wrap Up

Former Secretary-General Kofi Annan with the Chief Military

Observer of the United Nations Mission in Sierra Leone and the
Force Commander and Deputy Force Commander of the Military
Observer Group of the Economic Community of West African
States at the Presidential Lodge. 8 July 1999. UN Photo by
Eskinder Debebe.

Module 1

At the conclusion of Module 1, a few concluding points are worth noting:

• A range of policies, manuals, guidelines, philosophy, and principles have been developed over time to

create an understanding of United Nations Military Observers (UNMO) operating in UN peacekeeping

missions.

• Nevertheless, the implementation and execution of UNMO in the mission is never straightforward, and

a general understanding and an open, flexible attitude within the United Nations' UNMO conceptual

framework are needed by the leadership, staff, and troops/forces in the employment of UNMO.

• The capabilities of an UNMO can be leveraged to help execute the mandate. It is essential that UNMO

personnel establish working coordination, liaison, and support networks based on this conceptual

framework that will facilitate the planning and execution of UNMO tasks in a United Nations peacekeeping

operation (UN PKO).

• It is important that UNMO have a general understanding of the UN peacekeeping intelligence (PKI) and UN

Security Management System (UNSMS) frameworks.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

76
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

MODULE
At a Glance:
2 Legal Framework

This module conveys to the

UNMO key aspects of the legal
framework governing their
work.

UN Photo by Staton Winter.

Module 2 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Lesson 2.1 International Legal Framework • Apply the main rules of international law

Lesson 2.2 United Nations Peace

that establish the legal framework for peace

Operations-Specific Legal operations, starting with the United Nations

Framework Charter.

Legal Framework Wrap Up • Identify and appropriately respond to

violations of international humanitarian,
human rights, and refugee laws that UNMO
may observe.

• Follow key policies of the Secretary-General

and the Department of Peace Operations that
are binding on all UN mission personnel.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

77
 MODULE 2 | AT A GLANCE: LEGAL FRAMEWORK

Military Observers of the UN Mission in Sudan visited Gumbo village, outside the capital Juba, where recent attacks by an unidentified
armed group resulted in the loss of lives and property. 26 October 2006. UN Photo by Tim McKulka.

Overview
Module 2 empowers UNMO to approach their task
with confidence by providing them an understanding of
the legal authority and underpinning their work while also

setting limits.

Lesson 2.1 provides an overview of fields of general

international law, the UN Charter, and international
humanitarian, human rights, and refugee laws. Lesson 2.2
reflects on aspects of the mission-specific legal framework
that are relevant for UNMO, including Security Council
mandates, SOFA/SOMAs (Status of Forces Agreements/
Status of Mission Agreements), and the related issues
of privileges and immunities, norms on discipline and
accountability, binding norms in peacekeeping policies,
and mission Rules of Engagement.

78
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

2.1 International Legal Framework

This lesson begins

with an overview of how
international law impacts
the work of peacekeepers
regarding their mandated
tasks.

UN Photo by Herve Serefio.

Lesson 2.1 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 2.1.1 Hierarchy of Norms • Apply the main rules of international law
Section 2.1.2 International Human Rights that establish the legal framework for peace
Law (IHRL)
operations.
Section 2.1.3 International Humanitarian
Law (IHL) • Identify and respond to violations of

Section 2.1.4 Main Sources of

international humanitarian law, human rights
International Law law, and refugee law that UNMO may come
Section 2.1.5 International Humanitarian across.
Law: Conduct of Hostilities

Section 2.1.6 Protected Persons Under IHL

Section 2.1.7 Six Grave Violations Against

Children in Armed Conflict
(UNSC Resolution 1612)

Section 2.1.8 Conflict-Related Sexual

Violence (CRSV)

Section 2.1.9 International Refugee

Law

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

79
 LESSON 2.1 | International Legal Framework

Ahmed Himmiche (right), the head of the UN Military Observers group dispatched to Syria, briefs his team on the day's plan in
Damascus. 23 April 2012. UN Photo by Neeraj Singh.

Overview
This lesson begins with an overview of how international law
impacts the work of peacekeepers regarding their mandated tasks.

The term "international law" commonly refers to a body of law that

governs the legal relations between or among states and international
organizations. These training materials look at international law as a
combination of binding law ("hard law") and non-binding law ("soft
law"). Binding law refers to rules that are legally binding and that
states must therefore apply, such as treaty law (i.e. conventions,
agreements, and protocols), as well as customary law. Treaties
ultimately become binding through a process of negotiation, adoption,
and signature, followed by ratification, acceptance, approval, or
accession.

The components of international law most relevant for the work of

peacekeepers are international human rights law (IHL), international
humanitarian law (IHRL), and international refugee law. We end the
lesson with the introduction of the United Nations Charter.

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 LESSON 2.1 | International Legal Framework

Figure 2.1.1

Section 2.1.1 Hierarchy of Norms

At the top of the hierarchy of norms depicted in Figure 2.1.1 are the UN Charter (the "UN's
constitution") and fundamental norms of general international law. Even the Security Council must
respect these norms (and does so in its practice). For instance, a peacekeeping mission could not be
mandated to attack civilians or push back refugees to places where their life is at risk since this would
entail breaches of fundamental norms of international human rights, humanitarian, and refugee laws.

In Lesson 2.1, we are discussing the top two layers of the hierarchy of norms. The remaining
sources of law in this graphic will be discussed in Lesson 2.2.

The Charter of the UN is the founding document of the Organization and the basis of all the
Organization's work. The UN was established to "save succeeding generations from the scourge of war",
and it therefore prohibits force between states, except in self-defence or with Security Council approval.

While the UN Charter does not make explicit reference to peace operations, it is undisputed that the
UN Security Council may establish peacekeeping and special political missions. All UN peace operations
are deployed based on:

• Chapter VI (deals with pacific settlement of disputes) and/or

• Chapter VII (binding measures to respond to breaches of the peace)

Special political missions or observer missions are generally deployed under Chapter VI.
Multidimensional peacekeeping missions, which are often deployed after non-international armed
conflicts, usually have a mandate that invokes Chapter VII. This is done notably to clarify that they may
use force to protect civilians, regardless of whether civilians are threatened by armed groups or (rogue)
state forces.

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Figure 2.1.2

In addition to ensuring peace and security and promoting development, the UN Charter also
commits the UN to promote and encourage respect for human rights. For this reason, all peace mission
personnel must respect human rights. The Policy on Human Rights in Peace Operations also requires
all missions to advance human rights through the implementation of their mandate, even if they do
not have an explicit human rights mandate or human rights component. Example: UNMO developing
a Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR) programme under the mission's mandate
should try to advance non-discrimination between women and men by ensuring that women and girls
associated with armed groups can also benefit from the DDR programme.

Section 2.1.2 International Human Rights Law (IHRL)

International human rights law:

• Protects dignity, freedom, and equality

• Primarily establishes the obligations of states. Non-state armed groups can also abuse
human rights

• Continues to apply during war or other national emergencies

• UNMO must "ensure that human rights are promoted, respected, protected and advanced"
(UNMO Guidelines).

Human rights are universal. Everyone is entitled to the same fundamental rights. There are some
groups who may have specific needs or are particularly at risk of discrimination and rights violations.
These have been given specific rights protections (e.g. children, women, indigenous people, persons
with disabilities).

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IHRL applies at all times, including during armed conflicts and other national emergencies (because
that is when human rights are most under threat). Examples of human rights especially relevant to
peacekeeping include the right to life, right not to be tortured, right not to be discriminated against, and
rights to food, water, health, and education.

First and foremost, states must respect human rights and protect their population from threats by
private actors (e.g. by diligently arresting and prosecuting perpetrators of rape). It is widely accepted
today that armed groups with effective control over territory also have human rights obligations. In any
case, UN practice considers that armed groups that commit atrocities such as summarily executing,
raping, torturing, or looting engage in human rights abuses.

UN policy also accepts that UN missions and personnel must respect human rights in their work.
Example: The UN would not be allowed to discriminate on the basis of religion in its hiring practices or
use excessive force in violation of the right to life.

Section 2.1.3 International Humanitarian Law (IHL)

Discussion »
Who is entitled to human
rights, and whose
responsibility is it to
protect them?

Answers should include

that every human being
enjoys human rights and
that state authorities are
primarily responsible for
Wide view of the Human Rights Council special session on the deteriorating human
upholding them.
rights situation in the occupied Palestinian territory, including East Jerusalem. 18 May
2018. UN Photo by Elma Okic.

International humanitarian law:

• Applies to parties to armed conflict

• Applies to military peacekeepers only as long as engaged as combatants

• Regulates conduct of hostilities and restricts means of warfare

• Protects those who do not or no longer engage in hostilities, including peacekeepers

• Parties must respect and ensure respect for IHL.

IHL must be respected by parties to armed conflict. States' forces fighting each other in an
international armed conflict must respect it. In a non-international armed conflict, the state military
forces and the non-state armed groups involved must abide by IHL.

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Since impartiality is a central principle of

peacekeeping, UN military forces are generally not a
party to the conflict. However, IHL may apply temporarily
to them for as long as they engage as combatants in
armed conflict. Example: A peacekeeping force carries
out an offensive operation against an armed group that
poses a grave threat to civilians.

IHL regulates the conduct of hostilities. Example:

Requiring parties to minimize as far as possible the harm
to civilians not participating in the hostilities. It also
outlaws certain means of war to reduce unnecessary
suffering by civilians or combatants. Example:
Prohibition of the use of any chemical or poisonous
A Red Cross worker assists a South Sudanese
weapons in warfare. returnee arriving in Juba. She is one of the first
among 12,000 returnees to be airlifted and
Parties must respect IHL themselves, and they
received, thanks to joint efforts by the International
ensure that others respect it as well. Example: In Organization for Migration, the UN, and other

accordance with its obligation to ensure respect for IHL, humanitarian agencies, after having spent many
months stranded in the city of Kosti in neighbouring
a state has a duty to prosecute and punish non-state
Sudan. 14 May 2012. UN Photo by Isaac Billy.
armed group members who commit serious violations of
IHL amounting to war crimes.

Some violations of human rights and international humanitarian law are considered so grave by the
international community of states that they are regarded as international crimes, namely war crimes,
crimes against humanity, and genocide.

All states have a duty to prosecute and punish such crimes if committed within their territory.
Furthermore, the international community may set up international tribunals and courts to prosecute
and punish international crimes. Example: In response to international crimes, the Security Council set
up the International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and Rwanda (ICTR). States
also established the International Criminal Court (ICC). The ICC has jurisdiction to pursue international
crimes committed in states that have accepted its jurisdiction (more than 120 countries so far) and in
places that were referred to the ICC by the Security Council (examples: Darfur and Libya).

There are three major categories of international crimes that UNMO should know:

War crimes: Violations of fundamental rules found in the Geneva Conventions or other sources of
IHL entail war crimes on the part of the individuals who commit such crimes. As the name suggests, war
crimes can only be committed in armed conflict.

Crimes against humanity: Where state authorities or armed groups commit inhumane acts such
as murder, rape, and torture in a systematic or widespread manner, this may entail crimes against
humanity. Such crimes typically involve an underlying policy to commit crimes and/or an elaborate
degree of planning at high levels.

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Genocide: In accordance with the 1948 Genocide Convention, killing or in similar ways targeting
members of a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group may amount to genocide. The perpetrators
must act with the "intent, to destroy, in whole or in part, the group, as such". It is not enough to kill
some people because of their religion or race. There must be an intent to annihilate the entire group
globally or in a specific area. The historic example that gave rise to the notion of genocide is the
Holocaust, in which Nazi Germany tried to annihilate the entire Jewish population of Europe.

Figure 2.1.3

The UN Photo shows the entrance to the International Criminal Court in The Hague, which has
prosecuted international crimes committed in mission settings. 19 April 2016. UN7163684 by Rick
Bajornas.

Section 2.1.4 Main Sources of International Law

The content of international humanitarian, human rights, and criminal law is defined by international
treaties that states have voluntarily signed and ratified. Many of the norms have also been practiced
and accepted by states to such a degree that they have become customary law that binds all states.

Apart from explicitly mentioning human rights in the United Nations Charter, states have adopted
nine major human rights treaties. They cover civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights and
protect specific groups such as women, children, or persons with disabilities. Every state in the world
has accepted several of these treaties. All states have also expressed their support for the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights, which was first adopted by the UN General Assembly in 1948. Most if not
at all of the rights in the Universal Declaration can be considered customary law.

International humanitarian law can be found notably in the four Geneva Conventions and its two
Protocols. Serving in our larger, multidimensional peacekeeping missions, the norms applying in non-
international armed conflict (NIAC) are most relevant: The most basic protections in NIAC are laid down
in Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions. Further details are set out in Geneva Protocol II. Fundamental
rules of international humanitarian law have also become international customary law.

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Figure 2.1.4

International criminal law emerged from the practice of the Nuremberg and Tokyo tribunals that
prosecuted major crimes committed during World War II. The principles of international criminal law
they developed have become customary law. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court has
summarized that law in one treaty.

UNMO responsibilities on violations

of human rights and IHL »
(see: Guidelines for UNMO in Peace Operations/
Policy on Human Rights in Peace)

1. Proactively identify concerns.

2. Diligently record information.

3. Report to chain of command, human

rights component, protection of civilians
coordinator (based on SOPs). The United Nations Mission in Liberia (UNMIL) withdrew its
military presence from the country on 8 February 2018,
4. Keep sensitive information confidential. as part of the termination of its mandate scheduled for 30
March 2018. UNMIL was established in September 2003
5. Refer victims to urgent support. to monitor a ceasefire agreement in Liberia, following the
conclusion of the Second Liberian Civil War. A member of
6. Make appropriate intervention to
the Chinese Formed Police Unit deployed with the mission
protect. interacts with a girl of the Steward Camp in Tubmanburg,
the destination of the last long-range patrol the contingent
7. Continue to follow the situation. conducted before the withdrawal. 1 February 2018. UN
Photo by Albert Gonzalez Farran.

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Learning Activity: Identifying Violations

Several local sources provide information to an UNMO patrol in a zone with armed group activity.
Based on the information provided, identify possible violations of:

• International human rights law

• International humanitarian law

• International criminal law

• International refugee law

You must be able to identify typical violations of international human rights law or humanitarian law
when they are observed.

This learning activity provides cases that are based on recurrent realities in the field. You should
assume that you are on patrol in a conflict zone with armed group activity and are meeting with local
persons. Based on the information you receive, you should consider which violations may have occurred.
You should also indicate what course of action you would take in light of the information received.

You should try to visualize that you are on an UNMO patrol in a mission area of operation (AOO) with
armed group activity and are interacting with the local population. In the cases, try to consider which
violations may have occurred and what course of action you would take in the light of the information
received.

Case 1 — Cattle Herding Boy:

"A militia came to steal our cows. We had to flee into the
swamps. They were shooting at everyone. We survived on wild
plants and swamp water."

Violations to consider:

» Intentional attack against civilians (or) indiscriminate attack

» Human rights to life

» Pillaging

» Arbitrary displacement

» Right to housing and freedom of movement

» Human rights to food, water, and health

The information provided by the boy points to the following violations:

• If the militia shot at civilians, this is an intentional attack directed against civilians, amounting
to a war crime, an IHL violation, and a violation of the right to life. If the attackers shot
randomly at both enemy fighters and civilians, this would be an indiscriminate attack (a war
crime that also violates IHL and human rights).

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• The villagers are victims of arbitrary displacement — if systematic or widespread, this can be
a crime against humanity. Being forced to flee from their homes also violates their right to
housing and their freedom of movement (which includes the right not to move).

• The theft of the cattle entails the war crime and IHL violations of pillaging. This places at risk
the villagers' human rights to food and livelihoods. Because they must survive in the swamps,
their right to clean water and health are also seriously under threat. In practice, the denial of
clean water and healthcare might even kill more civilians than the initial attack itself.

According to mission SOPs, UNMO should share information with the chain of command, human
rights component, and protection of civilians coordination structure. Humanitarians can provide support
in follow-ups. UNMO must record the names and contact details of the witness and victims for follow-
ups; however, all measures must be taken to treat info confidentially. Sensitivity needs to be taken
when sharing victims and or witnesses that may be in harm. Sensitivity in these matters should always
be considered, as widely shared info in the mission may leak.

Section 2.1.5 International Humanitarian Law: Conduct of

Hostilities
In their conduct of hostilities, parties to a conflict must abide by basic principles to minimize harm to
civilians and civilian objects such as homes, hospitals, places of worship, etc. The protection of civilians
in the conduct of hostilities builds on three basic principles.

The basic principles of IHL are the following:

• Distinction: In order to ensure respect for and protection of the civilian population and civilian
objects, parties to the conflict always have to distinguish between the civilians and
combatants and between civilian and military objects. Operations must only be directed
against military objects. Indiscriminate attacks that do not distinguish between civilians and
combatants are prohibited. Example of violation: Shelling an entire village with heavy artillery
without trying to distinguish between military targets and civilian homes.

• Precaution: In the conduct of military operations, constant care must be taken to spare
civilians and civilian objects. All feasible precautions must be taken to avoid and, in any
event, to minimize incidental loss of civilian life, injury to civilians, and damage to civilian
objects. Examples of violations:

– Before launching an assault, no effort is made to verify that the target is a military target.

– Soldiers take their position too close to civilians, placing them at risk of getting in the
crossfire.

• Proportionality: Loss of life and damage to property incidental to attacks must not be excessive
in relation to the concrete and direct military advantage expected to be gained. This means
that when considering a target, the damage to civilians and their property cannot be
excessive in relation to the military advantage gained. Proportionality is not an issue
if the target is purely military and no civilians are nearby. Example of violation: Bombing a
private home housing dozens of civilians to kill one ordinary soldier who took shelter there.

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Case 2 — Local Journalist:

"The army prohibits humanitarians from

giving food aid to villagers from a particular
ethnic group. They claim that some
food will be diverted to rebel fighters.
Malnutrition increased drastically, but we
are not allowed to report it publicly."

Violations to consider:

» Rapid and unimpeded passage of

humanitarian relief for civilians in need

» Human right to food, including freedom

from hunger

» No discrimination on the grounds of

ethnicity
Civilians often bear the brunt of conflict. This UN
photo shows civilian homes that were burnt down
» War crime of intentional starvation of during armed conflict and an elderly civilian injured.
civilians 28 May 2011. UN Photo by Stuart Price.

» Human rights to freedom of expression,

media, and information

The information provided by the journalist does lead to the following violations:

• IHL requires parties to conflict to facilitate the rapid and unimpeded passage of humanitarian
relief for civilians in need. They may take reasonable measures to monitor the distribution and
prevent diversion to enemy combatants. However, they must not deny food aid altogether to
a group of civilians.

• The human right to food requires the state to ensure that its population is free from hunger. If
it cannot provide enough food for its own population, it must call for humanitarian assistance
and allow such assistance to be delivered.

• The violations are aggravated by the fact that food aid is denied by discriminating against an
entire ethnic group and placing it under collective suspicion of supporting the rebels.

• If the intention is to starve civilians from that ethnic group, this would amount to a war crime
and, if systematic or widespread, a crime against humanity.

• Denying journalists from reporting about the situation delivery violates the journalists' right to
freedom of expression and media. It also denies the general population freedom of information.
This is also a violation since the censorship serves no legitimate purpose but seeks to cover up
other human rights violations.

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UNMO must duly report this information up their chain of command and ensure that it is shared
with human rights and humanitarian coordination components. An entire civilian population is at serious
risk if the discriminatory denial of food aid can persist. The mission would probably advocate with the
government to lift restrictions on reporting, not least since such reporting is essential to inform donors
about urgent humanitarian needs.

Case 3 — Captured Rebel Fighter:

"The army used heavy artillery to shell our military field

hospital. Many of my wounded comrades were killed. Those
who survived were captured and were not given any medical
care by the army."

Violations to consider:

» Attack directed against hospital/place to care for wounded and

sick

» Attack directed against protected persons hors de combat (out

of battle)/wounded

» Duty to collect and care for the wounded and sick

» Human rights to life, health, and physical integrity

More specifically:

• IHL prohibits attacking hospitals and other places that take care of wounded or sick persons.
This applies even if the hospital in question treats only enemy combatants and no civilians.
Directing an attack against enemies who are wounded or can, for other reasons, no longer fight
(persons hors de combat) is prohibited. The shelling of the enemy's hospital may therefore
entail a war crime. In contrast, it would have been allowed to take control of the hospital and
arrest all the wounded fighters kept there.

UN Photo shows aid distribution

after Cyclone Nargis. Initially, one
affected country denied humanitarian
organizations access to people in need,
which the UN condemned. 16 May 2008.
UN Photo by UNHCR.

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• The failure to provide medical care to those captured

violates IHL. Common Article 3 of the Geneva
Conventions that applies to non-international armed
conflicts requires parties to the conflict to collect and
medically care for all wounded and sick, including
enemy combatants.

• Along with the violations of IHL, the army would have

also violated the human rights to life and health of
the wounded fighters. Human rights pertain not only
to civilians but also to soldiers and other combatants.

UNMO should report the information received to their chain

of command and the human rights component. The mission
would also inform the International Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC), which regularly conducts visits to interned non- UN Photo shows a wounded Sudan People's
state fighters. The UNMO should also advocate on the spot with Liberation Army soldier in South Sudan.
International humanitarian law also protects
the commander of the internment facility where the captured
soldiers, not only civilians. 20 May 2008. UN
rebels are kept, urging them to comply with IHL and providing Photo by Tim McKulka.
urgent medical care to the captured fighters.

Section 2.1.6 Protected Persons Under IHL

Under IHL, any person who is not or is no longer directly participating in hostilities shall be considered
a civilian unless he or she is a member of armed forces or groups. In case of doubt, the individual or
group of individuals shall be considered civilian and afforded the protection owed to civilians until
determined otherwise. Civilians may be in possession of arms without necessarily being combatants.
Under international humanitarian law, civilians who are in possession of arms, for example, for the
purpose of self-defence and the protection of their property but who have not been or are not currently
engaged in hostilities, are entitled to protection.

Members of armed forces or armed groups that are hors de

combat also enjoy protection under international humanitarian Who is Protected? »
law. Notably, those who can no longer fight because they are • Civilians not directly
wounded and sick must not be attacked but collected and participating in hostilities
medically cared for.
• Medical and religious
Prisoners of war (POWs) and interned/detained armed group personnel of armed forces
fighters enjoy special protection. They must be treated humanely • Wounded, sick, and others
in all circumstances and not be subjected to any humiliating and hors de combat
degrading treatment. Unlike regular soldiers who become POWs,
• Prisoners of war and interned
captured rebel fighters may be prosecuted for their participation
armed group fighters
in the armed conflict. However, this must be done before "a
regularly constituted court, affording all the judicial guarantees • Peacekeepers (unless

which are recognized as indispensable by civilized peoples" (see engaged in military

Common Art. 3 of the Geneva Conventions). hostilities)

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Peacekeepers, regardless of whether they are

military, police, or civilians, are protected under
international law. Directing attacks against them may
amount to a war crime. An exception applies only for as
long as military peacekeepers engage in hostilities.

Case 4 — Girl Associated with Armed Group:

"For the young people here, it is just

natural to join the rebels. When I was 14
years old, they gave me a gun and told me
to shoot a deserter." United Nations Military Observer vehicles based in
Torit try to get loose from the mud as an armed
Key areas/violations to consider: cattle herder watches. UN Photo by Tim McKulka.

» Grave violation of children's rights: Armed Civilians »

Recruitment In many mission settings, armed
civilians are a common sight, and them
» Optional Protocol on Children and Armed
carrying weapons like assault rifles
Conflict
does not necessarily mean that they are

» War crime of enlisting children under 15 participants in hostilities between the

years parties to a conflict.

» War crime of murder

» Summary execution

» Human rights to life, integrity, and education

Here are more detailed notes:

• The Convention on the Rights of Children and Optional Protocol on Children and Armed Conflict
says that no armed group or state forces may recruit or use children under 18 years. Enlisting
children 15 years amounts to a war crime. It does not matter if a girl joined "voluntarily";
children are legally unable to provide free and informed consent to join an armed group.

• The United Nations considers child recruitment to be one of six grave violations of children's
rights in armed conflict, not least since it places the affected children's rights to life, physical
and mental integrity, and education at serious risk.

• Summarily executing a deserter amounts to an IHL violation and war crime of murder. However,
considering that the girl was used as a child soldier without her valid consent, she should
not be prosecuted herself. Instead, children who were associated with armed groups must
be provided with special reinsertion programmes that provide them with the education and
comprehensive care necessary to reintegrate into civilian life.

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UNMO should report to their chain of command and the mission's child protection advisors. To the
extent that relevant contacts exist, they should remind the rebel commanders concerned that children
must not be recruited, and individuals involved may incur responsibility for war crimes.

Section 2.1.7 Six Grave Violations Against Children in Armed

Conflict (UNSC Resolution 1612)

Six Grave Violations »

1. Killing or Maiming

2. Recruitment or use

3. Abduction of children

4. Sexual violence

5. Attacks on schools and hospitals

6. Denial of humanitarian access

Right: A young girl who was recruited into a rebel force and is seeking reinsertion support from the United Nations. It is
important not to assume that only boys are recruited by armed actors. Support must also be extended to girls who were
associated with armed groups. Girls may have been fighters. In many contexts, girls may also have been associated with armed
groups as porters or cooks or subjected to forced marriage and sexual enslavement. 11 July 2017. UN Photo by Jennifer Moreno
Canizales.

No matter what local laws and traditions may indicate, the United Nations Convention on the Rights
of the Child considers children to be all girls and boys under the age of 18. The only exception is if
local laws stipulate an age higher than 18, in which case the higher age becomes the guideline for UN
peacekeepers.

Security Council resolution 1612 (2005) recognizes six grave violations against children during
armed conflict. The violations were selected due to their obvious contravention of international law and
severe consequences on the lives of children and their ability to be monitored and quantified. The six
grave violations are:

• Killing and maiming of children: Any action resulting in death or serious injury of children,
including shelling, crossfire, cluster munitions, and landmines

• Recruitment and use of child soldiers: Any person below 18 years who has been recruited by
armed forces or armed groups as fighters, cooks, porters, and spies and for sexual purposes

• Abduction of children: The unlawful removal, seizure, capture, apprehension, taking, or enforced
disappearance of a child either temporarily or permanently for the purpose of any form of
exploitation of the child

• Rape and other forms of sexual violence against children: Any violent act of a sexual nature to
a child, including forced pregnancy and enforced abortion

• Attacks against schools and hospitals: Physical attacks or threat of attacks on buildings, including
targeted or indiscriminate attacks

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• Denial of humanitarian access to children: Blocking free passage or timely delivery of

humanitarian assistance to persons in need (including children)

The Secretary-General reports every year to the Security Council on state forces and armed groups
who engage in grave violations against children during armed conflict. State forces that commit grave
violations and take no measures to improve the protection of children are excluded from contributing to
UN peace missions.

Case 5 — School Teacher:

"Armed fighters occupied our school. They took some of the

girls with them. We could not stop them, or they would kill us."

Key areas/violations to consider:

» Grave child rights violation: Attacks against schools

» Conflict-related sexual violence: Rape and sexual enslavement

» Freedom from torture

» Human right to life

» Non-discrimination based on gender

» Protection of schools as a civilian object

» Human right to education

Here are more detailed notes:

• Special care must be taken in military operations to avoid damage to civilian buildings dedicated
to religion, art, science, education, or charitable purposes, and historic monuments. Armed
actors occupying a school are placing the building at risk because it may become a military
target. For this reason, UN policy prohibits UN forces from occupying school buildings under
any circumstances.

• In many cultural contexts, people describe sexual contact only in very indirect terms. Given
the overall circumstances, the teacher's reference to the armed group "taking girls with them"
suggests these are abduction for purposes of rape and/or sexual enslavement. This amounts
to a war crime, grave violation against children, and an IHL and human rights violation. It also
constitutes a case of conflict-related sexual violence, which UN missions must work to prevent
as a matter of priority.

• Under human rights law, rape by state forces or armed groups controlling territory may amount
to rape, which is a serious form of gender discrimination. These abductions will have a drastic
impact on the human right to education in the area, as parents will keep their children out of
school to protect them.

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UNMO must report these cases to their chain of command and also the mission's human rights
component, women protection advisors, and protection of civilians coordinators. If victims of sexual
violence can be identified, they must be urgently referred to humanitarian agencies or state authorities
that can provide medical, psychosocial, and other necessary attention. Confidentiality must be strictly
ensured in order not to stigmatize victims in their community. It also needs to be considered whether
the teacher who provided the information needs protection from reprisals by the armed group involved.
The mission needs to consider what steps it can take under its Comprehensive Protection of Civilians
Training Materials (CPOC) mandate to end the occupation of the school and abductions of girls.

Section 2.1.8 Conflict-Related Sexual Violence (CRSV)

Incidents or patterns of sexual violence in conflict or post-

conflict situations, which include: Rape, sexual slavery,
forced prostitution, forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization,
trafficking, or any other form of sexual violence of comparable
gravity against women, men, girls, or boys

Commencing with Security Council resolution 1325 (2000), the Security Council has advanced a
women, peace, and security agenda to increase the effective participation of women in peacemaking and
conflict prevention efforts. Under the broader umbrella of this agenda, it has also made the prevention
and response to conflict-related sexual violence (CRSV) a priority for peace missions and the United
Nations in general.

CRSV refers to incidents or patterns of sexual

violence in conflict or post-conflict situations, which
include rape, sexual slavery, forced prostitution,
forced pregnancy, enforced sterilization, or any
other form of sexual violence of comparable gravity,
against women, men, girls, or boys. Such incidents
or patterns occur in and are linked to conflict or
post-conflict settings or other situations of concern.
It can have a direct or indirect nexus with an armed
conflict or political strife. The link with conflict
may be evident in the profile and motivations of
Maria Do Rosario Racoes (right), United Nations Integrated
the perpetrator(s); the profile of the victim(s); the
Mission in Timor-Leste Head of the Vulnerable Persons Unit
climate of impunity/weakened state capacity; the of UN Police in Dili, talks to a victim of rape and witness of
cross-border dimensions; and/or the fact that it a murder. 20 August 2007. UN Photo by Martine Perret.

violates the terms of a ceasefire agreement.

Although women and girls continue to be those primarily affected by CRSV, not least due to patterns
of gender discrimination and inequality predating the conflict, boys and men are also victims of CRSV.

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Section 2.1.9 International Refugee Law

• 1951 Refugee Convention

– Fear of persecution due to race, religion, political opinion, etc.

– International protected status

– Protected under UNHCR mandate

– Refugee rights

• 1969 African Refugee Convention

– Refugees also persons fleeing armed conflict

• 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees

– Refugees also persons fleeing internal conflicts and generalized violence

When governments are unwilling or unable to protect their citizens, individuals may suffer such
serious violations of their rights that they are forced to flee their country and seek safety in another
country. Since, by definition, the governments of their home countries no longer protect the basic rights
of refugees, the international community has to step in to ensure that their basic rights are respected.

The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees is the foundation of international refugee
law. The term "refugee" under the Refugee Convention refers to persons who have to flee their country
due to a "well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership
of a particular social group or political opinion". Individuals suspected of crimes against humanity are
excluded from refugee status.

Fleeing a country where an armed conflict is taking place qualifies a person only as a refugee if
specific requirements are met (notably evidence of individual "well-founded fear of being persecuted").
However, regional instruments have expanded the scope of the refugee definition. Under the 1969
African Refugee Convention, refugees are also those who have to flee "events seriously disturbing public
order" such as armed conflict.

For Latin America, the Cartagena Declaration on Refugees expands the concept to also include
persons who flee internal conflicts and generalized violence in their country.

Refugees are generally civilians, and the mission must hence protect them under its CPOC mandate.
In addition, peacekeeping operations are often tasked with the creation of conditions conducive to the
voluntary, safe, dignified, and sustainable return or local integration of refugees and internally displaced
persons.

Case 6 — Refugee Woman:

"They are forcing us to go home. But our government will

harshly punish us as soon as we cross the border. Our political
police often rapes women who are deported."

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 LESSON 2.1 | International Legal Framework

UNMO must urgently report this information to their chain of command, the human rights component,
and the humanitarian country team; UNHCR must be informed so that they can advocate with the
government to stop what amounts to a violation of refugee law and potentially an international crime.

Key areas/violations to consider:

» Freedom from torture (in the form of rape)

» Prohibition of non-refoulement under the 1951 Refugee

Convention and Convention against Torture

» Deportation as a war crime or crime against humanity

The following are the violations in more detail and should be considered:

• The refugee is at a real risk of rape and other arbitrary punishment if deported to their country
of nationality. Rape by state agents regularly amounts to a form of torture.

• The country that plans to deport them is violating the fundamental principle of non-refoulement.
Under the 1951 Refugee Convention, countries may not expel or return (refouler) a refugee
in any manner whatsoever to the frontiers of territories where his life or freedom would be
threatened on account of his race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group,
or political opinion. Similarly, the Convention against Torture prohibits states from expelling,
returning, or extraditing a person to another state where there are substantial grounds for
believing that he would be in danger of being subjected to torture (e.g. rape by state agents,
as in this case).

• Forced displacement of the persons concerned by expulsion from the country without grounds
permitted under international law may amount to the war crime of deportation (if committed in
armed conflict) and/or a crime against humanity (if systematic or widespread).

Rights of Refugees

Refugees enjoy a special status and related rights under international law. Since they have lost
the protection of their home country, which has persecuted them, they are under the protection of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights.

Refugees exist around the world. UN

Photo shows refugees in the Balkans.
1 March 1999. UN Photo by Roger
LeMoyne.

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 LESSON 2.1 | International Legal Framework

Rights of refugees include, for instance:

• The right not to be subjected to refoulement

• No discrimination due to race, gender, religion, and social/origin

• Freedom of religion

• Right to acquire property

• Access to courts

• Public education

• Minimum treatment and assistance

• Freedom of movement

Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs)

Internally displaced persons (IDPs) may have been displaced due to armed conflict, generalized
violence, violations of human rights, and natural or human-made disasters. Unlike refugees, they have
not crossed an international border but remain in their own country.

The protection of IDPs and other affected populations within their own country is primarily the
responsibility of national authorities. Unlike refugees, IDPs do not enjoy a special legal status under
international law. However, the international community has a role to play in promoting and reinforcing
efforts to ensure protection, assistance, and solutions for IDPs. UNHCR generally considers them to be
of concern to its mandate, and the mission will often make special efforts to protect IDP sites under its
POC mandate.

IDPs keep their human rights and their rights as

citizens of the country. For instance, IDPs maintain
Internally Displaced Persons »
their citizen's right to vote in elections. Therefore, • Forced to flee (e.g. due to war or
the state has to make arrangements that they can natural disaster)
vote at the site of their displacement.
• Have not crossed an international
In 1998, the UN Representative of the Secretary- border
General on IDPs issued the Guiding Principles on
• No special international status. The
Internal Displacement. The principles, which have
home state must protect them.
been repeatedly endorsed by the international
community of states, summarize binding legal
• Keep human rights and rights as
citizens (e.g. right to vote)
obligations that can be found in international
humanitarian and human rights law. • Protection reinforced by:

The African Union has adopted the Kampala – UN Guiding Principles on

Convention on Internal Displacement in Africa, which Internal Displacement
further reinforces the protection of IDPs. – AU Convention on Internal
Displacement in Africa

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 LESSON 2.1 | International Legal Framework

Summary

Key takeaways for this lesson include the following. Let us review these topics:

• IHRL, IHL, and refugee law are key parts of the legal framework governing UN peace operations.
They inform important aspects of UNMO's works.

• Human rights are a core pillar of the UN; the UN Charter commits to promoting universal
respect for human rights. Peacekeepers must recognize and respond to human rights violations
and abuses by others and must respect international law in their own activities.

• IHL applies to armed conflict, setting limits on the means and methods of combat. It protects
the civilian population and people who are not or no longer part of the conflict, e.g. the wounded
or peacekeepers.

• The rights of refugees and IDPs are reinforced by international documents.

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Optional Learning Activity »

Two members of the women's detachment of the guerrilla fighters army have a short rest during a stop in a village. 1 January 1971.
UN Photo by Van Lierop.

An armed group has often attacked refugees, looting their

property and sometimes abducting young women and girls.

The armed group lives in a village along with civilians of the

same ethnic background. The members generally do not wear
uniforms.

The state security forces are planning to launch operations to

neutralize the group.

How should the operations be conducted to comply with

international law?

These elements should be identified:

• The armed group is committing serious IHL violations and human rights abuses. These may
entail international crimes, including the war crime of looting and, for the abductions, enforced
disappearance of persons, rape, and sexual enslavement.

• The armed group violates the principle of precaution because it is setting up positions close to
civilians and fails to distinguish themselves through uniforms. However, these violations do not
absolve the state forces from respecting IHL itself.

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 LESSON 2.1 | International Legal Framework

• The situation is of special concern to the mission under its mandates on human rights,
protection of civilians, child protection, and conflict-related sexual violence.

• The state authorities have duties under human rights and IHL to protect the population in its
territory — including refugees — from such violations. Pursuing an operation to neutralize the
group, the state seeks to implement this duty.

The operation must be conducted in compliance with IHL and human rights so that it does not place
other civilians at risk, in particular:

• The principle of precaution to minimize harm for the civilian villagers. In practice, state forces
should gather intelligence to know where exactly armed group fighters live and where civilians
live.

• The principle of distinction of civilians and military targets. In practice, the armed force could
surround the village, demand a surrender of the group, and, failing that, give civilians a
chance to evacuate before launching their operations. Those exiting the area would have to be
promptly screened to ensure no armed group fighters can escape.

• The principle of proportionality to ensure that civilian losses do not outweigh the military
advantage gained. Security forces should not use explosive weapons with a large and imprecise
impact radius in their operations (e.g. large mortars or heavy artillery), given that they may
incidentally kill a disproportional number of civilians.

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End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. _____ law refers to rules that are legally 7. Under international humanitarian law
binding, and _____ law is considered (IHL), any person who is not or is no
non-binding. longer directly participating in hostilities
shall be considered:
A. Hard; soft
B. International; hard A. hors de combat, regardless of whether he
or she never participated in the conflict
C. Soft; hard
B. a participant in the armed conflict,
D. Soft; international
regardless of whether he or she is no
2. True or False: International human longer participating in the conflict
rights law (IHRL) does NOT apply at all C. a civilian, unless he or she is a member of
times.
armed forces or groups
A. True D. a prisoner of war (POW)
B. False
8. List the six grave violations against
3. List the violations of human rights and children in armed conflicts.
international humanitarian law that
are so grave that they are regarded as 9. Which of the following defines
international crimes. "refugees" as persons who have to flee
their country due to a "well-founded
4. The _____ is the foundation of fear of being persecuted for reasons of
international refugee law. race, religion, nationality, membership
of a particular social group or political
A. 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of
opinion"?
Refugees
A. The 1951 Convention Relating to the Status
B. 1969 African Refugee Convention
of Refugees
C. 1984 Cartagena Declaration on Refugees
B. The Cartagena Declaration on Refugees
D. None of these
C. The 1969 African Refugee Convention
5. Which of the following provides the D. None of these
most basic protections during non-
international armed conflicts (NIACs)? 10. The Security Council has advanced a
women, peace, and security agenda
A. International Criminal Tribunals for Rwanda
under which resolution?
(ICTR)
A. Resolution 1325
B. Protocol V of the Geneva Conventions
B. Resolution 1612
C. International Criminal Tribunals for the
C. Resolution 1515
former Yugoslavia (ICTY)
D. Resolution 1682
D. Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions

6. List the three basic principles of

international humanitarian law (IHL)
that parties to a conflict must follow.

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. A

2. B. False

3. War crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide

4. A

5. D

6. Distinction, precaution, and proportionality

7. C

8. Killing or maiming; Recruitment or use; Abduction of children;

Sexual violence; Attacks on schools and hospitals; Denial of
humanitarian access

9. A

10. A

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON
United Nations Peace

2.2 Operations-Specific Legal

Framework

Peacekeepers are expected

to carefully read and
understand the mandates,
agreements, policies, and
directives relevant to their
work.

UN Photo by Herve Serefio.

Lesson 2.2 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 2.2.1 Security Council Mandate • Confidently apply the peacekeeping-specific

legal framework, including rules of key UN
Section 2.2.2 Agreement with Host State
policies.
(SOMA/SOFA)
• Be empowered to insist on essential privileges
Section 2.2.3 Authority to Use Force
and immunities that peacekeepers enjoy
Section 2.2.4 UN Policy Framework: so as to protect their work while also being
Secretary-General Polices aware of the legal framework to ensure their
and Bulletins accountability, good conduct, and discipline.

Section 2.2.5 UN Policy Framework:

DPO‑DOS Policies and

Guidelines

Section 2.2.6 Peacekeeping Intelligence:

Legal Limits

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

A Zambian peacekeeper from the United Nations Mission in Sudan walks in front of an armoured patrol in the volatile region of Abyei,
central Sudan. United Nations Military Observers and peacekeeper patrols have been steadily expanding their reach throughout the
Abyei area in a concerted drive to increase patrol and observation activities. 30 May 2011. UN Photo by Stuart Price.

Overview
Apart from general international law, peacekeeping
missions and their activities are also governed by a
peacekeeping-specific legal framework that includes the:

• Security Council resolutions and mission

mandates contained therein

• Status of Forces or Status of Mission Agreements

between the UN and host state

• Agreements between the UN and troop- or

police-contributing countries

• Secretary-General and UN Department of Peace

Operations (DPO) policies

• Rules of Engagement and Directives on the Use

of Force

• Mission-specific SOPs and directives

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

Figure 2.2.1

This legal framework shapes UN peace operations and their activities, including the work of UNMO.

Peacekeepers are expected to carefully read and understand the mandates, agreements, policies,
and directives relevant to their work. Compliance is mandatory for all peacekeepers, irrespective of
whether they are military, police, or civilians.

Peacekeepers must know about essential privileges and immunities that protect them in their
work while also being aware of the legal framework to ensure their accountability, good conduct, and
discipline.

Let us now look at the mission-specific legal framework.

Building on the discussion of the UN Charter and international humanitarian, human rights, and
refugee laws in Lesson 2.1, Lesson 2.2 focuses on the peacekeeping-specific legal framework, including
relevant aspects of the following:

• Security Council mandate

• Status of Forces/Mission Agreement (SOFA/SOMA)

• Agreement or Memorandum of Understanding of the United Nations with Troop and Police
Contributors (TCC/PCC-MOU)

• UN peacekeeping policies

• Mission Rules of Engagement (ROE) and Directive on the Use of Force (DUF)

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

Section 2.2.1 Security Council Mandate

Every peacekeeping operation
begins with the Security Council
adopting a resolution that establishes
the mission. The Council seeks to
establish a mission with the consent
of the host state. Depending on the
mission's mandate and role, it will
want the consent of the parties to the
conflict.

The Security Council resolution

sets out the mandate of the mission,
i.e. the tasks assigned to it, including
any explicit authorization to use
force. Mandates, or tasks, differ
from mission to mission. The range The UN Photo shows a session of the UN Security Council, which sits in New
of mandated tasks differs between York. 9 December 2013. UN Photo by Paulo Filgueiras.

peace operations based on the

conflict environment, challenges Security Council Mandate »
on the ground, and other factors.
• Highest legal basis for the deployment of any mission
Security Council mandates may also
• Outlines the tasks and responsibilities that the Council
set cross-cutting thematic tasks for
expects the mission to accomplish
all missions, e.g. the prevention of
conflict-related sexual violence.

Resolutions that authorize the deployment of a peace operation also establish the maximum
strength of the uniformed components (military and police). The Security Council mandate is typically
established for a fixed period (usually one year), after which the Council may renew it. At this stage, the
Council will review the authorized strength and make adjustments as deemed necessary.

Almost always before establishing a peacekeeping operation, the Security Council requests the
Secretary-General to prepare a report setting out the functions, tasks, and parameters of the proposed
operation. The Secretary-General's report is then considered by the Security Council before it adopts a
resolution.

Typical Mandates Requiring UNMO

UNMO work in a variety of missions, ranging from small Military Observer missions to multidimensional
peacekeeping missions that require military expertise such as:

• Observing and verifying violations of ceasefires, armistices, separation of forces and withdrawal
agreements, etc.

• Monitoring the security and humanitarian situation in the area of operation

• Observing areas contaminated by mines and UXOs

• Assisting with and monitoring Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration processes

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

Figure 2.2.2

Multidimensional peacekeeping missions

Examples of How Protection
are regularly assigned protection mandates.
Mandates Overlap or Differ »
Specialised civilian staff work on these
mandates, including human rights officers, • If state authorities order the closure

protection of civilians advisors, child protection of a newspaper for criticizing the

advisors, and women protection advisors. government, this violates the human

However, these mandates remain whole of rights to freedoms of expression, media,

mission responsibilities to which the military and information. However, in the absence

components and its UNMO must contribute. of physical violence, the CPOC mandate

Notably, UNMO must identify, record, and share is not triggered. However, if rogue state

information on violations with their civilian agents proceed to physically assault the

colleagues in the mission. journalists, the mission may intervene

under its CPOC mandate, including by using
Protection mandates may overlap, as they
force where necessary.
complement and reinforce each other:
• If an armed group traffics underage girls
• The human rights mandate seeks
for purposes of sexual exploitation, this
to protect the entire population and
amounts to abuse under the human rights
the full range of human rights. The
mandate. The mission must exercise its
mission will use peaceful means such
CPOC mandate to protect the girls. Such
as reporting and other advocacy
sexual violence against children is of
or capacity-building measures to
concern to both the children protection and
advance this mandate.
CRSV mandate.

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

• The protection of civilian's mandate is narrower in that it is only concerned about physical
violence and protects civilians only (as opposed to, e.g. detained fighters). However, it goes
deeper than the human rights mandate because it authorizes the mission to use force where
necessary to protect civilians.

• Child protection is focused on the six grave violations against children in conflict (see Lesson
2.1).

• Conflict-related sexual violence requires a nexus between the sexual violence and the conflict
(e.g. domestic violence would typically not be covered).

Section 2.2.2 Agreement with Host State (SOMA/SOFA)

UN Photo by Ky Chung. UN Photo by Gitika Noyes.

The UN Photos show the signing ceremonies of the UNAMI SOMA and the UNMIS SOFA.

Figure 2.2.3

Before the deployment of a peace operation, the UN and the host government sign a Status of
Forces Agreement (for peacekeeping missions) or Status of Mission Agreement (for special political
missions). These establish the legal framework that regulates the status of the mission and its members
in the host state, including privileges and immunities for UN personnel (see Figure 2.2.3).

Notwithstanding their privileges and immunities, the peacekeeping operation and its members
remain under an obligation to respect local laws and regulations. Peacekeepers respect and follow the
national laws of the host country. Failure to abide by host state laws will have consequences to the
individual, the T/PCC, and the mission's standing.

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

SOFA/SOMAs usually guarantee that:

• UN premises in the host country are inviolable and subject to the exclusive control and authority
of the UN, which controls access to all its premises.

• UN equipment and vehicles are immune from search and seizure.

• The UN has the right to unrestricted communication throughout the host country.

• The UN may disseminate information on its mandate to the public, which is under its exclusive
control and cannot be the subject of any form of censorship.

• Mission personnel have functional immunity for official acts (see the next section).

• Mission personnel enjoy freedom of movement in the country (see the next section).

The mission may conclude additional agreements with the host country. Example: In accordance
with the SOP on Detention by Peacekeepers, a mission that detains persons under its mandate and
wants to hand them over to the host state must first conclude a legal agreement guaranteeing that
the host state treats such persons humanely and provides the mission with access to follow-up their
situation.

Important privileges and immunities under SOMA/SOFA include:

• Functional immunity from arrest, detention, and seizure

• Immunity from legal process for official actions and words

• Inviolability of papers and documents

• Correspondence by code, courier, and sealed bags

• Wearing a military uniform and fly the UN flag

• Unhindered entry and departure (international staff)

• Freedom of movement within the mission area

For United Nations interest; not personal benefit. It can be waived by United Nations
without prejudice.

Case Study Discussion: Roadblock

Unarmed UNMO, accompanied by an armed UN force protection platoon, are conducting a long-
range patrol to implement the mission's mandate to verify reports of ceasefire violations.

An armed group has set up a roadblock and refuses to let the peacekeepers pass. The fighters at
the roadblock argue that the peacekeepers have not sought prior authorization to access the area under
its control.

» What are the peacekeepers legally allowed to do under their

mandate?

» May they force their way through the roadblock?

» When may they use force against the armed group?

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

The following issues should emerge:

• The armed group impedes the UNMO's freedom of movement throughout the country, which is
guaranteed under the SOFA/SOMA. Missions do not have to seek prior authorization before
moving around the country, as this would undermine their capacity to effectively conduct
observation tasks in the mission area. In the case at hand, the UNMO will be unable to verify
whether the ceasefire has been violated or not.

• In principle, the host government has a duty

under the SOFA/SOMA to ensure the mission's
safety, security, and freedom of movement in the
country. The mission might therefore insist that
it takes measures to dislodge the armed group
and remove the illegal roadblock.

• However, the host government may be unable

or unwilling to remove the roadblock. Under its
authority to use force in defence of its mandate,
the mission is legally entitled to use all necessary
means to force its way through the checkpoint.
In case the armed group fighters use force
Following attacks in the centre of Mali, the United
against mission personnel, the force protection Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization

platoon can rely on its authority to use force Mission in Mali responded with more frequent and
robust foot and vehicle patrols. 31 May 2019. UN
in self-defence to protect themselves and the
Photo by Gema Cortes.
unarmed UNMO.

• While the foregoing indicates what the mission is legally entitled to do under its mandate, there
are strategic and political implications of pursuing a course of action involving the use of force
against one of the conflict parties. The mission's Rules of Engagement should therefore provide
clear guidance on how mission personnel should react where their freedom of movement is
denied. In cases of doubt, further guidance should be sought from the chain of command if
reasonably possible under the circumstances.

Freedom of Movement

SOFA/SOMAs provide that peacekeeping operations shall enjoy freedom of movement

throughout the territory of the host state. Such freedom is essential for implementing mission
mandates, for instance, regarding UNMO monitoring tasks or the prompt, free, and unimpeded delivery
of humanitarian assistance.

While the language slightly varies between SOFAs/SOMAs, the UN will not accept requirements of
prior authorization or notification for its own movements. However, there may be reasonable
exceptions, e.g. for movement by aircraft for air traffic control purposes.

In many situations, armed groups pose the greatest threats to the mission's freedom of movement.
The SOFA/SOMA legally requires the host state authorities to ensure safety, security, and
freedom of movement, notably by clearing illegal roadblocks and checkpoints.

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

The mission may also assert freedom of movement under its authority to use force in
defence of the mandate. This legal authority exists regardless of whether armed groups or rogue
government officials deny freedom of movement.

UNMO's Functional Immunity

• As experts on mission for the United Nations, UNMO enjoy functional immunity for official acts
as per the:

– Status of Forces Agreement/Status of Mission Agreement

– 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunity of the United Nations

• Immunity can be waived by the Secretary-General (notably for prosecution by the contributing
country).

• Disciplinary action may be taken by their home state.

• Sending state has a legal commitment to the UN to ensure discipline and accountability.

Immunity never means impunity for UN peacekeepers.

UNMO are considered United Nations experts on mission. They are protected as such by the SOFA/
SOMA and the 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunity of the United Nations. UNMO enjoy
functional immunity from the legal process for any words spoken or written or actions taken in their
official capacity. Example: Exercising their disarmament verification mandate, UNMO discover a weapons
cache that the host state tried to hide. Due to the UNMO functional immunity, the host government is
prohibited from arresting and prosecuting the UNMO, e.g. under charges of espionage.

Functional immunity serves to protect the work of the United Nations from interference and reprisals.
It does not guarantee impunity for individual criminal wrongdoing. In particular, the immunity of UN
personnel can be waived by the Secretary-General in the interest of justice and the United Nations.
Example: UNMO severely mistreat a civilian until he reveals information about a hidden arms cache. By
waiving their functional immunity, the Secretary-General allows their home state to prosecute them.

UNMO are under the United Nations chain of command. If they fail to abide by conduct and discipline
standards, their home country may subject them to disciplinary action.

The United Nations and troop- and police-contributing countries (T/PCCs) conclude legal agreements
regulating the conditions of the contribution. Under these agreements, the contributing countries pledge
to uphold discipline in case of misconduct and ensure accountability for any criminal conduct. Where
a contributing country fails to abide by this commitment, the UN may repatriate relevant contingents.
The Security Council has made such repatriation mandatory in cases of sexual exploitation and abuse
(SEA): SC resolution 2272 (2016) requires the United Nations to replace all units of a T/PCC with units
from another country in case the T/PCC personnel face SEA allegations and the T/PCC in question has
not taken appropriate steps to:

• Investigate the allegation;

• Hold the perpetrators accountable; or

• Inform the Secretary-General about the progress of its action taken

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

Contributing countries therefore have a strong incentive to ensure accountability so that individual
wrongdoing will not undermine their contribution to peacekeeping.

Section 2.2.3 Authority to Use Force

ROE/DUF set out when the mission has
authority to use force. This authority includes the
use of force in self-defence. The use of force
beyond self-defence depends on the mandate.
Multidimensional missions may be authorized to
use force in defence of the mandate, including
asserting their freedom of movement.
Furthermore, they regularly are mandated to use UN Photo shows a ski patrol and an observer post of the

all necessary means to protect civilians against United Nations Disengagement Observer Force (UNDOF),
established by the Security Council in 1974 to maintain
physical violence. In some cases, the mandate
the ceasefire between Israel and Syria and supervise the
may further expand the authority to use force. disengagement of forces. 29 February 2008. UN Photo by

For instance, the United Nations Organization Thomas Hatzl.

Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic

of the Congo (MONUSCO) has the mandate and
authority to use force to neutralize armed groups
in support of the host state.

ROE/DUF also establishes limits on the use of force. Police components must always use force within
the limits of international law enforcement and human rights standards. Similarly, ROE for the military
component usually restrains the use of force. However, the military may engage in combat-level military
force where necessary to effectively implement mandates involving the use of force authority. In such
situations, military peacekeepers are bound primarily by the rules of IHL on the conduct of hostilities.

The mission has a responsibility to make full use of authority to use force to the extent appropriate
and necessary to effectively implement their mandate. UN military or Police personnel that refuses to
comply with a lawful order to use force may be held accountable for insubordination. At the same, UN
uniformed components may be held accountable if they use excessive force beyond what international
human rights or humanitarian law permit. Findings of excessive force have rarely, if ever, been made
against military peacekeepers.

Rules of Engagement

Guidance as to when and how the mission may use force can be found in the Rules of Engagement
that apply to the military component and the Directives on the Use of Force for the police component.
ROE and DUF provide mission-specific guidance that builds on the mission's Security Council mandate,
international human rights, and humanitarian law, as well as DPO policy guidelines on the use of force.
ROE/DUFs not only cover force in the narrow sense of the word (i.e. kinetic force) but also forcible
measures such as detention or searches and seizures of materials.

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

ROE commonly include:

Rules of Engagement »
• The use of force (Rule 1)
• Guidance on authority and limits
• The use of weapons systems (Rule 2)
to using force and the basis for
• Authority to carry weapons (Rule 3) accountability
• Authority to detain, search, and disarm • Covers use of kinetic force,
(Rule 4) detention, search, and seizure

• Reactions to civil actions or unrest (Rule 5) • Abides by human rights at all times

The ROE and DUF are approved by the Under- • When military exceptionally
Secretary-General for Peacekeeping. The Force engaged in hostilities, must
Commander and Police Commissioner are responsible also comply with international
for making sure that all personnel under their humanitarian law

command understand and follow the ROE and DUF.

T/PCCs are not permitted to modify ROE or DUF according to national interpretation(s), nor are T/
PCCs allowed to impose any caveats on the authorizations to use force that are contained in the ROE or
DUF without formal consultation with UNHQ and the express written agreement of DPO. T/PCCs must
prepare and train personnel on ROE/DUFs.

In principle, the military component may apply combat-level force whenever it has authority to use
force and such combat-level force becomes necessary. Examples:

• The military component uses mortars and grenade launchers to defend itself against a large-
scale, sustained attack by an armed group.

• The military component deploys helicopter gunships to protect civilians living in a city that is
being attacked by an armed group.

• To defend its mandate and assert freedom of movement, UN forces launch a military assault to
dismantle an armed group's illegal roadblocks.

The Secretary-General's Bulletin on the Observance by United Nations Forces of International

Humanitarian Law recognizes the UN military remains bound by IHL rules and principles forces if they
actively engage as combatants in armed conflict. As discussed in Lesson 2.1, these principles include:

• Distinction between civilians and military targets

• Precaution to minimize the risk of military operations for civilians

• Proportionality between the anticipated military gain and the incidental harm to civilians or
civilian objects

As a matter of policy, United Nations forces must further limit their use of force (restrained force
as the default). This is done to prevent an escalation of violence, minimize harm to civilians the UN
wants to protect, and avoid UN troops becoming combatants so that they lose their protected status
under IHL. According to the Guidelines on the Use of Force by Military Components in UN Peacekeeping
Missions, the military component should, wherever possible:

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

• Resolve a potentially hostile confrontation by means other than the use of force (e.g. negotiation
or de-escalation strategies using communication).

• Use a graduation of force beginning with an authoritative physical presence, progressing to

non-deadly force, and the use of deadly force to protect life.

Please note that UN Police (e.g. Formed Police Units) will only use a restrained level of force and
must never be used for operations requiring military force.

Figure 2.2.4

Section 2.2.4 UN Policy Framework: Secretary-General Polices and

Bulletins
The Secretary-General has promulgated policies and regulations that bind the entire organization,
including all peace operations. Compliance with these policies is mandatory for all peacekeepers.
Examples include:

• In accordance with the SG Bulletin on Sexual Exploitation and Abuse, UN personnel are
prohibited from having any sexual activity with children under 18 years or any exchange of
money, employment, goods, or services for sex.

• Under its Human Rights Screening Policy, the United Nations will not select or deploy for
service any individual who has been involved in violations of international human rights or
humanitarian law.

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

• As discussed above, military peacekeepers must abide by IHL as long as they are engaged
as combatants in armed conflict.

• For the Human Rights Due Diligence Policy, see the following section.

Section 2.2.5 UN Policy Framework: DPO-DOS Policies and

Guidelines
The United Nations Department of
Peace Operations has adopted several
Department of Peace Operations-
Department of Operational Support
policies and guidelines that regulate
(DPO-DOS) Policies and Guidelines »
in a legally binding manner the
functioning of peace operations and
• Military Observers in United Nations Peacekeeping
Missions
define the roles and responsibilities
of personnel. Policies set out, • Accountability for Conduct and Discipline in Field

for instance, what peacekeeping Missions

operations and individual personnel • Detention by United Nations Peacekeepers

must do to protect human rights • Human Rights in UN Peace Operations and Political
and civilians. Other policies establish Missions
detailed rules governing sensitive • Protection of Civilians in UN Peace Operations
areas such as detention, the use of
Compliance with UN policy is mandatory for all
force, or accountability for conduct
peacekeepers.
and discipline.

Familiarity and compliance with these UN policies are mandatory for all peacekeepers. Peacekeepers
must also familiarize themselves with policies and guidance documents relevant to their work. The work
of UNMO, for instance, is regulated notably by the Guidelines on Military Observers in United Nations
Peacekeeping Missions.

Human Rights Due Diligence Policy on UN Support to Non-UN Security Forces

Prevents legal liability for aiding violations and protects UN reputation and impartiality.

The Human Rights Due Diligence Policy (HRDDP) is binding for the entire United Nations (not just
peacekeepers). It was established by the Secretary-General, and the Security Council has repeatedly
endorsed it.

According to the HRDDP, support to non-UN security forces cannot be provided:

• "Where there are substantial grounds for believing there is a real risk of the receiving entities
committing grave violations of international humanitarian, human rights or refugee law,

• Where the relevant authorities fail to take the necessary corrective or mitigating measures".

All UN entities that plan to or are already providing support to non-UN security forces must therefore
conduct a risk assessment that involves providing or not providing such support. This assessment needs
to consider the risk of the recipient entity committing grave violations of international humanitarian law,
human rights law, or refugee law. Furthermore, the UN must consider whether there are any mitigation
measures that can reduce the risk of violations (e.g. by increasing training or excluding problematic
units from support).

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

Application of HRDDP »

» Applies to all types to support to

states and regional organizations
(exceptions for human rights and
mediation work)

» Supporting entity must initiate

risk assessment and monitor
compliance

» Risk mitigation and Police officers of the United Nations Operation in Côte d'Ivoire
visit the Gendarmerie d'Abobo during the fact-finding mission
engagement, not blunt
of the International Commission of Inquiry. Vitit Muntabhorn,
conditionality Suliman Baldo, and Reine Alapini Gansouis lead the International
Commission, and it was set up by the UN Human Rights Council
» Suspension or withdrawal of to investigate the alleged abuses and rights violations committed
in Côte d'Ivoire following the 28 November 2010 presidential
support is the last resort
elections. 11 May 2011. UN Photo by Basile Zoma.

It serves to ensure that the UN does not support or collaborate with host state elements that are
involved in grave violations of human rights, IHL, or refugee law. The policy serves to protect the
United Nations from legal liability for inadvertently aiding violations committed by others. Distancing
the UN from state forces involved in grave violations also protects the UN's reputation and perceived
impartiality.

Applications of HRDDP

Any support provided by the UN to non-UN security forces must follow the HRDDP. Relevant support
provided by peace operations includes the conduct of joint operations, planning support, sharing of
intelligence, training, capacity building, mentoring, technical cooperation, and financial support. Certain
areas are exempted:

• Training and engagement on IHL and human rights

• Mediation-related support (e.g. transporting officers to peace negotiations)

• Medical Evacuation

The HRDDP also covers support provided to regional organizations, for instance, support to African
Union peace and security operations such as the African Union Mission in Somalia (AMISOM).

UNMO may often contribute to HRDDP implementation:

• UNMO information about the conduct of state security forces will help inform the initial risk
assessment prepared by a military component wishing to support national forces.

• UNMO information may also help in the design of mitigatory measures. For instance, UNMO
may have identified certain national units or commanders as being particularly prone to engage
in violations, leading the UN to insist these units and commanders are excluded from support.

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

• Where the military component ends up providing support, it must ensure that the conduct of
the supported national forces is closely monitored, and UNMO may once again be assigned
to that task. In case such monitoring finds that grave violations persist, the mission may
temporarily suspend or entirely withdraw the support provided.

Section 2.2.6 Peacekeeping Intelligence: Legal Limits

• Must fully respect human rights

• No clandestine activities

• No exposure of sources to harm

• Must remain independent

• Cooperation with states subject to conditions

Figure 2.2.5

Summary

Key takeaways regarding the peacekeeping-specific Legal Framework include:

• UNMO must understand the mission's mandate.

• SOFA/SOMA protects freedom of movement, privileges, and (functional) immunity of UNMO.

Functional immunity protects UN personnel but does not give them impunity.

• Rules of Engagement establish limits on the use of force. ROE for peacekeeping missions are
usually more restrained than ROE for other types of military operations in conflict zones.

• The Secretary-General and the DPO-DOS adopt policies, which contain binding rules that all
peacekeeping personnel must know and abide by.

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

Optional Learning Activity »

The mission's mandate authorizes it to take "all necessary measures to protect civilians from
physical violence, within capabilities and without prejudice to the responsibility of the host state to
protect its population".

A local community has captured three 16-year-olds whom they accuse of being fighters of an
armed group that is involved in crimes against humanity, including extrajudicial killings and rape.

The town's mayor fears that otherwise, riots may break out, and the three teenagers will be lynched.
He wants the mission to send blue helmet soldiers, detain the three persons, and put them on
trial.

» What is the mission legally allowed to do under its protection

of civilians mandate?

» What is the mission not legally entitled to do?

You should think about whether this situation and the proposed course of action are covered under
the mission's protection of civilians mandate.

The following points should emerge:

Civilians: The population of the town is civilians not participating in hostilities. If they are indeed
armed fighters, the 16-year-olds are not civilians (although they are children under 18 years). However,
they could be wrongly accused of being armed group fighters, so the mission should try to protect them
in any case.

Threat of physical violence: The local community faces a clear threat of physical violence involving
crimes against humanity, IHL violations, and human rights abuses such as extrajudicial killings and
rape. Note that the threat does not have to be imminent. The captured 16-year-old teenagers also face
a risk of violence (summary execution).

Protection without prejudice to the responsibility of the host state: The mission should assess
whether the local police can manage the situation. However, it is likely that the police cannot deploy
with the necessary strength and urgency and that the mission must react.

All necessary measures: Under its CPOC mandate, the mission can use force to protect civilians.
Using graduated force, it would first seek to show authoritative physical presence to contain the situation.
The mission may also apprehend and temporarily detain the teenagers (including protecting them).
However, the CPOC mandate does not give the mission prosecutorial or judicial powers. These remain
the sovereign prerogative of the host state. Instead, the mission would seek to promptly hand over the
teenagers to the local justice authorities provided the latter can guarantee to treat them humanely (the
revised Standard Operating Procedures on Detention by UN Peacekeepers set a time limit of 96 hours to
implement a risk assessment and the subsequent handover).

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. True or False: Compliance with UN policy 6. True or False: Under its Human Rights
is mandatory for all peacekeepers, Screening Policy, the United Nations
irrespective of whether they are military, will NOT select or deploy for service
police, or civilians. any individual who has been involved in
violations of international human rights
A. True
or humanitarian law.
B. False
A. True
2. True or False: Protection mandates, B. False
such as human rights mandates and
protection of civilian's mandate, may 7. Human Rights Due Diligence Policy
overlap, complement, and reinforce each (HRDDP) is _____.
other.
A. binding for the entire United Nations
A. True B. non-binding for the entire United Nations
B. False C. not applicable to the entire United Nations
D. only applicable to peacekeepers
3. _____ are legal agreements signed by
the UN and the host state that regulates
8. Which of the following is true about
the privileges and immunities of the
UNMO gathering intelligence on armed
mission and its personnel.
groups?
A. Security Council resolutions
A. UNMO are prohibited from clandestine
B. General Assembly resolutions
activities.
C. Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs)
B. UNMO must fully respect human rights.
with troop- and police-contributing
C. UNMO must remain independent.
countries
D. All of these
D. Status of Forces/Mission Agreements
(SOFAs/SOMAs) 9. _____ establish UN peacekeeping
operations and set out the mandates of
4. _____ set out when the mission has the missions.
the authority to use force and establish
A. Security Council resolutions
limits on the use of force.
B. General Assembly resolutions
A. Security Council resolutions
C. Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs)
B. Rules of Engagement and Directives on the
with troop- and police-contributing
Use of Force (ROE and DUFs)
countries
C. Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs)
D. Status of Forces/Mission Agreements
with troop- and police-contributing
(SOFAs/SOMAs)
countries (T/PCCs)
D. Status of Forces/Mission Agreements 10. Who approves the Rules of Engagement
(SOFAs/SOMAs) and Directives on the Use of Force (ROE
and DUFs) for a UN peace operation?
5. True or False: Troop- and police-
A. The Secretary-General
contributing countries (T/PCCs)
are allowed to modify the Rules of B. The Head of Mission
Engagement (ROE) and the Directives on C. The Under-Secretary-General for
the Force (DUFs). Peacekeeping

A. True D. None of these

B. False

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 2.2 | United Nations Peace Operations-Specific Legal Framework

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. A. True

2. A. True

3. D
4. B

5. B. False

6. A. True

7. A

8. D

9. A

10. C

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

MODULE
Legal Framework
2 Wrap Up

View of a United Nations Military Observer of the United

Nations Authority in Cambodia from the United States
giving a balloon to a child of the Krung-Brau tribe in
Ratanakiri. 3 March 1993. UN Photo by John Isaac.

Module 2

Take away from Module 2 includes:

• International and national humanitarian legal frameworks impact and guide peacekeeping in the field.

• Bodies of international law provide special protection for those members of communities that are most

vulnerable: Women, children, and refugees.

• Peacekeepers must monitor and report violations of human rights and international humanitarian law (IHL).

• Peacekeepers do not have impunity from laws and are held accountable for unlawful activities.

• Peacekeepers can ask their command, Legal Officers, and protection of civilians (POC) officers for assistance.

• Legal frameworks govern human rights, international humanitarian law, and peacekeeping generally.

• Peacekeepers must comply with IHRL and IHL themselves and monitor/report abuses by others.

Peacekeepers will be held accountable for individual actions.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

MODULE
At a Glance:
3 UNMO Operational Framework

The objective of this

module is for peacekeepers
to understand the key
operational framework
for UNMO operating in UN
peacekeeping operations.

UN Photo by Justyna Melnikiewicz.

Module 3 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Lesson 3.1 Basic UN Investigation and • Better understand the fundamental skill
Verification Techniques
sets and techniques required for UNMO to
Lesson 3.2 Liaison and Coordination successfully operate in a UN mission.

Lesson 3.3 Negotiation and Mediation • Explain the basic operating procedures when
Lesson 3.4 Interviewing Techniques dealing with media and language assistance.

Lesson 3.5 Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft • Be able to describe the basics of equipment/
Recognition
vehicle identification, mission and UNMO
Lesson 3.6 Disarmament, Demobilization, safety/security, and UNMO reporting.
and Reintegration (DDR)
• Be able to describe basic explosive ordinance
Lesson 3.7 Mines, Explosive Remnants
of War, Improvised Explosive threats and safety procedures.
Devices, and Crater Analysis

Lesson 3.8 Language Assistants

Lesson 3.9 Media Relations

Lesson 3.10 Procedures for Reporting

Operational Framework Wrap Up

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 MODULE 3 | At a Glance: UNMO Operational Framework

The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in Palestine observes the maintenance in Palestine of the ceasefire and assists
the parties to the armistice agreements in the supervision of the application and observance of the terms of those governments. A
corps of UN Military Observers is available to assist in investigating any complaints. UN jeep entering Government House grounds, the
mission headquarters, from the Jordan side. At the left foreground is a Jordan check-post that the local defence police maintains. At
the barrier, a UN Security Officer. 1 May 1959. UN Photo by JG.

Overview
Reading »
Module 3 provides an overview of the operational
It is recommended that you
framework and skills related to UNMO tasks, as well as
read the document, "United
a general understanding of how UNMO can effectively
Nations Peacekeeping Operations
operate in a UN PKO using these general principles and
Principles and Guidelines"
techniques in the lessons.
(also known as the Capstone
While this module focuses on the tactical level skills
Doctrine) and the United Nations
for employment, the lessons in total provide a general
Military Observers Handbook
overview of how UNMO assist the mission leadership in
and Guidelines on UNMO in
the accomplishment of the mandated tasks.
Peacekeeping Operations 2017.
This module will help us understand the operational Available respectively from:
framework that includes lessons on the employment, <https://www.un.org/ruleoflaw/
techniques, and skillsets required of an UNMO. files/Capstone_Doctrine_ENG.
pdf>; <https://digitallibrary.
un.org/record/208639?ln=en>;
and <http://dag.un.org/
handle/11176/400586>.

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON
Basic UN Investigation and
3.1 Verification Techniques

This lesson will provide

UNMO/peacekeepers with
an understanding of the
procedures and techniques
involved in conducting
verifications and inspections
in a complex United Nations
peacekeeping operational
environment.

UN Photo by Neeraj Singh.

Lesson 3.1 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.1.1 Definition of Verification • Explain the definition, aim, and phases of
the verification/inspection process in a UN
Section 3.1.2 Phases of a Verification/
peacekeeping operation.
Inspection
• Define and identify the types of investigative
Section 3.1.3 Investigations
procedures.
Section 3.1.4 Evidence

Annex B Lesson 3.1 Learning Activity:

Basic Investigation and Verification

Techniques Role Playing Exercise

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

United Nations Mission in the Sudan. 12 November 2010. UN Photo by Mark Garten.

Current UN peacekeeping missions, especially those

mandated to address multidimensional challenges in a
deteriorating or fragile security environment, present
complicated and often dangerous working environments
for UN Military Observers (UNMO).

In such environments, UNMO are required to conduct

comprehensive verifications and inspections to verify
information concerning armed individuals or groups in
the mission area. They are also required to investigate
incidents such as firing violations, construction
upgrading, entries into the demilitarized zone (DMZ),
hostage-taking, hijacking, abductions or missing
persons, assaults or murders, CRSV, grave violations
against children, and other human rights violations or
any other matter directed by the mission. UNMO are
frequently required to work alongside or in conjunction
with other UN components (military contingents, police,
and civilians) in the field when conducting investigation
and verification tasks.

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

In short, this lesson will help familiarize you with the importance of verifications and inspections,
how to perform them, and the different types of investigations.

Section 3.1.1 Definition of Verification

Here is the definition of verification. In short,
it is the process of establishing the truth or
validity of something.

The aim of verification is to support the

mandate or agreement through an inspection
and/or assessment process to establish
compliance or non-compliance with that
agreement.
Captain Giorgio Battisti of Italy, UNMO at Observation Post
The authority to conduct verifications
SIERRA, observing two Israeli Mirage jets in tight formation
will be defined in the mission mandate. (white streak, upper centre), which overflew approximately
Executing verification tasks will depend on an 5 kilometers inside the Syrian airspace from 30 (grados)
to 210 at 09:48 hours GMT. 26 April 1973. UN Photo by
agreement between the belligerent forces and the
Yutaka Nagata.
peacekeeping mission.

Scheduling verifications may be conducted on either a regular or irregular basis in

accordance with the agreement. They may be followed by an investigation, again in accordance
with an agreement, depending upon the results of the verification. The mission, UN force, or agreement
should have SOPs or modalities that govern the conduct of verification tasks.

The phases of verification and inspection are:

• Phase 1: Planning, preparation, and briefing

• Phase 2: Execution

• Phase 3: Debriefing and reporting

Section 3.1.2 Phases of a Verification/Inspection

Phase 1: Planning, Preparation, and Briefing

This section shows Phase 1: Planning, preparation, and briefing. Prior planning is very important,
and it starts with a detailed operations brief that should cover information on the upcoming task. This
briefing should include routes, procedures, and current restrictions or limitations in the verification area.

Additionally, as part of the preparations, here are some areas to consider:

• Clarify the aims and objectives of the verification.

• Plan routes and localities to be visited.

• Determine any special radio procedures to be established.

• Determine whether a Liaison Officer (LO) or interpreter will be required.

• Ensure a language assistant is included.

• Ensure a community Liaison Officer is included.

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

• Check your vehicle and kit requirements,

procedures, and restrictions.

• Request for information and situation

awareness (intelligence) before leaving.

• Check verification kits that normally

include: Radios, binoculars, maps with
known positions, compass, video camera,
and GPS.

• Ensure you have your ID card.

• Mount the UN flag on the vehicle.

United Nations Military Observers in Sector-South planning
• Wear your spot tracker if appropriate.
the day's patrols for the area of Knin. 28 August 1992. UN
Photo by John Isaac.
Phase 2: Execution

This provides points to keep in mind during Phase 2 — the execution phase:

• Observe road conditions, terrain, and the presence of obstacles of any kind, especially
minefields.

• Enter positions through the main entrance.

• Be sure you cover the entire area.

• Maintain continuous radio contact with your HQ and report as directed.

• Never expose yourself to unnecessary danger during the verification and investigation.

• Be suspicious and cautious, yet polite.

• Be strictly impartial, and do not yield to pressures from any party.

• Report facts only: No speculations or guesswork.

• Never show maps, figures, or results to non-mission personnel.

• Count armaments (small arms and light weapons) according to the agreement.

• Log and note all figures in your file and ensure that all members sign the file before dropping
the LO off.

Phase 3: Debriefing and Reporting

Phase 3 of verifications/inspections is also known as the Debriefing and Reporting Phase. During
this phase, it is very important to complete a debriefing and patrol report immediately upon
your return from the verification and investigations mission. Report any new positions and
restrictions and include all in a written report. Report times, locations, descriptions, personnel, and
other information in accordance with the mission's SOPs.

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

Section 3.1.3 Investigation

Figure 3.1.1

UNMO may be required to be the initial investigating authority for an incident. Observer
teams may discover an incident or be the nearest responding authority and thus be required to conduct
the initial investigation and/or secure the scene to be able to hand it over to another agency or authority.

Figure 3.1.1 shows the definition of a UN investigation. It is a legally based and analytical process
designed to gather information to determine whether wrongdoing occurred and, if so, the persons or
entities responsible.

Types of Investigations

The types of incidents that an UNMO could be called upon to investigate include:

• Firing violation

• Construction upgrading

• Entries into DMZ

• Hostage-taking, hijacking, abductions, or missing persons

• Assaults or murders

• CRSV

• Grave violations against children

• Human rights violations

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

Authority to Conduct Investigations

Normally UNMO are not the lead agency

in an investigation. UNMO will turn a scene or
investigation over to the Civilian Police (CIVPOL)
and/or host nation police. Authority to conduct
a complete investigation will be stipulated
in the force agreement and mandate.
Observers will often conduct initial investigations
at the direction of the CMO to determine what has
happened and who will take subsequent control.

Preparation for Investigation

In preparation for an investigation, the UNMO The United Nations Mission in South Sudan conducts a
will: course in peacekeeping operations for middle-ranking
officers of the Sudan People's Liberation Army in Juba, from
• Brief the investigative team. 21 October through 6 November 2013. Officers from the
Sudan People's Liberation Army take part in the training. 31
• Clarify the aim of the investigation and/or
October 2013. UN Photo by Martine Perret.
nature of the complaint.

• Conduct a map reconnaissance.

• Assemble the required kit.

• Collect and review historical information (intelligence).

• Identify and contact other parties affected by the investigation.

• Review the respective SOPs and legal considerations.

• Verify current restrictions in the area.

• Verify the necessity of a language assistant.

• Notify HQ of their destination/intentions.

Investigation Procedure

Investigative procedures include maintaining radio contact and recording the following:

• Weather conditions

• The point of entry

• Evidence that was found

• Where the evidence was found

• Evidence (e.g. was it moved, altered, disturbed, etc.)

• What was photographed

Upon arrival, isolate and secure the scene:

• Assess the security of the scene (identifying threats from mines and UXOs).

• Determine the need for security (Are you safe?).

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

• Protect the scene from onlookers.

• Save your GPS position and take geographic

references.

• Prepare and sketch.

Designate responsibilities:

• The primary investigation

• Evidence/exhibit recording

• Witness identification/interviewing

Then, attempt to determine what happened:

• Survey the extent of the scene. The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization
observes the maintenance in Palestine of the ceasefire
• Create a safe corridor.
and assists the parties to the armistice agreements in

• Methodically examine and document the the supervision of the application and observance of
the terms of those agreements. A corps of UN Military
scene; take photographs (of the overall scene
Observers is available to assist in investigating any
and important details, take three types of complaints. Two radio officers, A. Clements (India)

photographs — overview, mid-range, and (left) and B. Gunnarsson (Iceland), on duty at mission
headquarters in the Government House in Jerusalem.
close-up); consider a reference to determine
1 May 1959. UN Photo by JG.
dimensions.

• Remember, UNMO are telling a story; provide

a context for the information.

• If appropriate, collect evidence for analysis.

Draw conclusions: Investigation Procedure »

• Balance and consider all evidence and facts. 1. Maintain radio contact and report
movement progress.
• Indicate if your conclusions are "best guesses".
2. Record all activity.
Reports must be:
3. Upon arrival, isolate and protect
• Complete
the scene.
• Accurate
4. Designate responsibilities for the
• Legible undertaking.
• Precise 5. Attempt to determine what
• Timely happened.

• Assumptions stated 6. Draw conclusions based on facts.

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

Section 3.1.4 Evidence

Forms of Evidence

Verbal evidence is unreliable and subjective and requires corroboration.

Material evidence cannot stand alone and requires forensic assistance, including:

• Footprints

• Tire marks

• Broken objects

• Trace elements

• Forensic items (blood, DNA samples, weapons, or ammunition fragments)

• Drugs

Circumstantial evidence may corroborate other evidence by crossing information.

There are a number of important considerations in handling evidence:

• Record the location of recovered evidence via a sketch; define the location where the
evidence was found; and record time and date.

• Photograph the evidence.

• Do not disturb evidence. If it is absolutely necessary to recover it, use gloves, secure it in a bag
(not plastic) and tag it clearly with description, location, date/time, and who found/bagged it.

• Minimize the number of persons handling evidence.

• Record and define the continuity

and transferring of evidence, i.e. the
possession of a particular item; ask the
5-W's — who, what, where, when, and
why.

• Use a scale of references, such as a

ruler or recognizable object, for sizes
and distances when photographing
evidence.

• If in doubt, call your supervisor or the

base for legal assistance or directions.
Ugandan soldiers serving with the African Union Mission in
When dealing with witnesses, UNMO should:
Somalia (AMISOM) sort through a bag of hand grenades and
• Confirm their identities through papers, other munitions that were used by the extremist group Al
Shabaab to make improvised explosive devices (IEDs) at a
such as passports or ID cards, or
former steel factory in Mogadishu. AMISOM and Transitional
personal or third-party confirmation. Federal Government forces dislodged remnants of Al Shabaab
from the factory following the withdrawal of most of the
• Ascertain and record where they can be
extremist group's forces from Mogadishu. Evidence at the
found or reached. factory suggests the group was also manufacturing suicide
vests and car bombs. UN Photo by Stuart Price.

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

• Separate witnesses to be interviewed.

• Be aware that a witness can become a suspect.

• Choose a suitable witness but consider a witness's motivation to talk.

• When a language assistant is used, exercise caution. Establish language assistant ground rules,
and if possible, select a language assistant able to maintain impartiality.

Here are points to consider when assessing collected information and evidence.

• Compare notes.

• Assess the credibility of witnesses.

• Identify any corroborating information.

• Identify any contradictory information.

• Exercise caution in drawing conclusions.

• Cross-check different sources of evidence.

Evidence Handling »
• Record location.

• Take photos.

• Do not disturb evidence.

• Minimize the number of

persons handling.

• Maintain a record/define
continuity of evidence.

• Scale of reference when

Officers of the Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature
taking photos. inspect evidence against a suspected woman animal poacher, as
military personnel from the United Nations Organization Mission in
• Call legal assistance or
the Democratic Republic of the Congo, look on. 29 February 2008.
directions if required. UN Photo by Marie Frechon.

• Confirm identities.

• Ascertain and record.

• Separate witnesses to be interviewed.

• Witnesses can become suspects.

• Consider the witness's motivation to talk.

• If a language assistant is used, exercise caution.

• Establish interpreter ground rules.

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

Ahmed Himmiche (centre left), the head of the UN Military Observers group dispatched to Syria, and his team speak with members of
the opposition in El Karak. Pursuant to an authorization by the Security Council, a team of unarmed observers was deployed to Syria
on 16 April, tasked with reporting on the cessation of violence between Government and opposition forces. 26 April 2012. UN Photo by
Neeraj Singh.

Summary

• Verification is the process of establishing truth or validity; the aim is to support the mandate or
agreement through inspection/assessment to establish compliance.

• The three phases of verification and inspection include: Planning, preparation, and briefing;
execution; debriefing and reporting.

• UNMO investigate incidents such as firing violations, construction upgrading, entries into DMZ,
hostage-taking, hijacking, abductions or missing persons, assaults or murders, CRSV, grave
violations against children, and other and human rights violations or any other matter directed
by the mission.

• UNMO are frequently required to work alongside or in conjunction with other UN components
(military contingents, police, and civilians) in the field when conducting investigation and
verification tasks.

• The forms of evidence are: Verbal, material, and circumstantial.

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

Annex B: Lesson 3.1 Learning Activity: Basic Investigation and

Verification Techniques Role Playing Exercise »

UNMO STM Lesson 3.1 Learning Activity

Basic Investigation and Verification Techniques
Role Playing Exercise

In this role-playing exercise with a military scenario, UNMO in training should put into
practice the Basic Investigation and Verification Techniques and tools presented in
UNMO STM Lesson 3.1

Learning Activity Time Required:

10 minutes Activity introduction and instructions and

reading the scenario
20 minutes Role-playing exercise
05 minutes Debrief in small groups
10 minutes Debrief in the plenary group
Total time: 45 minutes

Gamagara Ceasefire Violation Scenario

The current crisis in Naraland (see attached map), a fictitious island country off the
eastern coast of Southern Africa, has its origins in pre-colonial times. In the 1800s the
Kambo tribe was forced to flee from its ancestral lands by the more powerful Mananca.
The Mananca retained possession of the land now called Manancaland, while the
Kambo eventually settled east of the Mananca, in what is now the province of Kambona.
The Kambo have never abandoned their claims to Manancaland.
During the 1960s, the Kambo launched an unprovoked attack on Manancaland, which
the Mananca successfully halted. The areas held by the belligerent parties at the end of
those hostilities established the current provincial boundaries. Those boundaries have
never been accepted by belligerents, despite efforts by the Naraland Government to
mediate. Since then, repeated minor combats have taken place between the two
provinces and both sides have formed militias that have caches of light weapons and
landmines at their disposal.
In recent times, the Kambona Liberation Movement (KLM) and the Manancaland
Resistance Movement (MRM) have launched several attacks on each other’s provinces.
Despite heavy fighting which has resulted in a large number of casualties, especially
among the civilian population, neither of the belligerents has been able to achieve its
military objectives. The Naraland Government was able to negotiate a ceasefire (the
Treaty of Windhoek) and both parties agreed to international mediation and intervention.
The UN has responded by deploying an observer mission, the United Nations Mission in
Naraland (UNMIN), to monitor the belligerent parties. The Treaty of Windhoek set in
motion the establishment of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) and disarmament of militias.
UNMIN has now been deployed for 8 months and is well established. During the past
month, in particular the last 10 days, various incidents have occurred that indicate an
upsurge in tension among the two parties, including several shooting incidents, reports
of smuggling, unrest and recruitment in the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps,
and evidence of freshly laid anti-personnel mines.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Chief
This is quoting from UN guidance.
Military Observer to instruct all the Sector Commanders to arrange meetings with the
local rebel commanders and people involved in allegations in order to stabilize the
situation and reaffirm their commitment to the implementation of the ceasefire
agreement.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background and instructions.
2. Divide the participants into three groups of equal size:
135

- Designate in each group one Manancaland local villager, and one

Manancaland handicapped villager
 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

of smuggling, unrest and recruitment in the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps,
and evidence of freshly laid anti-personnel mines.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Chief
Military Observer to instruct all the Sector Commanders to arrange meetings with the
local rebel commanders and people involved in allegations in order to stabilize the
situation and reaffirm their commitment to the implementation of the ceasefire
agreement.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background and instructions.
2. Divide the participants into three groups of equal size:
- Designate in each group one Manancaland local villager, and one
Manancaland handicapped villager
- The rest of participants must be organized as UNMO team with one
Senior Observer
3. Ensure that someone is appointed to observe the investigation process
and report back to the group after the role-playing exercise.
4. Allow each group to study its own brief and decide on the strategy. Each
group should select one of its members to play the role.
5. Allow the investigations to take place according to the scenario until 5
minutes before the end of the exercise. The role players are allowed to call
short breaks (of no longer than 1 minute) to revise their strategy or
approach or to consult with one of the other role players. Arrange for a
time-out signal for this purpose.
6. Stop investigations 5 minutes before the end of the exercise. Have each of
the groups evaluate its own performance in terms of investigation efforts
and report back to the class as a whole during the debriefing in the plenary
discussion.
7. As instructors/facilitators, monitor the progress and content of the
discussions and regularly remind participants of the objective of the
exercise, without interfering unduly.

This is is
This quoting
quoting from UNguidance.
from UN guidance.
Further Reading »
To view the accompanying assignment, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

136
 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. List the three phases of verification and 7. List the three forms of evidence.
inspection.
8. Verbal evidence is _____ and _____ and
2. The aim of verification is _____. requires corroboration.
A. to support the mandate or agreement A. reliable; objective
through an inspection and/or assessment B. unreliable; subjective
process to establish compliance or non- C. reliable; subjective
compliance with that agreement D. unreliable; objective
B. to report speculation and guesswork on
what may have happened 9. True or False: Material evidence can
stand alone and does not require
C. to share maps, figures, and results with
forensic assistance.
non-mission personnel
A. True
D. None of these
B. False
3. List the 5-W's.
10. The three phases of verification and
4. True or False: UNMO are normally the inspection are _____.
lead agency in an investigation. A. Clarify; Conduct; Assemble

A. True B. Conceptual; Operational; Tactical

B. False C. Planning, preparation, and briefing;

Execution; Debriefing and reporting
5. True or False: Authority to conduct a D. Record point of entry; Record evidence;
complete investigation will be stipulated
Record GPS position
in the force agreement and mandate.
A. True
B. False

6. Which of the following is part of the

UNMO investigation procedure?
A. Designating responsibilities
B. Attempting to determine what happened
C. Drawing conclusions based on facts
D. All of these

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.1 | Basic UN Investigation and Verification Techniques

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. Phase 1: Planning, preparation, and briefing. Phase 2: Execution.
Phase 3: Debriefing and reporting.

2. A

3. Who, what, where, when, and why

4. B. False

5. A. True

6. D

7. Verbal, material, and circumstantial

8. B

9. B. False

10. C

138
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

3.2 Liaison and Coordination

An essential component of
the Military Observer's work
is to maintain liaison and
coordination with other field
entities and with the civilian
population and to facilitate
their ability to observe and
report from the field.
UN Photo by Stuart Price.

Lesson 3.2 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.2.1 Definition and Aim of Liaison • Explain liaison and coordination tasks
and Coordination performed by UNMO.

Section 3.2.2 UNMO Liaison and Coordination • Explain different types and methods of liaison
Tasks and coordination.

Section 3.2.3 Types of Liaison and • Describe guidelines for conducting liaison and
Coordination coordination in UN peacekeeping operations.

Section 3.2.4 Methods of Conducting

Liaison and Coordination in

UN Peacekeeping Operations

Annex C Lesson 3.2 and 3.4 Learning

Activity: Liaison and Interviewing

Techniques Role Playing Exercise

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

139
 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in Palestine, an observer mission, was set up under a Security Council resolution
in May 1948 to assist the Mediator and the Truce Commission in the Supervision of the Truce in Palestine. Its activities, which have
evolved along with the various changes of the Middle East problems, are spread over the territory of five states. Captain Giorgio
Battisti of Italy, an UNMO at Observation Post Sierra, observing two Israeli Mirage jets in tight formation. 26 April 1973. UN Photo by
Yutaka Nagata.

Section 3.2.1 Definition and Aim of Liaison

and Coordination
The aim of this lesson is to provide Military Observers with the
necessary information to understand and apply the concept and
responsibilities of liaison and coordination within a peacekeeping
mission. On completion of this lesson, you will be able to accomplish
these outcomes.

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 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

Section 3.2.2 UNMO Liaison and Coordination Tasks

Tasks

Establish/maintain liaison and coordination with:

• Local authorities and leaders (gender appropriate)

• Military and other armed elements at different levels

• Police and local militia(s)

• Civilian organizations, including women's and children's organizations

The decision to deploy UNMO is typically based on the ability to perform these tasks. The next few
sections will address these tasks.

UNMO should:

• Liaise with:

– Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)/international non-governmental organizations

(INGOs) and UN agencies: Such organizations operate in the missions and work hand-in-
hand with all UN elements deployed.

– International organizations (IOs) like the ICRC: Several other international organizations also
operate in the mission areas just like NGOs, so UNMO can liaise with them for coordination.

– Local and opinion leaders: Local and opinion leaders are very influential in the AOO, and
therefore it is necessary for UNMO to liaise with them.

– Members of religion, ethnicity, and population groups: They are influential people; hence,
it's necessary for UNMO to liaise with them.

• Report on meetings: Report all meeting resolutions to higher offices for necessary actions.

• Keep records of liaison and contact:

Documentation of discussions is very
necessary for UNMO for coordination, sharing
with high offices, and future reference.

UNMO liaison tasks will be to:

• Propose and arrange liaison meetings.

• Establish and maintain contact with:

– Local authorities (e.g. village leaders, tribe

heads, etc.)

– Military elements at different levels

– Police, gendarmerie, and local militia(s)

– Civilian organizations in the area United Nations Mission in the Sudan Military Observers
meet with the local military and village leadership at
– NGOs and other UN/force agencies Mongalla, Sudan. 5 January 2006. UN Photo by Arpan
Munier.
– Individuals of different religions,
populations, groups, etc.

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 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

Required reports are handed in according to the

tasks and timings, together with additional material
Tasks »
your team deems necessary to help understand • Keep force elements continuously
incidents and/or situations. informed.

Coordinate activities and cooperate with force • Liaison assistance requests are met
units (e.g. commanding officers, liaison teams/officers, promptly.
Operation Section(s), etc.), especially where language • Challenges when using interpreters.
may be a barrier between different national elements
• Keep gender perspective in mind.
within a force, and with observer teams as required.

Ensure that a high level of cooperation is maintained between all elements of the mission and the
population throughout the AOR.

Keep all concerned force elements continuously informed about conditions and changing situations
within and beyond the AOR.

Ensure that all the liaison assistance requests

from both military units and the civilian population
are met promptly.

Ensure that volatile situations are defused

as soon as possible without endangering force
personnel.

Pay attention to the additional challenge of

conducting liaison through an interpreter.

Ensure at all times that reports, minutes of

meetings, etc. are complete and correct, stating
clearly the differences between the facts and your
assumptions and assessments concerning liaison
activities.

Records on all activities must be kept

updated: Meetings, contacts (including personnel
files), etc. Ensure that team members are always Figure 3.2.1
up to date on the situation when starting their
tour of duty.

Figure 3.2.1 explains the UNMO coordination and liaison network. Keeping all the interlocutors
informed helps build the network.

Reporting of all meetings and liaisons must be timely, complete, and accurate. This should include
keeping updated lists of points of contact that are shared with incoming Military Observers so they can
build on existing liaison relationships. In all cases, gender balance has to be maintained.

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 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

Section 3.2.3 Types of Liaison and Coordination

Figure 3.2.2

Figure 3.2.2 describes the types of UNMO liaison and coordination. UNMO liaise and coordinate with
friendly forces (through the chain of command), civil authorities, international organizations, and with
belligerent forces. In the next few sections, we will go into more detail.

Cross-Boundary Liaison and Coordination-Friendly Forces

Most UNMO and UN forces involved in conducting operations will normally be allocated an area of
operations. As such, there will be a need for cross-boundary liaison and coordination with neighbouring
units. This liaison will aim to:

• Maintain transparency of intentions and conduct

• Ensure that patrols and other operations do not conflict

• Encourage cross-boundary support and medical assistance, particularly where an area is

adjacent to a friendly location across the unit boundary

• Assist commonality of force posture and military activity

• Ensure that cross-boundary operations, such as escorts or convoys, can be conducted effectively

UNMO, if requested, can facilitate or be responsible for assisting units and commanders in these
activities.

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 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

Friendly Forces

UN Photo by Sophia Paris.

Figure 3.2.3

Sharing of information occurs across the board both vertically, laterally, and horizontally by all
authorized key actors in the mission area. The multinational and multilingual nature of a force will
often give the chain of command liaison and coordination a greater significance. This is particularly so
if a Military Observer, or other parts of the military component, are not familiar with generic operating
procedures used by the lead military force, such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Chain of command liaison and coordination will also assist with the well-known challenges of planning.
UNMO can be an effective tool to facilitate in these areas.

Civil Authority and International Organizations

Where appropriate and more often, UNMO liaise and coordinate with municipal civil authorities such
as the local administration, police, coastguard, air traffic controllers, fire services, and hospitals. Also,
UNMO liaise and coordinate with international organizations such as the UN High Commissioner for
Refugees (UNHCR), International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), the World Health Organization
(WHO), UN Civilian Police (UN CIVPOL), etc. to help facilitate shared mission initiatives and
security issues.

Incorporating a gender perspective in civil liaison and coordination will help ensure that all views are
represented and with perspectives on the local priorities. This means ensuring that men and women
are engaged in liaison in a way that gives them the freedom to express their views.

Gaining and Sharing Information

Because coordinating and liaising with belligerents is an important task that has multiple
consequences, we will take more time and effort to discuss the subject.

144
 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

United Nations Police officers — Chris Hambros (left),

Mohamed Salim Abdullah (second from left), and Antonio
Domingues (right) — talk to the coordinator of an
internally displaced persons camp in Dili, Timor-Leste.
Earlier, the camp was disturbed by protests against the
new government. 15 August 2007. UN Photo by Martine
Perret.

All levels of command within the military component of a mission, including UNMO, should normally
attempt liaison and coordination with belligerent forces:

• The freedom of action for unit or subunit commanders

to liaise varies from force to force according to the Gaining and Sharing
Information »
mandate, political situation, and the security threat.

• In many missions, liaison and coordination at lower » Understanding

levels are encouraged. The aim is to settle disputes concerns
and solve problems at the lowest level possible to
prevent minor violations, disagreements, and even » Report
misunderstandings from escalating. violations

• If problems cannot be solved at the lowest levels, the

» Areas of friction
involvement of commanders up the chain of command
or the use of "outside" observer teams is required. Advocacy against child
• The link to belligerent command posts is most important. soldiers (guided by a child
This is accomplished through regular meetings and protection advisor or CPA)
communication "hot-lines".

UNMO also have a special role to play because of their role in the field. Therefore, a liaison and
coordination plan has to be developed to coordinate the responsibilities between different observer
teams. LOs and senior Force Commanders have to ensure timely and accurate passage of information
up and down the chain of command. In particular, responsibilities for liaison and coordination with
specific belligerent commands have to be established beforehand. For example, a team site UNMO may
liaise with belligerent brigades, and a sector LO may liaise with belligerent divisions.

Where such a framework is not established, there is potential for different individuals to have
meetings with the same belligerent commander several times in a short space of time. This is likely to
be counterproductive in building a strong relationship.

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 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

Section 3.2.4 Methods of Conducting Liaison and Coordination in

UN Peacekeeping Operations

Liaison and coordination can basically be conducted in two methods: formal

and informal. Formal liaison and coordination are conducted through visits and
meetings arranged in advance and organized for a specific purpose. Informal
liaison and coordination occur through visits and social or casual contact.

Informal liaison must be conducted deliberately even when it is

spontaneous — that is, the discussion must be considered impartial and be
comprehensively reported even when it results from a spontaneous meeting.

Considerations Figure 3.2.4

When coordinating with all members of the team, UNMO generally deploy across the whole
mission AOR, and they do not operate in isolation. Before conducting liaison and coordination missions,
UNMO team members are usually appointed by the Sector HQ or the observer mission HQ. Personality,
experience in the field, knowledge of language, and mastery of UNMO experience are taken into
consideration when selecting officers for liaison and coordination. Before conducting the mission, UNMO
should coordinate with other members of the team prior to the event.

UNMO should focus on the aim of liaison and coordination. The mission AOR is usually divided
into sectors with teams assigned to specific sectors. Periodically, teams from different sectors may operate
in each other's area to learn the areas and standards tasks of neighbouring teams and enable them to
provide assistance on short notice. The team conducting liaison and coordination on special issues must
know their mission and tasks. In this regard, a briefing session prior to the mission is important.

UNMO should follow proper interviewing techniques, including planning, preparation,

impartiality, and proper reporting. UNMO should take into consideration gender balance when
performing their tasks.

Summary

The aim of this lesson was to understand the concept and responsibilities of liaison and coordination
within a peacekeeping mission. We covered four types of liaison and coordination tasks:

• Cross-boundary liaison and coordination with friendly forces

• Chain of command liaison and coordination

• Liaison and coordination with civil authorities and international organizations

• Liaison and coordination with belligerent forces

Liaison and coordination with belligerent forces are more complicated and may have associated
modalities involved. It is paramount that UNMO plan and coordinate these events and consulate with
experienced personnel. Liaison and coordination can be formal or informal, and both require formal
notes and reports. During liaison and coordination, UNMO should focus on the proper techniques and
keep a gender perspective in mind.

146
 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

Annex C: Lesson 3.2 and 3.4 Learning Activity: Liaison and

Interviewing Techniques Role Playing Exercise »

UNMO STM Lesson 3.2 and 3.4 Learning Activity

Liaison and Interviewing Techniques- Role Playing Exercise

In this role-playing exercise with a military scenario, UNMO in training should put into
practice the Liaison and Interviewing Techniques and tools presented in UNMO STM
Lesson 3.2 and Lesson 3.4

Learning Activity Time Required:

10 minutes activity introduction and instructions and

reading the scenario
20 minutes role-playing exercise
05 minutes debrief in small groups
10 minutes debrief in the plenary group
Total time: 45 minutes

Gamagara Ceasefire Violation Scenario

The current crisis in Naraland (see attached map), a fictitious island country off the
eastern coast of Southern Africa, has its origins in pre-colonial times. In the 1800s the
Kambo tribe was forced to flee from its ancestral lands by the more powerful Mananca.
The Mananca retained possession of the land now called Manancaland, while the
Kambo eventually settled east of the Mananca, in what is now the province of Kambona.
The Kambo have never abandoned their claims to Manancaland.
During the 1960s, the Kambo launched an unprovoked attack on Manancaland, which
the Mananca successfully halted. The areas held by the belligerent parties at the end of
those hostilities established the current provincial boundaries. Those boundaries have
never been accepted by belligerents, despite efforts by the Naraland Government to
mediate. Since then, repeated minor combats have taken place between the two
provinces and both sides have formed militias that have caches of light weapons and
landmines at their disposal.
In recent times, the Kambona Liberation Movement (KLM) and the Manancaland
Resistance Movement (MRM) have launched several attacks on each other’s provinces.
Despite heavy fighting which has resulted in a large number of casualties, especially
among the civilian population, neither of the belligerents has been able to achieve its
military objectives. The Naraland Government was able to negotiate a ceasefire (the
Treaty of Windhoek) and both parties agreed to international mediation and intervention.
The UN has responded by deploying an observer mission, the United Nations Mission in
Naraland (UNMIN), to monitor the belligerent parties. The Treaty of Windhoek set in
motion the establishment of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) and disarmament of militias.
UNMIN has now been deployed for 8 months and is well established. During the past
month, in particular the last 10 days, various incidents have occurred that indicate an
upsurge in tension among the two parties, including several shooting incidents, reports
of smuggling, unrest and recruitment in the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps,
and evidence of freshly laid anti-personnel mines.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Chief
This is quoting from UN guidance.
Military Observer to instruct all the Sector Commanders to arrange meetings with the
local rebel commanders and people involved in allegations in order to stabilize the
situation and reaffirm their commitment to the implementation of the ceasefire
agreement.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background and instructions.
2. Divide the participants into three/four groups of equal size:
- Designate in each group147
one Mayor of Kambona Province
- The rest of participants must be organized as a UNMO team with one
Senior UNMO.
 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

upsurge in tension among the two parties, including several shooting incidents, reports
of smuggling, unrest and recruitment in the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps,
and evidence of freshly laid anti-personnel mines.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Chief
Military Observer to instruct all the Sector Commanders to arrange meetings with the
local rebel commanders and people involved in allegations in order to stabilize the
situation and reaffirm their commitment to the implementation of the ceasefire
agreement.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background and instructions.
2. Divide the participants into three/four groups of equal size:
- Designate in each group one Mayor of Kambona Province
- The rest of participants must be organized as a UNMO team with one
Senior UNMO.
3. Ensure that someone is appointed to observe the process and report back
to the group after the role-playing exercise.
4. Allow each group to study its own brief and decide on the strategy. Each
group should select one of its members to play the role.
5. Allow the liaisons and interviews to take place according to the scenario
until 5 minutes before the end of the exercise. The role players are allowed
to call short breaks (of no longer than 1 minute) to revise their strategy or
approach or to consult with one of the other role players. Arrange for a
time-out signal for this purpose.
6. Stop activities 5 minutes before the end of the exercise. Have each of the
groups evaluate its own performance in terms of liaison efforts and report
back to the class as a whole during the debriefing in the plenary
discussion.
7. As instructors/facilitators, monitor the progress and content of the
discussions and regularly remind participants of the objective of the
exercise, without interfering unduly.
8. Participants should, by using effective interviewing techniques and good
liaison skills collect comprehensive information, recognize the HR issues
and identify possible ceasefire violation.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

Further Reading »
To view the accompanying assignment, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

148
 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. List the types of groups UNMO should 7. True or False: UNMO do NOT liaise
liaise with. and coordinate with municipal civil
authorities or with international
2. List the six actors in the UNMO organizations.
coordination and liaison network. A. True
B. False
3. Reporting of all UNMO meetings and
liaisons must be _____ and _____. 8. True or False: UNMO should never
A. timely; complete attempt liaison and coordination with
B. untimely; complete
belligerent forces.

C. timely; mostly finished A. True

D. None of these B. False

4. True or False: In all cases, gender 9. _____ liaison and coordination are
balance has to be maintained when conducted through visits and meetings
liaising. arranged in advance and organized for a
specific purpose.
A. True
A. Formal
B. False
B. Informal
5. Lines of Coordination include: C. Mixed

A. cross-boundary, friendly forces D. Non-directive

B. belligerent forces
10. _____ liaison and coordination occur
C. civil authorities and international
through visits, social, or casual contact.
organizations
A. Formal
D. All of these
B. Informal

6. What should UNMO aim for when C. Mixed

liaising? D. Non-directive

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 LESSON 3.2 | Liaison and Coordination

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. NGOs/INGOs; UN agencies; IOs; Local and opinion leaders;
Members of religious, ethnic, and population groups

2. UNMO; FHQ/UN/other MSN elements; Local government and

security forces; Armed factions; Leaders of civil society; INGOs/
NGOs

3. A

4. A. True

5. D

6. Maintain transparency of intentions and conduct; Ensure that

patrols and other operations do not conflict; Encourage cross-
boundary support and medical assistance, particularly where an
area is adjacent to a friendly location across the unit boundary;
Assist commonality of force posture and military activity; Ensure
that cross-boundary operations, such as escorts or convoys, can
be conducted effectively

7. B. False

8. B. False

9. A

10. B

150
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

3.3 Negotiation and Mediation

The aim of this unit is to

enable you to use negotiation
and mediation skills as
necessary when employed in
a UN peacekeeping operation.

UN Photo by Marco Dormino.

Lesson 3.3 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.3.1 Definition of Negotiation/ • Learn about the mandate, cultural/historical

Mediation context, and interests of people/parties.

• Define negotiation and mediation.

Section 3.3.2 Purpose, Principles, and

Techniques of Negotiation/ • Identify the fundamental principles of

negotiation/mediation.
Mediation
• Identify the phases of a negotiation/
Section 3.3.3 Phases of Negotiation/ mediation process.
Mediation
• List the actions taken within the phases of
Annex D Lesson 3.3 Learning Activity:
negotiation/mediation.

Negotiation, Mediation and Use • Apply negotiation/mediation skills in an

of Language Assistants Role
exercise.

Playing Exercise

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

151
 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

A group of young combatants of the Sudanese Liberation Fighters attends a meeting addressed by Jan Pronk, the former Special
Representative of the Secretary-General for the United Nations Mission in the Sudan, during the negotiations for a settlement with
their commanders who failed to sign the Darfur Peace Agreement. 17 October 2006. UN Photo by Fred Noy.

UNMO have to use operational skills and techniques

to prevent and manage conflict and to de-escalate
potential violence. UNMO may need to use negotiation
and mediation techniques in their tasks and patrols.
These techniques will be used in a challenging
environment and not normally in their own language
or in their own culture. Peacekeepers will have to be
prepared to negotiate and mediate conflicts on a daily
basis with people of different cultures or genders and
often under tense or even threatening situations.

This lesson will familiarize and help you to better

understand the principles and techniques of being a
better negotiator and mediator in a future UN PKO.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

This lesson will explain the significance and use of negotiations and mediation as a spectrum tool.
The lesson will also explain negotiation and mediation phases and techniques that may be helpful to
UNMO.

Section 3.3.1 Definition of Negotiation/Mediation

It is important to know the definitions before we proceed into the lesson. Here are both definitions.
Take a minute or so to read.

Negotiation: An informal or formal process where parties actively talk about their conflict for the
purpose of reaching an agreement and bringing resolution to their problems.

Mediation: A "facilitated negotiation" where an independent third party helps belligerents to come
to a resolution of their problems but does not decide on their behalf.

Section 3.3.2 Purpose, Principles, and Techniques of Negotiation/

Mediation
Negotiation is a process of combining divergent positions into a joint agreement under a decision
rule of unanimity. It involves two or more parties. It happens when there is a problem, a conflict of
interest, or a common concern between parties. It is appropriate when the parties have a more-or-less
even power balance and want to reach a joint agreement. Normally, it is a verbal, interactive process.
The parties identify issues, educate each other about their needs and interests, and come up with
possible settlement options and terms of a final agreement.

Mediation is a more dynamic, interactive process when a neutral third party assists disputing parties
in resolving conflict through the use of specialised communication and negotiation techniques. In most
cases, mediation involves two or more parties to a conflict and involves an acceptable, impartial third
party whose role is to assist the parties to reach their own mutually acceptable agreement. The third
party has no authoritative decision-making power. It is more appropriate when the parties have an
uneven power balance and are willing to negotiate. It is a verbal, interactive process that requires
structure and a mediator to assist in coming up with a possible settlement.

Purpose of Negotiation/
Mediation »
• Identify and isolate dispute/
conflict.

• Prevent escalation.

• Reduce differences.

• Resolve.

• Prevent recurrence. General Christian Houdet (centre, front row) and General
Mahboob (right, front row) of the United Nations Mission in
the Democratic Republic of Congo attend a disarmament
negotiation meeting with Cobra Matata, Ituri Militia
Commander of the Patriotic Force of Resistance. 28
November 2006. UN Photo by Martine Perret.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

Negotiation/Mediation Principles

Successful negotiation/mediation depends

on how well peacekeepers understand the
following principles:

• Understanding the mandate and role

of the United Nations in the conflict

• Understanding UN interests/mandate
to achieve a positive outcome

• Understanding the interest(s) of the

people/parties to the conflict General Martin Luther Agwai, Force Commander of the United
Nations/African Union Hybrid Mission in Darfur, shakes hands with
• Understanding the cultural and the commander of the Sudan Liberation Army Unity faction. 9

historical context of the conflict within March 2008. UN Photo by Albany Associates.

which UNMO operate to evaluate the

Negotiation/Mediation Principles »
situation and the local needs
• Mandate
It is important that UNMO anticipate and
• Interests of parties
understand the people's/parties' interests
and their objectives. The focus should be • Cultural/historical context

on real interests, not stated positions. Also, • Voluntarily

it is helpful if UNMO consider gender in this
• Confidentiality, good faith, and ownership
process.

Techniques of Negotiation/Mediation

Figure 3.3.1 describes the techniques or best practices for negotiation and mediation. Note these
specific techniques are cyclic and interconnected. The four areas in Figure 3.3.1 describe the techniques
on how best to achieve a positive result in the process.

• Separate the people from the problem.

• Focus on interests, not positions.

• Generate a variety of possibilities.

• The result has to be based on

objective criteria.

Positions are yes-or-no obstacles,

and the interests present problems
to be solved, perhaps in more than
one way. Look for potential ways to
create value before trying to claim
it. Build a joint model of the problem
— consult others on your model of the
problem.

Figure 3.3.1

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

Section 3.3.3 Phases of Negotiation/Mediation

There are three phases of negotiation and
mediation. We will go into more detail on each
phase.

• Planning

• Conduct

• Follow-up

Negotiation Planning

As in all matters and tasks, planning and

preparation are keys to success. The advanced
preparations/considerations include an Mathieu Ngudjolo (second from right), leader of the

understanding of the following: Revolutionary Movement of Congo, receives a uniform from a

member of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Armed
• What is the conflict about? Forces. Mr. Ngudjolo and 300 other members of MRC received
FARDC uniforms. 28 December 2006. UN Photo by Martine
• What is the mission's intent to achieve;
Perret.
what is the minimum desired result?

• What are your options, limitations, mandate, etc.?

• Who are the people or parties involved?

• Who is involved — Name, rank, personality, authority, religion, ethnicity, culture, and attitudes?

• Are women included in the parties? If not, how can they be included?

• Has the conflict been dealt with before?

• Why has it come up at this time?

• What is the background/history?

• Outline the options for a possible settlement.

• Read previous reports on the matter; what was the UN conclusion, and how does it relate to
previous/future arrangements?

• When and where will the negotiation take place (confirm)?

• Establish an agenda for the meeting.

• What are the objectives/interests of the people/parties involved?

• Can you identify some common ground?

The following are considered internal preparations that should be followed:

• Divide the negotiation tasks among team members, i.e. who will talk, who will take note, and
who will prepare minutes of the meeting.

• Define the role of the language assistant and rehearse.

• Decide on the need for specialists (weapons, mines, economic, child protection, gender,
cultural, etc.).

• Plan the location and protection measures of the negotiation site.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

And last, here are examples of final preparations:

• Be at the place for the meeting in due time, in good shape, and well dressed.

• Make ready for seating, security, parking, and communication.

• Consider coffee, drinks, and food.

• Place the agenda, pencils, and writing pads on the table.

Conduct of Negotiations

We will discuss the three major components

of negotiations: Opening talks, the main talks,
and the summary. Let's go into more detail on
these three components.

In the opening talks, remember:

• Local customary salutations and

exchanges of courtesies.

• Introduce yourself and your team

(wear name tags).

• Some introductory small talk may be Former UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay
useful and polite (gives everybody and Adama Dieng, Former Special Advisor to the Secretary-
General on the Prevention of Genocide (right), met with Taban
a chance to get used to the way the
Deng Gai (left), the South Sudanese rebel chief negotiator,
common language is used, and it offers during their three-day visit to the country. The visit by the
a chance to assess the mood). senior UN officials came in the wake of mass killings in early
April 2014 in Bentiu and Bor. 29 April 2014. UN Photo by Isaac
• Introduce the agenda of the meeting. Billy.

• Offer/take refreshments.

• It is advised to avoid using cell phones; keep them turned off.

The main talks include:

• Let others speak at the start and be a good listener; do not interrupt.

• Be patient. This is a very important skill set in negotiations.

• If incorrect information is given, state the actual facts.

• Support facts with evidence, yet do not argue.

• State the UN point of view (facts only).

• If there is no discussion from women, if relevant, ask about their perspective.

• If there are differences in points of view, note the view of the counterpart and highlight the
point of view of the opposite side and eventually also the UN approach.

• Declare that you will come back to the issue after an examination. Carry out an examination
and negotiation in a similar manner with the other party.

• In cases of the UN team conveying complaints, either from the opposing party or from the UN
itself, ensure the complaint is clear and detailed — preferably in writing.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

• Make no promises or admissions unless the situation or your mandate clearly states you can
do so.

• Do not reveal anything about one party that could be exploited by the other party.

• To be impartial and correct is of importance.

• Always be restrained if one of the parties expresses a negative view about the UN, the opposing
party's morale, politics, or methods.

• With all parties, attempt to educate and gain acceptance for the UN mandate and the solution
it promotes.

• Make careful reminders about agreements and actual arrangements.

The summary is the last component, and the key points include:

• Summarize the meeting.

• Complete the meeting by repeating what has been agreed.

• If possible, have agreements confirmed in writing and signed by the party/parties and give a
signed copy.

• Discuss and gain agreement upon a time and place for further negotiations.

• Do not forget to give the final polite phrases of thanks and farewells.

Follow-Up

The reporting of results and the follow-up on the meeting is very important for the credibility of the
UN operation. Here are a few areas to be included in the follow-up:

• Conduct a post-meeting analysis and consult with other UN personnel and interlocutors
present in the meeting for input.

• Prepare a short, written brief and verbal briefing for your headquarters.

• Involve UN members present at the meeting.

• Prepare a detailed written report/follow-up on the negotiation, facts, conclusions,

recommendations, and arrangements.

• Note any gender exclusion or inclusion.

• Note any human rights issues that came out in the negotiation.

• Contribute to other UN information systems in accordance with the SOP.

• Keep the party/parties informed about the outcome of the negotiation.

Mediation Planning

The techniques applied in mediation are basically the same as for negotiation. The most important
difference is that representatives of the opposing parties are present in the same location. This calls for
careful considerations concerning security measures as well as pre-accepted subjects for the meeting.
The following are a few considerations when planning mediation:

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

• Meet the parties separately before the meeting.

• Discuss the conflict/dispute internally to help frame the issues and possible solution sets.

• Develop an agenda, get it approved by all concerned, and distribute it before the meeting.

• Select a meeting place (neutral and secured).

• Establish the conditions for the meeting — armed/unarmed — how many persons — language
assistants/interpreters — communications — seating — who speaks in what order — separate
rooms.

• Consider possible solutions to the disputes/issues and a recommended way ahead.

Conduct of Mediation

The conduct of mediation has some similarities to the negotiation execution, with some changes.
Here are a few techniques to consider:

• Start the meeting by reading the agreed agenda.

• If there has been a previous meeting, give the result and the status of what has been
implemented.

• Maintain impartiality, observe objectivity, and remain respectful.

• Try to balance the outcome.

• Guide and facilitate the discussions and, if appropriate, suggest possible solutions.

• If no agreements can be reached, agree to meet again.

• A good philosophy to convey is that no one can change the past, but we may be able to change
the future.

Follow-Up

The follow-up on the meeting is very important for the credibility of the UN operation. Here are
areas to be included in the follow-up, very much the same as in negotiations; let's review:

• Conduct a post-meeting analysis and consult with other UN personnel and interlocutors
present in the meeting for input.

• Prepare a short, written brief and verbal briefing for your headquarters.

• Involve UN members present at the meeting.

• Prepare a detailed written report/follow-up on the negotiation, facts, conclusions,

recommendations, and arrangements.

• Note any gender exclusion or inclusion.

• Note any human rights issues that came out of the mediation.

• Contribute to the UN information systems.

• Follow up on the modalities and possible implementation of any agreements made during the
mediation.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

General Tips

Negotiator and mediator that may help you in the future:

• Pay social compliments to all military, police, and civilian representatives involved. Take the
time to welcome and bid farewell.

• Encourage an air of cordiality, dignity, and respect to the proceeding.

• Define the common ground to reinforce the success already achieved.

• If friction occurs, do not attempt to fill gaps in conversation. It may be more productive to
allow long pauses to occur. This is a psychological tool to encourage the parties to take the
initiative in speaking and thereby revive dialogue.

• Remain calm if one of the parties decides to criticize the mission or a third party.

• Keep your personal emotions in check. Emotional outbreaks are considered a sign of weakness
in many cultures and may inhibit your ability to continue effectively as a negotiator/mediator.

• Be tactful and avoid any inference that might be interpreted as criticism.

• Do not be arrogant or patronizing.

• Be fair in your approach to all parties.

• Avoid circumstances that may lead to a

"loss of face".

• Use the correct terminology known

by all; speak slowly and clearly.

• To convey complaints, ensure that the

particulars are clear, complete, and
in writing.

• Make no promises or admissions

unless you have the authorization to do
Former Secretary-General Javier Perez de Cuellar (at the head
so. of the table) presiding over the signing of an agreement
between the leaders of the Frente Farabundo Marti Para La
• Do not reveal anything about one
Liberacion Nacional and the government of El Salvador. 25
party that could be exploited by the September 1991. UN Photo by James Bu.
other party.

• Maintain scrupulous impartiality in all speech and actions.

• If you make a statement that you will do something — do it; and if you cannot, explain to the
parties why not.

• Maintain eye contact with the speakers. During a translation of speech, it will be essential to
maintain eye contact with the person with whom you are speaking (and not the interpreter).

• Remember that men and women may bring different skills as well as different perspectives to
mediation and negotiation. Emphasize women's role as peace builders and their contribution to
building durable peace as important.

• Be patient. Slow and deliberate is sometimes the best way to make progress.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

Summary
Discussion »
• Understand the purpose, principles, and technique(s).
Identify specific negotiation/
• Understand the planning, conduct, and follow-up.
mediation techniques/tips
• Be aware of the mandate, cultural/historical context, and that you believe are the most
interests of people/parties. important and why. If possible,

Conflict is a state of human interaction where there is bring in real-world/mission

disharmony or a perceived divergence of interests, needs, or goals. examples of negotiation and

There is a perception that interests, needs, or goals cannot be mediation meetings where

achieved due to interference from the other person or people. It is they may have gone wrong or

important that UNMO understand the relativity and background of were very successful because

the conflict in their mission area. Management of a conflict starts of the techniques/tips applied

with communication, negotiation, and mediation. A managed appropriately.

conflict can create an opportunity for positive change.

Negotiation is a process of combining divergent positions into a joint agreement under a decision
rule of unanimity. Mediation is a more dynamic, structured, interactive process when a neutral third
party assists disputing parties in resolving conflict through the use of specialised communication and
negotiation techniques.

The phases of a negotiation/mediation process include preparation, conduct (execution), and follow-
up. All phases are important, and the techniques described in this lesson will help you build tools to be
a better UNMO negotiator/mediator.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

Annex D: Lesson 3.3 Learning Activity: Negotiation, Mediation and

Use of Language Assistants Role Playing Exercise »

Lesson 3.3 UNMO STM Learning Activity

Negotiation, Mediation and Use of Language Assistants
Role Playing Exercise

In this role-playing exercise with a military scenario, UNMO on mission in training

should put into practice the negotiation and mediation techniques and tools
presented in UNMO STM Lesson 3.3, Negotiation and Mediation as well as the
techniques for the correct use of language assistants presented in Lesson 3.8

Learning Activity Time Required:

10 minutes Activity introduction and instructions and

reading the scenario
20 minutes Role-playing exercise
05 minutes Debrief in small groups
10 minutes Debrief in the plenary group
Total time: 45 minutes

Gamagara Ceasefire Violation Scenario

The current crisis in Naraland (see attached map), a fictitious island country off the
eastern coast of Southern Africa, has its origins in pre-colonial times. In the 1800s the
Kambo tribe was forced to flee from its ancestral lands by the more powerful Mananca.
The Mananca retained possession of the land now called Manancaland, while the
Kambo eventually settled east of the Mananca, in what is now the province of Kambona.
The Kambo have never abandoned their claims to Manancaland.
During the 1960s, the Kambo launched an unprovoked attack on Manancaland, which
the Mananca successfully halted. The areas held by the belligerent parties at the end of
those hostilities established the current provincial boundaries. Those boundaries have
never been accepted by belligerents, despite efforts by the Naraland Government to
mediate. Since then, repeated minor combats have taken place between the two
provinces and both sides have formed militias that have caches of light weapons and
landmines at their disposal.
In recent times, the Kambona Liberation Movement (KLM) and the Manancaland
Resistance Movement (MRM) have launched several attacks on each other’s provinces.
Despite heavy fighting which has resulted in a large number of casualties, especially
among the civilian population, neither of the belligerents has been able to achieve its
military objectives. The Naraland Government was able to negotiate a ceasefire (the
Treaty of Windhoek) and both parties agreed to international mediation and intervention.
The UN has responded by deploying an observer mission, the United Nations Mission in
Naraland (UNMIN), to monitor the belligerent parties. The Treaty of Windhoek set in
motion the establishment of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) and disarmament of militias.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

UNMIN has now been deployed for 8 months and is well established. During the past
month, in particular the last 10 days, various incidents have occurred that indicate an
upsurge in tension among the two parties, including several shooting incidents, reports
of smuggling, unrest and recruitment in the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps,
and evidence of freshly laid anti-personnel mines.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Chief
Military Observer to instruct all the Sector Commanders to arrange meetings with the
local rebel commanders in order to stabilize the situation and reaffirm their commitment
to the implementation of the ceasefire agreement.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background and instructions.
2. Divide the participants into four groups of equal size:
- One for the UN Military Observer (UNMO)
- One for the Manancaland Local Commander
- One for the Kambona Local Commander
- One for the Language Assistant
3. Ensure that someone is appointed to observe the mediation process and
report back to the group after the role-playing exercise.
4. Allow each group to study its own brief and decide on the strategy. Each
group should select one of its members to play the role.
5. Allow the negotiations to take place according to the scenario until 5
minutes before the end of the exercise. Remember that the non-playing
members are allowed to advise their group’s role player. The role players
are allowed to call short breaks (of no longer than 1 minute) to revise their
strategy or approach or to consult with one of the other role players.
Arrange for a time-out signal for this purpose.
6. Stop negotiations 5 minutes before the end of the exercise. Have each of
the groups evaluate its own performance in terms of negotiation strategy
and mediation efforts and report back to the class as a whole during the
debriefing in the plenary discussion.
7. As instructors/facilitators, monitor the progress and content of the
discussions and regularly remind participants of the objective of the
exercise, without interfering unduly.

This is is
This quoting
quotingfrom UNguidance.
from UN guidance.
Further Reading »
To view the accompanying assignment, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. Negotiation is _____. 6. List the three major components of

negotiations.
A. An informal or formal process where parties
actively talk about their conflict for the
7. True or False: You ought to consider
purpose of reaching an agreement and
providing coffee, drinks, and food when
bringing resolution to their problems preparing for negotiations or mediation.
B. a process where an independent third party
A. True
helps belligerents to come to a resolution of
B. False
their problems but does not decide on their
behalf 8. Which of the following is true about
C. a more dynamic interactive process when a opening talks?
neutral third party assists disputing parties A. You should, if possible, have agreements
in resolving conflict through the use of confirmed in writing and signed by the
specialised communication and negotiation party/parties and give a signed copy.
techniques B. You should remember some introductory
D. None of these small talk may be useful and polite.
C. You should discuss and gain agreement
2. Which of the following is a purpose of
upon a time and place for further
negotiation/mediation?
negotiations.
A. Preventing escalation
D. You should write a detailed report.
B. Preventing recurrence
C. Reducing differences 9. True or False: You should not maintain
D. All of these eye contact with the speakers during the
negotiations/mediations.
3. List the principles of negotiation and A. True
mediation.
B. False

4. List the four techniques of negotiation 10. _____ are yes-or-no obstacles, and
and mediation. _____ present problems to be solved.
A. Interests; positions
5. True or False: You should remember
local customary salutations and polite B. Mediations; interests
phrases of thanks and farewell. C. Positions; interests

A. True D. Negotiations; positions

B. False

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.3 | Negotiation and Mediation

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. A

2. D

3. Understanding the mandate and role of the United Nations in

the conflict; Understanding of UN interests/mandate to achieve
a positive outcome; Understanding the interest(s) of the people/
parties to the conflict; Understanding the cultural and historical
context of the conflict within which UNMO operate to evaluate the
situation and the local needs

4. Separate the people from the problem; Focus on interests, not

positions; Generate a variety of possibilities; The result has to be
based on objective criteria.

5. A. True

6. Opening talks, the main talks, and the summary

7. A. True

8. B

9. B. False

10. C

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

3.4 Interviewing Techniques

The aim of this lesson is

to provide you a basic
understanding and skill set for
interviewing when employed
in a UN peacekeeping
operation.

UN Photo by JG.

Lesson 3.4 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.4.1 Planning and Interviewing • Learn how to plan and conduct an interview.
Techniques
• List three techniques for conducting
Section 3.4.2 Types of Questions interviews.

Section 3.4.3 Do's and Don'ts • Describe the main types of questions used in
interviews.
Section 3.4.4 Personal Qualities
• Describe do's and don'ts when conducting
interviews.

• Explain when caution is required in special

cases.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

Jean-Marie Guéhenno (right), former Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, participated with UN peacekeepers in the
inauguration of a hospital in Kindu, Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1 May 2003. UN Photo by Yasmina Bouziane.

The UNMO's duties are very diverse. They are

observers, negotiators, mediators, and investigators,
verifiers, and information gatherers. At times, they
also need to carry out certain liaison duties too. To
do this, UNMO must be able to conduct effective
interviews. UNMO must be effective in all their duties
and responsibilities.

Conducting an effective interview requires defining

the purpose of the interview, planning, and conducting a
part of it. Interviews should not be conducted according
to a template.

Because of the varying demands of the situation in

a peacekeeping environment, the interviewing process
must be flexible and account for the cultural and
individual characteristics of the person interviewed.

The aim of this lesson is to familiarize and provide

you with interviewing principles techniques.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

Proficiency in interviewing can be developed by formal training and practical experience. Although
it is impossible to reduce the interview process to a set of formulas and rules, there are some general
skills and tasks that will enable the UNMO interviewer to approach the task with confidence and develop
their skill through practice and conscious attention to their performance. This lesson introduces those
basic skills.

At the end of this lesson, you should be able to perform the actions described in Learning Outcomes.

Section 3.4.1 Planning and Interviewing Techniques

UN Photo by Paul Banks.

Figure 3.4.1

Special Cases

Because of its importance, early in the lesson, it is necessary to provide you with an upfront caution
or warning before we get into this lesson in more depth. In this lesson, we discuss general skills in
interviewing, which can be applied in most situations; however, there are some special cases that UNMO
need to be aware of. These cases must be treated differently from other interviews.

The first one is interviewing children. In general, UNMO should not interview children directly. The
lead for dealing with children in the mission is the civilian Child Protection Advisor, who is supported in
each sector by Child Protection Units. UNMO should always work given their guidance in dealing with
children and children's issues. If it is necessary to interview a child, and there is no one from the Child
Protection Unit available, then questions should be limited to basic questions such as the child's name
and age. Parents or caregivers should be present as well. Remember from the Core Pre-deployment
Training Materials (CPTM) child protection training that the basic principles of dealing with children for
all UN peacekeepers are to show/do no harm, coordinate with other agencies, and always act in the best
interest of the child.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

The second special case is survivors of sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV). To interview a
survivor about the SGBV that they experienced needs specialist knowledge and skills; otherwise, the
interview risks causing further harm to the person. There are many specialist agencies, often termed
"SGBV actors", in the field to support survivors, and UNMO should utilize their expertise. They should
take the lead in interviewing survivors.

If a survivor of SGBV approaches an UNMO for assistance, then the UNMO should do their best
within the constraints of their tasking and skill to do so, including offering to refer them for support
to specialist agencies and knowing which agencies to contact. Importantly, if possible, an UNMO and
language assistant who are of the same gender as the SGBV survivor should conduct the interview.
There is guidance on what to do and what to say when dealing with survivors of SGBV included in the
references in this lesson.

In all cases, ensure you keep detailed notes and always report to your chain of command/leadership.

Techniques of Interviewing

Figure 3.4.2

There is no single method by which UNMO can conduct successful interviews. Each interview will
be different, based on the participants, the subject, the environment, and other variables. However,
there are baseline skills and techniques that can be learned and applied. The key to success will be to
practice, observe others using the skills, and develop the skills through experience.

There are two general types of techniques. They are the directive and non-directive types. There is
a third category, mixed, which uses skills from both directive and non-directive interview types.

Directive Technique

The directive technique is a method of interviewing in which the interviewer guides and directs the
course of the interview. It is an active interview technique. This technique is distinguished by:

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

• Frequent participation on the part of the interviewer

• Emphasis on the influence of past actions on present behaviour

• Seeking specific information

• Making interpretations and judgments

• Varying of the pace by the interviewer

• The use of probing questions

Figure 3.4.3

UNMO may consider this technique appropriate when undertaking a verification task or seeking
specific information. This method may be less effective when UNMO are interviewing a person to get
information about a general situation or their general views because the active role of the interviewer
may not give the interviewee an opportunity to offer additional useful information.

Non-Directive Technique

The non-directive technique is a method of interviewing in which the interviewee does most of the
talking and finds solutions to problems with a minimum of assistance from the interviewer. The non-
directive approach is characterized by:

• Avoidance of "yes" and "no" questions

• The use of questions calling for a narrative type of responses

• Emphasis on the present rather than the past

• Frequent use of the silent question

• Reflection of the interviewee's comments

• Viewing the interviewee from his frame of reference instead of the interviewer's

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

Figure 3.4.4

This technique gives the interviewer a broad opportunity to see what might be relevant and gain
a broad background of a situation. However, this technique might not be as effective in obtaining very
specific information where a directive approach might be of better use.

Mixed Technique

Figure 3.4.5

The mixed or combined approach is one that borrows from all fields. Interviewers use the approach
that is best suited to the occasion and the interviewee. It is the responsibility of interviewers to get the
appropriate information and critical data and evaluate the input. In order to accomplish this, interviewers
must get the interviewees to talk. Whatever techniques enable the interviewer to do this effectively are
good methods/techniques.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

It may be useful to make changes during the interview between techniques. For example, the
interview may start with a non-directive technique, and if the interviewee provides some critical
information, the interviewer should change to a more directive technique to ensure the data and
information are accurately recorded.

Section 3.4.2 Types of Questions

The interview's question is the most indispensable tool of the interviewer. It is essential that the
interviewer be familiar with the different types of questions needed to elicit the kind of information and
data required. The following types are applicable in many interview situations:

• W-questions: "What", "When", "Where", "Who", and "Why" type questions fit most interviews.
The primary uses of the W-questions are to get detailed answers and to determine missing
information. When coupled with "how", these questions constitute the most valuable tool of
the interviewer.

• Leading questions appear to suggest or indicate a desired answer. For example, a leading
question would be, "Did you hear the leader of the government forces say that they came from
Town X yesterday?" This question conveys to the listener that you may have a preconceived
answer, and they may feel that they should give the answer you want because you are in a
position of authority or that perhaps their information is wrong, and they should agree with
yours. The question can instead be put more openly, "Did you hear the leader say anything?"
to encourage the interviewees to give their own answer.

• Probing questions are used to get information in addition to that given in response to a general
question. Probing questions are valuable in obtaining additional information of interest to you.

• "Yes"—"No" questions are essential questions

answerable by "Yes" or "No". Use these
questions sparingly because they
limit the amount of information
that can be obtained.
Open questions give the
interviewee more of a
chance to get more
information.

• Alternative questions
may be used to force
a decision by the
interviewee or for
disposing of one topic
and turning to another.
Such questions as "Which
do you prefer?" or "If not,
what will you do?" will serve
to control the interview and focus Figure 3.4.6

attention upon the point at issue.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

• The silent question gives the respondent a chance to think and evaluate what has been said; it
also gives an opportunity to recall the information you are seeking. It gives you time to consider
the question and ensure the interviewee understands the question. Pauses and occasional
silence are a technique to encourage the interviewee to volunteer more information.

• Summary questions are commonly used to close an interview or used to summarize each
phase of an extended interview. Typical summary questions are: "Have we covered the main
points?" and "What conclusions have we reached?" A good summary will serve as a basis for
any recommendations.

• Questions for clarification and reflection are essentially a "mirroring" of the interviewee's
answers. Emphasis is on the feeling of what is being expressed rather than on specific content.
The interviewer captures and clarifies the essence of what the respondent says and reflects
it: For example, "So what I'm hearing in our discussion is that the community is feeling
apprehensive about the threats from XX armed group; is that right?"

Specific Techniques

The following techniques shown in this section are

specific techniques that may be of help to UNMO.

» Prepare in advance. Detailed

preparation is essential to the conduct of
a successful interview. In preparing, the
interviewer:

• Reviews information pertaining to the

individual to be interviewed and situation

• Checks the interview site to confirm that it

is suitable, secure, and available

• Establishes the objectives of the interview

and decides on the techniques

• Sets time limits for the interview

• Prepares a list of questions Figure 3.4.7

» Open the interview. The interview should begin on time, but

not abruptly. After introducing themselves, the interviewer
should state the purpose of the interview. The interviewer
should take the lead in establishing a relationship of mutual
confidence by showing acceptance, letting the interviewees feel
that their views are important and that the UN is interested in
hearing those views.

» Define the purpose. It is essential that the interviewer and

the interviewee have the same understanding of the purpose
of the interview. If the interview is initiated by the UNMO, it is

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

their responsibility to outline the purpose. When the interview

is initiated by the other person, the interviewer, through
questioning, gets the interviewee to define the purpose.

» Observe and respond. To ensure a good start and to

frame the conversation on the basis of trust and respect, it
is necessary to assess the behaviour of the interviewee. The
UNMO should look for signs that the questioning is making
the interviewer uncomfortable or irritated and if so, adjust
techniques accordingly to ease the situation.

» Be selective and flexible in the use of techniques. The

skilled interviewer varies their techniques and remains flexible.
Observing how the interviewee responds and whether or
not they are comfortable helps the interviewer adjust their
technique to get information effectively.

» Listen actively. It is the interviewer's responsibility to get

information on which to base solving problems and making
recommendations. An effective UNMO interviewer is an effective
listener. Listening is not a passive process. Good listening
implies a genuine interest in what the individual has to say. The
quality of listening can control another person's ability to talk.
In active listening, the interviewer listens for the full meaning
and the choice of words. Also, active listening includes trying to
understand the meaning "between the lines". The UNMO should
respond by reflecting their understanding back to the speaker.

Section 3.4.3 Do's and Don'ts

Do's Do's »
• Respect the integrity of each person. • Show respect.
• Speak slowly and in a well-modulated normal tone • Speak slowly.
of voice. It is not only what you say that is important
• Get the interviewee talking.
but how you say it.
• Get the facts.
• Get the interviewee to talk, using different
• Confirm your understanding.
techniques appropriate to the situation. Interviews
are conducted to get information. The skilled • Ask one question at a time.

interviewer induces interviewees to talk by varying • Ask simple questions.

the type of questions and employing techniques • Restate answers.
such as restatement of an answer, clarification
• Record the data.
and reflection, interpretation, and short periods of
silence.
• Summarize and close.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

• Get the facts. It is the responsibility of the interviewer to get reliable information and to get all
of it that is needed.

• Lead without a show of authority. The interviewer will adjust the tempo of the conversation to
suit the individual who is being interviewed.

• Confirm that you understand the information given to you. Similarly, if you provide any
information, ensure that it is correct and has been understood by the interviewee. Whenever
the interviewer gives out information, what they say is usually interpreted as being an official
UN statement.

• Ask only one question at a time and listen.

• Ask simple questions that are easy to understand and translate.

• Look at the person, not the language assistant.

• Restate the answer. The interviewer repeats the answer and says, "Is that right?" If the answer
is incorrect or inadequate, the interviewee has an opportunity to clarify and perhaps give
additional information.

• Record all pertinent data promptly and openly. Thoroughness in recording information is
essential. Complete the record immediately after the interview.

• Summarize. In most cases, before concluding the interview, a brief summary of what has
been said and accomplished. Then the interview can be finished if both the interviewer and the
interviewee have given the information as required.

Don'ts

This list is not exhaustive, and all interviewers learn from experience what works best and what
doesn't work in conducting an effective interview.

• Don't sit on the edge of the chair. This gives

Don'ts »
the impression that you are impatient with the
interviewee. • Don't sit on the edge of the
chair.
• Don't fidget. Pronounced and unnecessary body
movements limit the ability of the interviewee to • Don't fidget.

concentrate on the interview and can distract. • Don't waste time.

• Don't waste time. Inefficiency or lack of clear • Don't hurry the interviewee.
purpose may frustrate both the interviewer and the • Avoid leading questions.
interviewee.
• Avoid "I".
• Don't hurry. It may require some time to get
• Don't be patronizing.
accustomed to the situation, to put the interviewee
at ease.
• Don't ask unnecessarily
personal questions.
• Don't ask leading questions. Although this technique
• Don't be antagonistic.
is sometimes effective in clarifying information
already given, experienced interviewers avoid • Don't "set traps".

leading questions because it can affect the accuracy • Don't make promises!
and the completeness of the information.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

• Avoid using the word "I" word. This is customarily used to express an opinion or relate a
personal experience on the part of the interviewer.

• Don't be patronizing. In order to be effective, the interviewer must show respect.

• Don't ask unnecessarily personal questions.

• Don't be antagonistic. Accurate information cannot be obtained by threatening the interviewee.

If the interviewee becomes antagonistic, the interviewer must use all their personal skills and
qualities to restore a relationship of mutual confidence to complete the interview.

• Don't try to set traps for or catch the interviewee. An UNMO interview is not a police interview
or a court hearing.

• Don't make promises to an interviewee. The interviewer should not commit to a course of
action after the interview is over and should never promise anything that is not within their
power to deliver.

Section 3.4.4 Personal Qualities

The following are qualities that can assist in conducting an effective interview. This list of qualities
may be used as a guide for the selection of interviewers or by experienced interviewers to improve their
own performance.

Personal appearance. The personal

appearance and personality of the
interviewer should create a good impression.
They should conduct interviews in a dignified
manner with respect for the culture and
customs of the local area.

Freedom from bias. Personal bias

cannot influence a skilled interviewer.

Sincere interest in people. The

Commander Carla Monteiro de Castro Araujo, Gender Advocacy
genuine interest shown to a person or
Officer with the United Nations Multidimensional Integrated
group is a quality that can be developed Stabilization Mission in the Central African Republic, speaks with
by associating with people from all members of the local community in Mbomou, Central African
Republic. 18 May 2020. UN Photo by Herve Serefio.
levels of social, economic, and cultural
status. Understanding and a sympathetic Personal Qualities »
appreciation of the local population's
• Personal appearance
interests and problems can help in this area.
By showing an interest in the respondent,
• Freedom from bias

the interviewer develops an increased • Interest in people

capacity for gaining the respondent's • Ability to meet people
confidence and assuring future cooperation.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

Ability to meet people. An effective interviewer must possess personal attributes to be courteous,
serious, and conscientious. These attributes help to convey sincerity during an interview and encourage
cooperation from interviewees from all groups in their society.

Summary

This lesson has provided some basic interview types and techniques which can usually be applied
by UNMO when they are carrying out their duties on mission. However, there are some special cases
to be aware of and where a different approach and specialist expertise are necessary. They particularly
include children and survivors of SGBV.
Special Cases »
For general interview tasks, UNMO need to be able to apply
directive, non-directive, or mixed approaches to interviews and Please coordinate with UN experts

use different types of questions to obtain all the information and make sure their presence

they need and to ensure that it is accurate. This will require before interviewing:

the interviewer to be flexible and to change their approach

• Children (ask easy questions
as they conduct the interview if they assess that a different
and allow guardians/parents
technique is needed.
to be present)
Honing interview skills is a continuing process of
• Survivors of sexual and
development that requires interviewers to reflect on each
gender-based violence
interview they conducted, what worked and what didn't work,
and then improve and refine and develop their skills and
• Victims of human rights
violations (HRV)
personal behaviour that will help improve the next time they
conduct an interview.

You can find the Lesson 3.2 and Lesson 3.4 Scenario-Based Role Playing Exercise Learning
Activity in Annex B to Lesson 3.2, which is located in full in the Online Classroom.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. What are the three techniques of 8. Which of the following are personal
interviewing? qualities that can assist in conducting an
effective interview?
2. Mention three types of questions that A. Good impression in personal appearance
can be used in an interview.
B. Freedom from bias
C. Sincere interest in people
3. True or False: The directive technique is
an active interview technique. D. All of these

A. True
9. True or False: To be an effective
B. False interviewer, you do NOT need to have a
genuine interest in people.
4. Which of the following is a characteristic
A. True
of the directive technique in
interviewing? B. False

A. Frequent participation on the part of the

10. The _____ gives the respondent a
interviewer chance to think and evaluate what has
B. Avoidance of "yes" and "no" questions been said; it also gives an opportunity to
C. The use of questions calling for the recall the information you are seeking.
narrative type of responses A. probing question
D. Emphasis on the present rather than the B. silent question
past C. alternative question
D. None of these
5. List the specific techniques UNMO
can use before, during, and after an
interview.

6. Which of the following should you do

during an interview?
A. Sit at the edge of the chair.
B. Fidget.
C. Speak slowly and in a well-modulated
normal tone of voice.
D. Hurry the interviewee.

7. What are the special cases that UNMO

need to be aware of when interviewing?

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.4 | Interviewing Techniques

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. Directive technique; Non-directive technique; Mixed approach

2. W-questions; Leading questions; Probing questions; "Yes"—"No"

questions; Alternative questions; Silent questions; Summary
questions; Questions for clarification and reflection

3. A. True

4. A

5. Preparing; Opening; Defining the purpose; Observing and

responding; Being selective and flexible; Listening actively

6. C

7. Children; Survivors of sexual and gender-based violence

8. D

9. B. False

10. B

178
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON
Weapons, Vehicles, and
3.5 Aircraft Recognition

The aim of this lesson is to

provide peacekeepers with
information to familiarize
them with the principles and
basic skills to recognize small
arms, vehicles, and aircraft
that may operate in the
United Nations mission area.

UN Photo by JG.

Lesson 3.5 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.5.1 Small Arms and Light • Explain the basics construct of small arms
Weapons (SALW) and light weapons.

Section 3.5.2 Military Vehicles Description • Outline the framework for vehicle recognition.

Section 3.5.3 Aircraft Types and • Outline the framework for aircraft and
Description Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) recognition.

• Identify basic small arms and light weapons,

military vehicles, and aircraft commonly
found in UN peacekeeping missions.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

The UN Organization Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo is introducing the use of Unarmed Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs) to enhance protection capabilities. At the airport in Goma, technicians prepare a UAV for an official launch ceremony with
former Under-Secretary-General for Peacekeeping Operations, Hervé Ladsous. 3 December 2013. UN Photo by Sylvain Liechti.

As an UNMO, you may be assigned to verify weapon

storage sites, assist in the DDR process, and/or report
on equipment/weapon systems used in a conflict. It is
important that UNMO have a base skill set for identifying
these items.

Section 3.5.1 Small Arms and Light

Weapons (SALW)
Let us begin with the most prominent item of
equipment in a conflict area. Small arms and light
weapons (SALW) are any man-portable lethal weapon
that expels or launches, that is designed to expel or
launch, or may be readily converted to expel or launch a
bullet or projectile by the action of an explosive.

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

Figure 3.5.1

Small arms and weapons are designed for individual use. They include, among others, revolvers and
self-loading pistols, rifles and carbines, sub-machine guns, assault rifles, and light machine guns. Also
included are other weapons or destructive devices such as an explosive bomb, incendiary bomb or gas
bomb, grenade, rocket launcher, missile, missile system, or "Ammunition", meaning the complete round
or its components, including cartridge cases, primers, propellant powder, bullets, or projectiles, that are
used in a small arm or light weapon.

Figure 3.5.2

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

Light weapons are designed for use by two or three persons serving as a crew, although some may
be carried and used by a single person. They include heavy machine guns, grenade launchers, portable
anti-aircraft guns, portable anti-tank guns, recoilless rifles, portable anti-aircraft missile systems, and
mortars of fewer than 100 millimeters (mm) caliber.

Figure 3.5.2 shows pictures of some of the basic small arms and light weapons used in a conflict
area.

Section 3.5.2 Military Vehicles Description

Armoured Fighting Vehicles

Acquiring the ability to recognize armoured fighting vehicles (AFVs) can be complicated. There
are thousands of different vehicles produced over the years, with modifications, making identification
extremely difficult. As an UNMO, it is not important to know the precise name of the vehicle but rather
to know how to recognize its role. If you can recognize the role of a vehicle, you will be able to
report the important information about it. Usually, vehicles in a category share a number of obvious
characteristics. Identifying these characteristics generally results in identifying the AFVs' role. These are
major roles assigned to AFV:

• Main battle tanks

• Self-propelled artillery

• Armoured personnel carriers (APCs)

• Armoured infantry fighting vehicles (troop carriers)

• Infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs)

• Reconnaissance vehicles

• Combat support vehicles

The main battle tank fires directly at targets. They are equipped with heavy armour for protection
from other weapons. Tanks are normally tracked, thereby achieving lower ground pressure. Main battle
tanks have the following characteristics:

• Tracked suspensions

• The engine, usually located at the rear

• A large main armament, usually over 100 mm caliber

• Turrets, usually centrally located on the hull

• Sloped, angled, or rounded armour on the front of the hull and turret

• Low hulls and turrets for a small silhouette

Armoured personnel carriers and infantry fighting vehicles are lightly armoured vehicles that are
used to transport troops; they conduct armoured reconnaissance and, such as the IFV, fight from the
vehicle. These two systems have the following characteristics:

• They have large hulls.

• An exit door is located at the rear.

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

• The engine is typically in the front of the hull.

• They are tracked or wheeled.

• APCs may or may not have a turret, while an IFV has turrets.

• APCs may be armed; IFVs are always armed.

• IFVs will have a main armament of 20 mm caliber or higher.

• Firing or observation ports are along the side of the hull.

• They usually have a higher hull than a tank.

Reconnaissance vehicles are difficult to identify. This is because they often look very similar to IFVs
and sometimes are the same chassis. They will often have the following characteristics:

• They are usually smaller in size.

• Most lack room to carry additional troops.

• They are lightly armed.

• Most have wheeled suspension.

• Most are lightly armoured.

• They are similar to an APC/IFV in appearance.

Combat support vehicles include vehicles such as bridge layers and mine clearing, recovery, and
engineering vehicles that support the forces. They can be identified by the various forms of specialised
kit on the vehicle that helps accomplish a unique task.

Figure 3.5.3

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

Here are a few examples:

• A bridge on top of a vehicle hull is a bridge layer.

• Cranes, dozer blades, and scooping devices are recovery or engineer vehicles.

• Large rollers, ploughs, and flails are found on mine clearing vehicles.

Figure 3.5.3 shows a few basic diagrams with major components of armoured vehicles that are
armed.

Section 3.5.3 Aircraft Types and Description

Aircraft recognition can be challenging. European, American, and Asian countries have built their
own types of aircraft. Once again, it is important to know the role of an aircraft more than its specific
name. Here are the main aircraft types:

• Fighters

• Bombers

• Transports

• Airborne warning/electronic warfare aircraft

• Transport helicopters

• Attack helicopters

• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)

Aircraft share similar characteristics. Identifying these common elements will help to identify the
role of the aircraft. There are four major components of an aircraft that help us determine the role. To
facilitate aircraft identification, we use a helpful acronym — WEFT:

• W — Wing is the lifting surface of the aircraft.

• E — Engine is the propulsion system.

• F — Fuselage, the central body of the aircraft, designed to accommodate electronics, crew,
passengers, and cargo. It is the structural body.

• T — Tail consists of the fixed vertical stabilizer, rudder, and elevators.

Fixed wings are attached permanently to the body of the aircraft and cannot be moved. Until the
development of the helicopter, all aircraft had fixed wings. The positional includes three wing positions
for fixed-wing aircraft, and they are high-, mid-, and low-mounted, as seen in the list above. Slant is the
vertical angle of the wing, with respect to a horizontal line drawn through the fuselage.

Fighter aircraft can be used as an interceptor, a reconnaissance, or ground-attack aircraft.

Interceptors control airspace and deny enemy aircraft access to airspace. Reconnaissance aircraft
locate targets visually, by photography or electronically. Ground attack aircraft conduct attacks against
ground targets, including interdiction and close air support missions. Fighter aircraft have the following
characteristics:

• Weapons are mounted under or on top of the wings.

• Engine intakes are situated on the side or under the fuselage.

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

• They are smaller than most other types of aircraft.

• They have one or two tails.

• Horizontal stabilizers/elevators are situated on the fuselage.

• The maximum crew capacity is normally two.

Bomber aircraft are designed to attack ground targets from high or low altitudes. Compared to
fighters, bombers are usually bigger and slower. Bombers have the following characteristics:

• Weapons are mounted under the wings or bomb bay.

• Modern bombers have jet engines and often have multi-engines.

• Strategic bombers have longer wings than other aircraft.

• All have long tails.

• The cabin area is larger.

• The fuselage is longer and thinner than most aircraft.

Transport aircraft are employed to transport material, vehicles, or personnel. Compared to other
types of aircraft, transports usually operate from makeshift airfields. Transport aircraft have the following
characteristics:

• High mounted wings

• Engines situated on or under the wings

• Jet or turbo-prop engines, normally multi-engines

• Wide fuselage

• Rear cargo ramp to facilitate loading and unloading

• Large, high tail section

Electronic warfare (EW) aircraft often resemble attack aircraft. Their mission is to jam enemy
communications and air defence radars. EW aircraft usually have an electronics pod and larger sensors
on the tail or under the wings.

Transport helicopters move equipment and troops and have the following characteristics:

• They are unarmed or have machine guns.

• They have a wide fuselage to accommodate troops and equipment.

• Many have two rotors.

• They are equipped with a rear ramp or side door.

• The pilot and copilot sit side by side.

Attack helicopters are employed to conduct patrols, escorts, counter-attacks, and raid operations.
Attack helicopters have the following characteristics:

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

• Long, thin fuselage

• Weapons pods mounted on sides of the fuselage or winglets

• Cannons or machine guns mounted on the nose (chin) of the helicopter

• Gunner and pilot normally seated in tandem

An Unmanned Aerial Vehicle is an aircraft piloted by remote control or onboard computers. UAVs
do not carry a human operator and can be rotary (drone) or fixed wing (jet or propeller). UAVs are
designed to be recoverable but can be expendable. They can carry a lethal or non-lethal payload. Often,
UAVs carry video cameras and sensors for the purpose of reconnaissance. Strategic or strike/combat
UAVs can operate up to 65,000 feet (ft) within long ranges. UAVs can be classified according to their
range and endurance:

• Close-range

• Short-range

• Mid-range

Figure 3.5.4 shows some diagrams that may help show some of their characteristics.

Figure 3.5.4

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

A delegation led by Human Rights Officers travelled to the Menaka region in northern Mali to investigate armed attacks in the
settlements of Aklaz and Awakassa, in which at least 47 people were killed. Armoured personnel carriers (APC) of the Niger
contingent serving with the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali escort the convoy to the Mayor's Office in
Anderamboukane, 90 kilometers east of Menaka. 8 May 2018. UN Photo by Marco Dormino.

Summary

Let us review some of our key lesson points:

• Small arms are revolvers, pistols, rifles, sub/light machine guns, assault sub/light machine
guns, assault rifles, small bombs, grenades, rocket/missile launchers, portable anti-tank/tank/
aircraft weapons, and small-caliber mortars.

• The primary roles for armoured vehicles are tanks, self-propelled artillery, APC/IFVs, and recon.

• Main battle tanks have robust armor, track suspensions, an engine in the rear, a large armament
(100 mm caliber plus), and a turret.

• Aircraft types include: Fighters, bombers, transports, EW, transport helicopters, attack
helicopters, and UAVs.

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. True or False: Reconnaissance vehicles 7. ____ are weapons designed for

are the easiest vehicle to identify. individual use.
A. True A. Small Arms
B. False B. Ammunition and explosives
C. Hand grenades
2. What are examples of small arms and
D. Light weapons
light weapons (SALW)?

8. What does the "W" in WEFT stand for?

3. Which is a major role assigned to
Armoured Fighting Vehicles? A. Weapons
B. Wires
A. Main battle tanks
C. Wing
B. Self-propelled artillery
D. War
C. Armoured personnel carriers (APCs)
D. All of the above 9. True or False: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs) do not carry a human operator
4. Which of the following can be found on a and can be rotary (drone) or fixed wing
mine clearing vehicle? (jet or propeller).
A. Large rollers, ploughs, and flails A. True
B. A bridge on top B. False
C. Cranes
D. Dozer blades 10. A(n) _____ is an aircraft piloted by
remote control or onboard computers.
5. What are the main aircraft types?  A. Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV)
B. fighter aircraft
6. _____ are designed for use by two
C. attack helicopter
or three persons serving as a crew,
although some may be carried and used D. bomber aircraft
by a single person.
A. Light weapons
B. Small Arms
C. Ammunition and explosives
D. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.5 | Weapons, Vehicles, and Aircraft Recognition

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. B. False

2. Revolvers and self-loading pistols; Rifles and carbines; Sub-machine guns; Assault rifles and light machine guns; Small explosive bombs; Grenades;
Rocket launchers; Missiles; Missile systems or "Ammunition", including cartridge cases, primers, propellant powder, bullets or projectiles that are
used in a small arms or light weapons; Heavy machine guns; Hand-held under-barrel and mounted grenade launchers; Portable anti-aircraft guns;
Portable anti-tank guns; Recoilless rifles; Portable launchers of anti-aircraft missile systems; Mortars of a caliber of fewer than 100 millimeters

3. D

4. A

5. Fighter aircraft; Bomber aircraft; Transport aircraft; Electronic warfare aircraft; Transport and attack aircraft; Transport and attack helicopters; UAVs

6. A

7. A

8. C

9. A. True

10. A

189
 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON
Disarmament, Demobilization,
3.6 and Reintegration (DDR)

DDR has an important role in

post‑conflict efforts to prevent
the resurgence of armed
conflict and the creation of
conditions necessary for
sustainable peace and longer-
term development.

UN Photo by JG.

Lesson 3.6 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.6.1 What is Disarmament, • Explain the UN approach to Disarmament,

Demobilization, and Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR).
Reintegration (DDR)?
• Identify the participants, beneficiaries, and
Section 3.6.2 Participants and actors.
Beneficiaries
• Describe the UNMO's role in supporting DDR.
Section 3.6.3 UNMO Roles in DDR

Annex E Lesson 3.6 Learning Activity:

Disarmament, Demobilization

and Reintegration (DDR) Role

Playing Exercise

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

The DDR unit launches its programme in Ed Damazin, Sudan. 15 combatants from the Sudanese north-south war, which ended with
the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement, are demobilized during an official ceremony attended by senior governmental officials,
donor countries, and UN representatives. During the process, the soldiers symbolically handed over their weapons, registered, and
received a DDR ID card, cash, non-food items, and a coupon for food rations. 9 May 2009. UN Photo by Johann Hattingh.

Overview
UN DDR Operational Guide »
Disarmament, Demobilization, and
To understand the scope
Reintegration forms part of a broader post-
of the DDR processes and
conflict peace building agenda that may
programmes and apply the
include measures to address small arms and
knowledge in UNMO's roles
light weapons (SALW), mine action activities,
and tasks in the facilitation
or efforts to redress past crimes and promote
of the phases and processes in a complex
reconciliation through transitional justice.
UN peacekeeping operation, visit the United
In an environment in which UN Nations Disarmament, Demobilization and
peacekeeping missions take place, the Reintegration Resource Centre. Available
primary contribution by the military from: <https://www.unddr.org/the-iddrs/>.
component to DDR is to provide security. The
military component also contributes through
the gathering and distributing of information,
as well as by monitoring and reporting
on security issues. Military ammunition
and weapons expertise contributes to the
technical aspects of disarmament.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

This lesson provides you with an overview of DDR and how UNMO support and contribute to the
process.

Section 3.6.1 What is Disarmament, Demobilization, and

Reintegration (DDR)?

What is DDR? »
• Reintegrating following a conflict

• Ex-combatants, armed groups

abductees, dependents, civilian
returnees, and communities

• Political, military, security,

humanitarian, socio‑economic
dimensional process

Militiamen gather in Guiglo, Cote d'Ivoire begin the DDR

process. 3 August 2006. UN Photo by Ky Chung.

The objective of the DDR process is to contribute to security and stability in post-conflict environments
so that recovery and development can begin. The DDR of ex-combatants is a complex process, with
political, military, security, humanitarian, and socio-economic dimensions.

DDR aims to deal with the post-conflict security problem that arises when ex-combatants are left
without livelihoods or support networks — other than their former comrades — during the vital transition
period from conflict to peace and development.

Through a comprehensive process of disarming combatants, preparing them for civilian life,
and providing them with opportunities for sustainable social and economic reintegration, DDR aims
to support this high-risk group so that they become stakeholders in the peace process. DDR should
support the following:

• Planned and coordinated in the framework of the peace process

• Linked to security sector reform (SSR)

• Comprehensive approach

• Linked to processes of national capacity-building, reconstruction, and development

• Encourage trust and confidence in communities receiving ex-combatants

• Deal with root causes of the conflict

• Be flexible to meet the specific needs of a particular country (and region)

The UN uses the concept and abbreviation "DDR" as an all-inclusive term that includes related
activities, such as repatriation, rehabilitation, reconciliation, resettlement, and reinsertion, that aim to
achieve sustainable reintegration.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

Figure 3.6.1

Integrated DDR is a part of the United Nations system's multidimensional approach to post-conflict
peace building and reconstruction. It is based on a set of principles for planning and implementing
integrated DDR processes and concrete mechanisms to guarantee coordination and synergy in these
processes among all UN actors.

Disarmament

Disarmament is the collection, documentation, control, and disposal of small arms, ammunition,
explosives, and light and heavy weapons of combatants and often also of the civilian population. The
collection of weapons is often conducted to reduce the number of arms circulating in a country. The
documentation of weapons and the targeted groups is also important due to the next dealing procedures.

DDR shall avoid attaching monetary value to weapons as means of encouraging their surrender.
Before the disarmament process starts, there should be an agreement among all parties. The UN
recognizes that the automatic destruction of collected weapons is best practice. The decision to retain
weapons should be respected where legitimate and impartial governments are restructuring the national
armed forces as part of SSR.

How is Disarmament Done

The safety and security of UN and non‑UN personnel are essential in disarmament programmes.
The humanitarian principles of neutrality, impartiality, and humanity shall always apply.

Groups for disarmament include government forces, opposition forces, civil defence forces,
irregular armed groups, and foreign forces.

Foreign irregulars who are to be escorted out of the country by international monitors should be
subject to the same disarmament requirements as nationals under arms.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

Mine clearance or demining also constitutes an important component of disarmament.

Disarmament is normally done before entering a cantonment. The disposition of heavy weapons
such as artillery, tanks, and planes is usually specified in the peace agreement. Disarmament by
a neutral party can be conducted if all parties to the conflict agree on the disarmament of their
combatants and civilians.

Light weapons can be found in households years after the end of a conflict. Experience from many
countries shows that possession of such weapons still leads to community violence.

Demobilization

Demobilization is the discharge of active combatants from armed forces or other armed
groups. The first stage of demobilization is the processing of individual combatants in centres and
camps designated for this purpose. The second stage of demobilization is the support provided to the
demobilized, which is called reinsertion.

The process of demobilization can be transitionary or conducted at purpose-built cantonments.

Here, individuals are registered, screened, and processed for reintegration programmes to begin their
transition to civilian life.

Combatants may or may not receive benefits or some form of compensation and other assistance. A
"transitionary support allowance" covers subsistence and may include a transportation voucher to allow
them to return to their home regions.

As United Nations peacekeepers, UNMO may be called on to assist and guide the contractors
undertaking the DDR work. The UN has adopted integrated DDR standards in an attempt to standardize
the terminology and approach in DDR programmes.

A good screening process

can be a cost-effective means of
achieving processing objectives.
The goal should be to create
circumstances whereby the ex-
combatant becomes independent
and self-sustaining.
UN Photo by Shehzad Noorani. UN Photo by Logan Abassi.
Sports, recreation, and
entertainment are programmes
on the encampment. The DDR
experience in Mozambique, for
example, demonstrated that the
budgetary investments in local
cultural activities, music, dance,
drama, and even soccer balls UN Photo by Eskinder Debebe. UN Photo by JC McIlwaine.

were low in cost yet yielded high Figure 3.6.2

returns.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

Burundian military groups signed up voluntarily to be disarmed under the auspices of United Nations peacekeepers and observers.
A member of the rebel forces surrenders his weapon and ammunition to Colonel Tahir (right), United Nations Operation in Burundi
peacekeeper, in Mbanda, southern Burundi. 3 February 2005. UN Photo by Martine Perret.

Educational classes in basic literacy and arithmetic, the national language, and country-based
information help prepare for reintegration.

Vocational skills and agricultural training help prepare for reintegration and affirm the commitment
of the government and the international community to the ex-combatants' welfare.

Job counselling and referral enable vocational skills, capacity, and aptitude to be assessed, ex-
combatants to investigate their prospects, and referrals for employment and social services.

Reintegration

Reintegration is the process by which ex-combatants acquire civilian status and gain
sustainable employment and income. Reintegration is essentially a social and economic process
with an open time-frame, primarily taking place in communities at the local level. It is a part of the
general development of a country and a national responsibility and often necessitates long-term external
assistance.

In most demobilization and reintegration programmes, ex-combatants go through the reinsertion

stage, where they receive some form of material and financial assistance before leaving the cantonment
sites. The principal objective of such aid packages is to assist the ex-combatants in their initial transition
from a military to a civilian environment.

There cannot be a blueprint for the content of an ideal aid package that supports the resettlement
of ex-combatants. All resettlement efforts, however, should include provisions for some form of an aid
package to help ex-combatants in starting their civilian life. The package should directly relate to such
immediate, day-to-day needs as food, clothing, shelter, transportation, and education.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

While reintegration is a long-term continuous, social, and economic process of development,

reinsertion is short-term material and/or financial assistance to meet immediate needs and can last up
to one year.

Whom is DDR For?

The majority of participants in DDR programmes are members of armed forces and groups who
served in combat and/or support roles. These members are usually men; although most members will
have been actively engaged as combatants, many will have carried out logistic and administrative tasks
or have been women and girls used for sexual exploitation.

Abduction or forced recruitment is a serious violation of human rights law. Men, women, and children
are all vulnerable to abduction or forced recruitment by armed forces and groups. The UN works for the
release of abductees associated with armed forces and groups. From the start of the DDR programme,
the priority must be to identify those who were abducted so that they can be released and assisted
accordingly.

Where dependents have accompanied armed forces or groups during the armed conflict, the unity
of the family shall be respected throughout DDR. In relation to dependents, DDR practitioners should:

• Develop criteria for establishing dependent status

• Provide dependents with access to information and counselling

• Provide for the needs of the cantonment

• Include dependents in return plans to communities of origin

• Formulate policies regarding access to reintegration benefits

• Provide for the special needs of the vulnerable

• Ensure family tracing is available for those who have been separated

Individuals associated with armed groups are not granted refugee status by the Office of the
UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), as they may have committed serious human rights
violations or war crimes. However, this does not prevent ex-combatants, possibly self-demobilized,
from being present among refugee and returnee populations. Consultation with UNHCR and refugee/
internally displaced persons (IDPs) committees is required before determining eligibility to enter the
DDR programme.

While the initial focus of DDR is on members of armed groups and forces, communities often gain
from the process. For example, they become safer when ex-combatants are disarmed, demobilized, and
assisted to become productive members of society.

Conversely, badly planned and executed DDR can be a threat to communities. Communities are
important indirect beneficiaries of reintegration assistance and should be allowed to participate in the
planning and implementation of reintegration.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

Whom is DDR For? »

• Members of armed
forces and groups

• Abductees

• Dependents

• Civilian returnees

• Communities

A female medical personnel (left) from the

Sudanese Armed Forces signs the DDR
pre-registration forms at the Al-Askaryia
military hospital site, the only Sudanese
Armed Forces site registering female
candidates. 13 December 2006. UN Photo
by Fred Noy.

Section 3.6.2 Participants and Beneficiaries

A successfully integrated DDR process leads to the transformation of individuals from combatants to
civilians and of societies from conflict to peace. These complex changes are brought about by a range of
local, national, and international actors working in partnership to achieve a common goal: Sustainable
peace.

• Members of armed forces

• Communities

• Children

• Disabled people

• Women

• Civilian returnees

• Dependents

• Youth

• Abductees

Section 3.6.3 UNMO Roles in DDR

UNMO Contributions to DDR

Information gathering and reporting. UNMO can contribute to DDR operations by seeking
information on the locations, strengths, and intentions of former combatants who may or will become
part of a DDR programme. Parties to the conflict are often reluctant to fully disclose troop strengths and
locations, and it would also be naive to assume that all combatants fully accept or trust a peace process.
As a result, accurate figures on weapons and ammunition, which are expected to be collected during
the programme, may never be available; hence there must be some degree of flexibility included in the
technical part of the programme.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

Information Dissemination. UNMO are normally widely spread across the post-conflict area and
therefore are postured to assist in DDR by distributing information. This is particularly useful when
command chains and communications are lacking. An information campaign should be planned and
monitored by the mission DDR cell and public information staff.

Reporting. UNMO can assist the mission DDR staff by monitoring and reporting on the aspects of
the progress. This work must be managed in conjunction with the JOC.

Liaise. UNMO can also liaise between the military component and civilian component during
different phases of the DDR processes.

Screening and evaluation can be a critical role played by UNMO. Eligibility should be considered
for each component of the DDR. For example, unarmed members of armed forces and groups are not
eligible for disarmament but should be eligible for demobilization and reintegration; dependents are
not eligible for disarmament and demobilization but should be eligible for reintegration; abductees and
children may need to be disarmed but may not be formally demobilized and should be eligible to receive
reintegration assistance.

UNMO should consider and plan for specific issues related to sexual violence and children during
screening. Ensuring a female UNMO is on-site can be crucial to the screening process.

Key Considerations

UNMO must consider the impact of sexual violence and the needs of children when conducting a
screening. Make yourselves aware of available related resources in the mission.

The disarmament process should be prepared to deal with disabled and chronically ill/wounded
combatants, female combatants or those associated with armed forces and groups, children
associated with armed forces and groups, and dependents. These special groups should be
screened and should be assisted by specialists, such as child protection and gender officers/advisors
and medical staff, as appropriate.

Female members of armed forces and groups who participated in armed conflict and support
roles should be part of the DDR processes. In the past, these cases have often "self-demobilized" and
experienced difficulties in civilian life.

Women should participate in all stages of DDR, from programme development, to implementation,
to monitoring and evaluation. Their special needs must be taken into account during all stages of the
DDR process.

A large proportion of the members of armed forces and groups are between 15- and 24-years-
old. The recruitment of boys and girls under the age of 18 into armed forces and groups is illegal. These
young ex-combatants may have been recruited as children but were not demobilized until they became
young adults. These are special cases in DDR and should be considered.

To successfully provide for children's needs, the DDR programme development and implementation
should be participatory, and registration strategies should be adapted to meet the needs of children in
each post-conflict situation.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

Lesson Take Away

• DDR is an important aspect of reintegrating armed

groups, abductees, dependents, civilian returnees, and
communities following a conflict.

• UNMO play an important role in the process.

Summary

Let us review. In this lesson, we discussed the different

aspects of DDR, its purpose, who benefits from the process,
and how UNMO can contribute to the process. We also focused
on some key considerations that UNMO should maintain in the
screening process, good planning practices, and integration into
the other aspects of the mission.

An elderly woman, internally displaced

from her home in Abyei by heavy fighting
between the Sudan Armed Forces and
the Sudan People's Liberation Army, gets
ready to receive her ration of emergency
food aid. 21 May 2008. UN Photo by Tim
McKulka.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

Annex E: Lesson 3.6 Learning Activity: Disarmament, Demobilization

and Reintegration (DDR) Role Playing Exercise »

UNMO STM Lesson 3.6 Learning Activity

Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR)
Role Playing Exercise

In this role-playing exercise with a military scenario, UNMOs in training should put into
practice the knowledge given regarding DDR processes in the UNMO STM Lesson 3.6

Learning Activity Time Required:

5 minutes for activity introduction and instructions and

reading the scenario
20 minutes for perform the role-playing exercise
5 minutes Complete the DDR questionnaire
15 minutes For comparing the results of the different
groups
Total time: 45 minutes

Gamagara Ceasefire Violation Scenario

The current crisis in Naraland (see attached map of Naraland), a fictitious island country
off the eastern coast of Southern Africa, has its origins in pre-colonial times. In the 1800s
the Kambo tribe was forced to flee from its ancestral lands by the more powerful
Mananca. The Mananca retained possession of the land now called Manancaland, while
the Kambo eventually settled east of the Mananca in what is now the province of
Kambona. The Kambo have never abandoned their claims to Manancaland.
During the 1960s, the Kambo launched an unprovoked attack on Manancaland that the
Mananca successfully halted. The areas held by the belligerent parties at the end of
those hostilities established the current provincial boundaries. Those boundaries have
never been accepted by belligerents despite efforts by the Naraland Government to
mediate. Repeated minor combats have taken place between the two provinces ever
since and both sides have formed militias that have caches of light weapons and
landmines at their disposal.
In recent times, the Kambona Liberation Movement (KLM) and the Manancaland
Resistance Movement (MRM) have launched several attacks in each other’s provinces.
Despite heavy fighting that has caused a large number of casualties, especially among
the civilian population, neither of the belligerents has been able to achieve its military
objectives. The Naraland Government was able to negotiate a ceasefire (the Treaty of
Windhoek) and both parties agreed to international mediation and intervention.
The UN has responded by deploying an observer mission, the United Nations Mission in
Naraland (UNMIN), to monitor the belligerent parties. The Treaty of Windhoek set in
motion the establishment of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) and disarmament of militias.
Due to the escalade of military activities, the Security Council changed the mandate of
the UNMIN, so were deployed troops in the area of mission.
Since the beginning of the mission the DDR office was explaining their task to the parties
but without too many results.
UNMIN has now been deployed for 20 months and is well established. During the past
This is quoting from UN guidance.
month, after various incidents have occurred that indicate an upsurge in tension among
the two parties, the UN deployed Forces had performed successful operations in the
area in order to establish a peaceful and secure environment neutralizing the different
parties.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Force
Commander to instruct all the Sector Commanders to contribute with the DDR process.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background, instructions and the questionnaire.
2. Divide the participants into 200
three groups of equal size and designate in
each group:
2.1 A Military Observer Team Leader
 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

Due to the escalade of military activities, the Security Council changed the mandate of
the UNMIN, so were deployed troops in the area of mission.
Since the beginning of the mission the DDR office was explaining their task to the parties
but without too many results.
UNMIN has now been deployed for 20 months and is well established. During the past
month, after various incidents have occurred that indicate an upsurge in tension among
the two parties, the UN deployed Forces had performed successful operations in the
area in order to establish a peaceful and secure environment neutralizing the different
parties.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Force
Commander to instruct all the Sector Commanders to contribute with the DDR process.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background, instructions and the questionnaire.
2. Divide the participants into three groups of equal size and designate in
each group:
2.1 A Military Observer Team Leader
2.2 A DDR officer.
2.3 A role player (KLM Militia Leader, KLM Militia Wife or Local youth)
2.4 The rest of participants must be organized as part of the team.
3. Ensure that someone is appointed to register the weapons, ammunitions
and explosives.
4. Allow each group to study the situation. Each group should select one of its
members to play the role.
5. It is up to the learning institution to decide whether the participants will play
the roles mentioned in paragraph 2.3 or if those roles will be played by
peacekeeping centre/institution’s facilitators. A different case will be played
in each group.
6. As instructors/facilitators, monitor the progress and content of the
discussions and regularly remind participants of the objective of the
exercise, without interfering unduly.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

Further Reading »
To view the accompanying assignment, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. True or False: Reintegration is a short- 7. _____ is the discharge of active

term, social, and economic process of combatants from armed forces or other
development. armed groups.
A. True A. Disarmament
B. False B. Demobilization
C. Reintegration
2. Whom is Disarmament, Demobilization,
D. All of these
and Reintegration (DDR) for?

8. _____ is the material/financial

3. The objective of the _____ process is assistance offered to ex-combatants
to contribute to security and stability during demobilization to assist the ex-
in post-conflict environments so that combatants in their initial transition
recovery and development can begin. from a military to a civilian environment.
A. UAV A. Disarmament
B. SALW B. Demobilization
C. DDR C. Reintegration
D. High-Order Burst D. Reinsertion

4. True or False: Mine clearance or 9. A large proportion of the members of

demining also constitutes an important armed forces and groups are between
component of disarmament. _____ and _____ years old.
A. True A. 15 and 24
B. False B. 18 and 30
C. 21 and 26
5. Which of the following are the ways
in which UNMO can contribute to D. 30 and 35
Disarmament, Demobilization, and
Reintegration (DDR)? 10. DDR shall _____ attaching monetary
value to weapons as means of
A. Information gathering and reporting
encouraging their surrender.
B. Information dissemination
A. encourage
C. Community engagement
B. require
D. All of these
C. avoid

6. True or False: Integrated Disarmament, D. prohibit

Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)
is NOT a part of the United Nations (UN)
system's multidimensional approach
to post-conflict peace building and
reconstruction.
A. True
B. False

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.6 | Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration (DDR)

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. B. False

2. Members of armed forces and groups; Abductees; Dependents;

Civilian returnees; Communities

3. C

4. A. True

5. D

6. B. False

7. B

8. D

9. A

10. C

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON
Mines, Explosive Remnants

3.7 of War, Improvised Explosive

Devices, and Crater Analysis

The aim of this lesson is

to provide an overview of
explosive threats that may be
encountered, best practices
on safety, and to inform
UNMO of the methodologies
and purpose of conducting
crater analysis.

UN Photo by JG.

Lesson 3.7 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.7.1 Mines and Explosive • Explain how to operate in a mined mission
Remnants of War (ERW) area in a United Nations peace operation
environment.
Section 3.7.2 Improvised Explosive

Devices (IEDs) • Identify indicators of improvised explosive

devices (IEDs), components, and mitigation
Section 3.7.3 Safety and Best Practices
measures.
Section 3.7.4 Crater Analysis
• Explain the basic procedures for crater
analysis.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

A deminer serving with the United Nations Mine Action Centre employs a bomb-sniffing dog to find unexploded landmines. 13 January
2009. UN Photo by the United Nations Mine Action Centre in Afghanistan (UNMACA).

Mines, explosive remnants of war (ERW), and improvised

explosive devices (IEDs) remain a threat to all UN and civilian
Reading »
personnel on mission. It is critical that Military Observers are Review the
able to recognize the threat and take precautions to mitigate Landmine
these threats. and Explosive
Remnants of War
The UNMO who work in areas that have experienced
and IED Safety Handbook.
armed conflict may be confronted with the threat posed by
Available from: <https://
landmines, unexploded or abandoned ordnance, abandoned
reliefweb.int/report/world/
military vehicles and equipment, and other ERW.
landmine-and-explosive-
Landmines may block access to project sites or pose
remnants-war-and-ied-safety-
a direct threat to safety even years after a conflict has
handbook-enar>.
officially ended. When working in such areas, UNMO and
organizations must be aware of the physical threats posed
by a huge variety of armaments left during and after conflict.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

It is thus necessary to protect oneself, to be aware of the threat, and to take appropriate preventive
action. This section aims to help identify mines and ERW (the term includes unexploded ordnance and
abandoned ordnance but excludes landmines) and explains how they work and their effects.

This section also explains the fundamentals of crater analysis. The projectile direction of flight can
be determined fairly accurately from its crater or ricochet furrow.

By the end of this lesson, you should have a basic knowledge and a familiarization of explosives in
a UN peace operation mission area and the procedures for crater analysis.

Figure 3.7.1

This training will NOT make you an expert. Any item of explosive ordnance that has been found
outside of a safe storage depot should never be touched. Coordinate with experts within the mission
from the military explosive ordnance disposal (EOD) units or technical experts from the UN Mine Action
Service so that the explosive hazard can be properly cleared and disposed of.

• Reinforce the need to mark and record the location of hazards found.

• Only, where possible and safe to do, mark the hazard so that others do not accidentally cause
the item of explosive ordnance to initiate.

• Consult your mission SOP for the proper reporting procedures on explosive hazards. There are
several different ways, such as the 9-line UXO (unexploded ordnance)/IED report. The UN's
IED Threat Mitigation Handbook for Military and Police provides an example.

UNMO Roles/Responsibilities

There is a need to develop partnerships with relevant experts on explosive hazards. An UNMO needs
to be able to observe, monitor, report, assess, and verify the presence of explosive hazards. They
are not required to remove the hazard — merely to recognize when they are present and report them.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Additionally, it should be noted that in most cases where Military Observers operate in mine-affected
areas, there will likely be some form of mine clearance or demining entities in existence, either the UN,
local military, non-governmental organizations, or commercial companies. These entities should always
be sought for professional assistance in case of a mine accident or when observers realize they have
entered a minefield. Self-extraction, or attempts to rescue those injured from minefields, should only be
a last resort where no other form of assistance is possible.

Section 3.7.1 Mines and Explosive Remnants of War (ERW)

Landmines

UN Photo by Sylvain Liechti.

Figure 3.7.2

Landmines can be very difficult to identify once they are placed in the ground. UNMO should consult
with UNMAS or other suitable national entities such as the Mine Action Centre for information regarding
known minefields in a mission. However, it must be noted that even where maps of minefields exist,
they can move or shift position after years in the ground. Rain, runoff, and other conditions can cause
a mine to move from its original emplacement to another location. One should never touch or move a
mine that has been found.

Mark and report it to experts.

Landmines are divided into two categories:

• Anti-personnel (AP), which are designed to target individuals

• Anti-vehicle (AV) or anti-tank (AT), which are designed to target vehicles

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Explosive Remnants of War

UN Photo by Abel Kavanagh. UN Photo by Marco Dormino.

UN Photo by Sylvain Liechti. UN Photo by Marco Dormino.

Figure 3.7.3

ERW is comprised of both abandoned explosive ordnance (AXO), which has been left behind by
armed forces but that has never been fired, and unexploded ordnance (UXO), which has been fired
but has failed to function. Always assume that the munition is unsafe to touch.

ERW include:
Landmines »
• Small arms ammunition
Anti-personnel mines (AP)
• Grenades
Anti-vehicle mines (AV)
• Bombs
• Wound/kill
• Sub munitions
• Destroy/damage vehicles
• Landmines • Buried under the surface
• Projectiles • Camouflaged

• Rockets • Locations shift in time.

• Consult experts.
• Guided missiles
• Do not touch or move.
In the following sections, we will show you some examples
of ERW. There are numerous types of each, which can be
difficult to identify.

Projectile Shells from artillery and mortars, along with bombs, missiles, and rockets, also comprise
ERW. Depending on the source of manufacture, military ordnance has a percentage failure rate, which
means that not all munitions will detonate as intended.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

UN Photo by Arvidsson. UN Photo by Albert Gonzalez Farran.

UN Photo by Nektarios Markogiannis. UN Photo by Pierre-Michel Virot.

Figure 3.7.4

Where are Mines and ERW?

Mines and ERW Markings »
Here are some areas where mines and ERW can
be found. » Official markings

Indicators to identify Danger Areas:

» Local markings
• An armed clash took place
» Humanitarian markings
• Areas of military activities

• Damaged buildings/vehicles

• Bridges, culverts, and water points

• Restricted/marked areas

• Barriers and road closures

• Abandoned weapons

• Ammunition storage

• Injured/dead animals A circle of stones rings an unexploded ordnance on the

desert plain in Bir Lahlou, Western Sahara. 21 June 2003.
• Overgrown, not used areas or paths UN Photo by Evan Schneider.

Mines and ERW Markings

If an area is known to have mines and ERW, it is likely that the locals or some agency have placed
warning signs or indicators. UNMO should familiarize themselves with the local practices for marking
explosive hazards.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

UNMO should ensure that they have material on them to mark mines and ERW when they are on
mission. In the absence of official mine markers, UNMO should ensure that they have other material
that could be used to mark the hazard, such as red flags, paint, or other visible indicators.

Other Indicators of Mines/ERW

» Tripwires, low to the ground

» Ammunition cans

» Dead or blast injured animals

» Damaged, cleared vegetation

» Regularly spaced potholes/craters

» Bypasses, tracks around good areas of the road

Just because there are no official or makeshift markers and flags, it does not mean that the area
is safe. UNMO should remain vigilant to these other indicators of potential hazards in their area. UNMO
should always pay attention to their surroundings.

Mines and ERW Difficult to Spot

Mines and UXO can be very difficult to see. This is why it is important to look for other indicators,
which were covered in the previous section. UXO can be buried in the dirt and can be difficult
to see when they have rusted. Mines are often laid to be unseen beneath the road. Always
assume that if you have found one explosive item, it is likely that there are others.

Emergency Procedures in Minefields

If you ever find yourself in a minefield, it is crucial that you do NOT panic. Remain calm and do not
move, even when others have been injured. STOP AND THINK. Only move as an absolute last option. It
is better to wait in a minefield for days than to step on a mine.

• M — Movement STOPS — do not exit a vehicle.

• I — Inform people and radio HQ for assistance.

• N — Note area and tell HQ what is in the area.

• E — Evaluate your options and carefully consider a plan.

• D — Do not move. It's better to wait for days than to be killed by a mine. Wait for a specialist.

You should never enter a minefield to assist a casualty, unless it is the last resort. Instead, contact
HQ and request MEDEVAC and assistance from the UN or the local military, NGO, or Commercial Mine
Action organizations to enable extraction. Reassure the victim that assistance is in-route and prepare
first aid equipment in a safe area.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Figure 3.7.5

If no assistance is available, consider a plan with a detailed risk assessment. Utilize a handheld
detector to clear a safe path to the victim — place markers so you know where the boundaries of the
cleared path are. Then clear a path around the victim to ensure a safe space to operate. If you must
move, carefully retrace your steps. It is very difficult to do this unless your footprints are clearly visible
in snow or mud.

If you are in a vehicle, do not move. Do not turn the steering wheel. Do not exit the vehicle. Do
not reverse the vehicle. Wait for help. If you absolutely must exit the vehicle, use a handheld detector
to clear a space before you depart the vehicle. Remain in the vehicle tracks and move away from the
vehicle with a minimum of 25 meters between people.

Section 3.7.2 Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)

IEDs have become the leading cause of casualties for the United Nations. Their improvised nature
makes them easy to construct and emplace — and they can have a deadly impact on a mission.

IEDs are categorized into three categories determined by how they are designed to function:

» Victim-operated

» Command-initiated

» Time-initiated

In this section of the lesson, we should focus our attention on how to identify the indicators of IEDs
but also be aware of their components. Knowledge of the material used to construct IEDs will assist the
mission in determining the threat network.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Improvised explosive devices:

• Placed or fabricated

• Improvised manner

• Destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals

• To destroy, incapacitate, harass, or distract

• May incorporate military stores

• Normally devised from non-military components

Constraints facing manufacturers of IEDs are components imagination to set up the

devices.

Improvised Explosive Devices »

• Power Sources

• Initiator

• Explosives

• Container

• Switch

Ugandan soldiers serving with the African

Union Mission in Somalia sort through a bag
of hand grenades and other munitions that
were used by the extremist group Al Shabaab
to make improvised explosive devices at a
former steel factory in Mogadishu. The mission
and Transitional Federal Government's forces
dislodged remnants of Al Shabaab from the
factory following the withdrawal of most of
the extremist group's forces from Mogadishu.
Evidence at the factory suggests the group
was also manufacturing suicide vests and car
bombs. 15 August 2011. UN Photo by Stuart
Price.

An IED is generally comprised of five components — A Switch, Power Source, Initiator, Container,
and a Main Charge (Explosive) but may also have additional enhancements added at the time. The six
possible components of an IED can be remembered by the acronym PIECES: Power, initiator, explosive,
container, enhancements, and switch.

A power source is required to "complete the circuit" and detonate the device. Common power
sources are 9-volt batteries.

An initiator is an item that is used to detonate the main charge. Initiators can be electric or non-
electric and are very sensitive explosives. They are sometimes referred to as blasting caps and are very
sensitive to heat, shock, and friction and should never be touched.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

The main charge or the explosives can be military-grade, such as C4, or home-made, such as
fertilizers.

The container for the explosives can be anything suitable, including backpacks, pressure cookers,
plastic jugs.

Enhancements are any other items added that increase the effects, for example, ball bearings and
nails.

A switch is what causes the IED to function. It can be a pressure plate, a phone, a passive infrared
sensor, or a car alarm. There is no limit to what can be used to detonate an IED.

IEDs are categorized into three categories determined by how they are designed to function.

Victim-operated IEDs detonate when a person or vehicle conducts an action that subsequently
causes the device to function. Things like pressure plates and passive infrared (PIR) switches are
examples.

Command-initiated IEDs detonate at the direction of the aggressor. This can be done remotely, as
is the case with cell phones or key fobs in which the attacker is not physically connected to a device, or
directly, as is the case with command wire in which a long wire connects the IED to the attacker.

The last device type is a time-initiated device. These are set to function after a set period of time
and are typically attached to a digital or analogue clock.

Victim-Operated IEDs (VOIEDs)

Figure 3.7.6

Figure 3.7.6 is an example of a pressure plate IED, which is an example of a victim-operated IED
(VOIED) in which a pressure plate acts as the victim-operated switch, which may involve a person
standing on or vehicle driving over the plate, and the explosive main charge is an item of military
ordnance; in this case, you see the smaller picture showing a 155 mm projectile.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Command Wire IEDs

Figure 3.7.7

Figure 3.7.7 is an example of a command-initiated IED. In this example, a command-initiated

IED contains a switch that is activated by an aggressor by which they control the device. These IEDs
normally feature separation between the main explosive charge and the firing switch.

This allows the aggressor to target from a safe distance. The aggressor who fires the command IED
is referred to as a triggerman. An IED fired by command gives the aggressor full control. Command
IEDs are especially suited to attacking mobile targets.

To implement an attack using a command IED, an aggressor needs to be able to select two suitable
locations: Where the IED is emplaced and the triggerman's firing point.

There are many methods to fire an IED by command. Two main methods are radio control and
command wire. Other methods include pulling a string, technologies that complete an action.

Radio-Controlled Wire IED

Figures 3.7.8 and 3.7.9 are examples of radio-controlled (RC) switches, which are a type of
command-initiated IED in which the attacker determines the exact point of detonation. These are IEDs
that are unlinked command IED, which utilize a two-part firing switch consisting of a transmitter and a
receiver. In these cases, the triggerman has control of the transmitter and the receiver. All these IEDs
are initiated using the electromagnetic spectrum.

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LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Figure 3.7.8

Figure 3.7.9

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Explosives/Main Charges

Explosives can come in many different forms; here are three common forms:

• Military-grade explosives such as C4 or SEMTEX are difficult to procure. However, following

a conflict, ERW such as projectiles and bombs are often used as main charges. Aggressors are
known to remove the main charge filing from ERW for use in IEDs. This is why it is critical to
report any ERW found. In countries where state munitions depots have been overrun, a surplus
of military-grade munitions can easily be incorporated into IEDs.

• Commercial explosives used for mining and other legitimate purposes can be stolen or
diverted and incorporated into IEDs.

• Home-made explosives are often fertilizer-based, so remain vigilant to indications of large

amounts of fertilizer where no farming activity is conducted.

Section 3.7.3 Safety and Best Practices

Figure 3.7.10

We will now talk about how to identify the signs of an IED. There are certain signatures or
commonalities that aggressors may leave or change in the area that they intend to emplace an IED
and conduct an attack. These signatures are known as IED indicators. Certain indicators have been
consistently recorded that may be used by those required to operate in an IED threat environment to
assess when an IED attack is imminent. IED indicators are not necessarily always present for an attack,
nor are they all used by aggressors in a given area of operations.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

• When an IED is emplaced, the local pattern of life may change, resulting in atmospheric
changes in the area.

• This may then be accompanied by warning signs left to notify locals of a pending attack.

• The presence of aiming markers is needed for triggermen for a command IED.

• Recognition of ground signs by Special Forces of IED emplacement is important.

• Examination of their surroundings for objects out of place can also act as an IED indicator.

It is important that junior leaders involved in operating

in an IED threat environment are AWARE of the possible IED
Ground »
indicators in use and report such observations. • Ground signs are

The possible IED indicators described by "AWARE" are an the most essential

aid to planning and maintaining a high degree of situational indicators.

awareness. The purpose of AWARE is to recognize IED indicators • There is evidence

and communicate them to persons at risk. of change from the
natural state.
IED Indicators/Ground Signs
• Emplacement and
Always look where you are walking. Disturbed earth is one
concealment leave
of the most important indicators of an IED — freshly dug holes
signs.
or dirt used to conceal a wire are often visible when you are
paying attention.

IED Warning and Aiming Markers

In addition to the ground signs, attackers often leave other markers to indicate the presence of an
IED. Rocks that seem out of place, cloth tied to a tree, and markings on a wall have all been used to
warn the local population of an IED.

For command-operated IEDs, an attacker will often emplace the device next to a clearly visible
marker such as a telephone pole. This is to assist them in detonating the device at the right time after
they have moved a safe distance away.

No one sign or indicator is a guarantee of an IED. You must use your experience, observations, and
instinct to avoid the threat. Finding an IED can be very difficult — it is best to develop practices to avoid
becoming a target. These will be covered in the coming sections.

Avoid Setting Patterns

Discussion »
The key message in the next few sections is simple; UNMO must
Do you have other
avoid setting patterns. It is important to understand that it is not about
IED avoidance but mitigating the risks that make you an aggressor ideas on how to avoid

target. In the past, your "UN" helmet and flack vest provided a degree of setting patterns and

immunity. However, in today's asymmetric environment, the UN is often other means to mitigate
specifically targeted in missions by armed groups. risks of being a target?

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Figure 3.7.11

For example:

• An UNMO leaves at 1:56 pm on Monday using the green route.

• On Tuesday, the UNMO departs same time and takes the same route.

• On Wednesday, the UNMO leaves at the same time and again takes the same route, making
the UNMO an easy target for an attacker.

Make yourself a "hard target" by making it more difficult for would-be attackers to target you.
The best and easiest ways to avoid becoming a target are by taking simple measures to avoid setting
patterns. When heading out on patrol, vary your times of departure and the route you take — especially
if you are going to the same location. Before all patrols, you should conduct a risk analysis/assessment
to include counter-IED efforts (C-IED) that covers who, what, when, where, and why.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

0/5/25 Meter Checks

Figure 3.7.12

So far, we have talked about how to recognize an IED and some basic practices to avoid becoming
a target. Now we are going to talk about some practical things you can start doing that should become
a habit for you to help mitigate risk.

• Conduct a visual inspection of the ground and space around you and your vehicle.

• Passengers and the driver conduct visual scans out to five meters around the vehicle.

• When getting out of the vehicle, look to where you put your feet before stepping outside.

• Get out of the vehicle and look at the area under the vehicle.

• Visually scan the area around the vehicle.

• The pre-designated passenger conducts a visual scan out to 25 meters.

• All look for tell-tale signs of IEDs or other threats (use AWARE to help).

Get in the habit of visually inspecting the area you are in every time you get out of your vehicle. This
practice is known as conducting 5's and 25's.

When travelling in a convoy or security, the members of the other vehicle should also do the same.

Actions on Finding an IED

If you find an IED, do not approach or touch. There is often a second IED placed nearby. Ensure
you know the mission's reporting procedures for IEDs. Special units need to have certain information in
order to safely find the location and disarm the IED.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Figure 3.7.13

The purpose of the 5-C drill is to carry out a risk assessment to mitigate risk if an IED initiates.

Confirm. Never put yourself or others (not trained in EOD or explosives) in danger at any time to
confirm; gain knowledge from other sources means where you can keep a safe distance. To the best
of your knowledge, once you make an assessment that it is a probable IED, safety and security and
protecting personnel should be your main concern.

Clear. Ensuring that there is stand-off distance and it is maintained. One must take charge and
clear people away to a safe distance. You should consider the following factors. (Approx. Estimation —
500 meters of clearance from the explosive for explosive the size of a backpack; this 500 meters is not a
rule, as there may be multiple IEDs and other threats in the area). Conduct a risk analysis in the area to
better determine safe areas and areas for evacuation. For more specifics on clearing, use the 5C guide
in the reference Annex.

Cordon. Having cleared the area around a possible IED, a cordon to control access is required.
Civilians would not normally be allowed into the cleared area. The location of the cordon positions
should avoid obvious locations that may be predictable and targeted with secondary IEDs.

Control. If UN or security forces are available, they are the best source for controlling the area. A
key action in controlling the scene of a suspected IED is the need to continually reassess the situation
and potential threats for any changes that need to be made to the clearance, cordon, or other security
measures implemented.

Call. Report who, what, when, where, and why to your higher/reporting HQs or operations centre.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Section 3.7.4 Crater Analysis

Figure 3.7.14

We are now going to shift away from explosive awareness and talk about crater analysis. This can
be a very important skill for an UNMO to develop in order to recognize the signs of an artillery or mortar
attack but also to determine the direction to the point of origin. Always remember your UXO awareness
training. Mortars and artillery shells that have not detonated are NOT safe to touch or move.

To start off, ensure that you have the right equipment. A compass, stakes, and a wire or piece of
rope are essential. Additionally, bring a camera to photograph the area and the crater. Lastly, a curvature
template is helpful in determining the caliber of the weapon. Use GPS to get the exact location of the
crater.

A curvature template is used when a large enough piece of Analysis »

shrapnel can be found. It is best to bring any shrapnel pieces
collected back for experts from the United Nations Mine Action • Value of analysis.
Service (UNMAS) or the EOD unit to help determine the caliber of • Confirm the presence of
the munition. Experts can sometimes identify the exact munition belligerent artillery.
type and weapon system that fired it by shell fragments.
• Determine the direction to
Shelled areas must be inspected as soon as possible. source.
Craters that are exposed to the elements or are tampered with
• Verify or determine firing
deteriorate rapidly, thereby losing their value.
positions.
Always safety first; be aware of the area in which the shell
• Detect presence of new
impacted and possible reasons for targeting the area. Is the area
weapons and caliber.
safe? Are you being lured into the site?

The detonation of a low-angle fuse quick projectile causes an inner crater. The burst and momentum
of the shell carry the effect forward and to the sides, forming an arrow that points to the rear (toward
the weapon from which the round was fired). The fuse continues along the line of flight, creating

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

a fuse furrow. The best results are obtained

by determining a mean, or average, of several
directions obtained.

To conduct this type of analysis, the following

procedure is helpful:

• Place a stake in the centre of the crater.

• Place a second stake in the fuse furrow

(the front of the crater).
The team member uses a roller for a first sweep of the area
• Set up a direction-measuring instrument before deploying on-foot human searchers and sweepers
in line with the stakes and away from into the area. The roller is driven in front of a Casspir, a
mine-protected vehicle. The new rollers are more advanced
fragments.
and can control the profiling of the ground array and the
• Orient the instrument. ground pressure rating. UNMAS contractor marking a
minefield. 22 January 2015. UN Photo by JC McIlwaine.
• Measure the direction to the hostile
weapon.

There are two types of low-angle fuse delay craters: Ricochet and mine action crater. A mine action
crater that does not have a furrow cannot be used to determine the direction of the weapon.

Ricochet Craters. The projectile enters the ground in a line following the trajectory and continues
in a straight line for a few feet, causing a ricochet furrow. The projectile then normally deflects upward.
At the same time, it changes direction. The change of direction usually is to the right as the result of
the spin, or rotation, of the projectile. The effect of the airburst can be noted on the ground. Directions
obtained from ricochet craters are considered to be the most reliable. The five steps required to
determine the direction from a ricochet furrow are as follows:

• Clean out the furrow.

• Place a stake at each end of a usable straight of the furrow.

• Set up a direction-measuring instrument in line with the stakes portion away from fragments.

• Orient the instrument.

• Measure the direction of the weapon.

Mine Action Craters. Mine action crater occurs when a shell bursts beneath the ground.
Occasionally, such a burst will leave a furrow that can be analyzed in the same manner as the ricochet
furrow.

Mortar Crater Analysis

In a typical high-angle mortar crater, the turf at the forward edge (the direction away from the
hostile mortar) is undercut. The rear edge of the crater is shorn of vegetation and grooved by splinters.
When fresh, the crater is covered with loose earth, which must be carefully removed to disclose the firm
burnt inner crater. The ground surrounding the crater is streaked by splinter grooves that radiate from
the point of detonation. The ends of the splinter grooves on the rearward side are on an approximately
straight line. This line is perpendicular to the horizontal trajectory of the round. A fuse tunnel is caused
by the fuse burying itself at the bottom of the inner crater in front of the point of detonation.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

The four steps used to determine direction by the main axis method are as follows:

• Lay a stake along the main axis of the crater, dividing the crater into symmetrical halves. The
stake points in the direction of the mortar.

• Set up a direction-measuring instrument in line with the stake and away from fragments.

• Orient the instrument.

• Measure the direction to the weapon.

Figure 3.7.15

Left: Artillery Round Quick Fuse (Centre Stake Method). Crater from a rocket impacting from a low or medium angle fall; analyzed as
an artillery crater. Right: Artillery Round (Fuse Delay). Ricochet Furrow Method.

Direction and Point of Origin

Multiple crater analysis can provide a more accurate determination of the location of the firing
position and can be used to determine the distance away once plotted on a map.

A rocket crater
resulting from a rocket
impacting with a low or
medium angle of fall is
analyzed in the same
manner as an artillery
crater resulting from
a projectile armed
with a quick action
fuse. However, if the
rocket impacts with a
high angle of fall, the
crater is analyzed in
the same manner as a
crater resulting from a
Figure 3.7.16
mortar round fired with
a quick action fuse.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

The tail fins, rocket motor, body, and other parts of the rocket may be used to determine the caliber
and type of rocket fired.

Fragment Analysis

When conducting shell

analysis, do not touch or move
a UXO (unexploded ordnance),
as the shell could still detonate.
Always consult an expert from
EOD or UNMAS.

Shell Fragment Analysis.

Identification by weapon type and
caliber may be determined from
shell fragments found in shell
craters. Dimensions of the parts,
as well as those of the complete
shell, vary according to the caliber
and type of shell. Figure 3.7.17

Before we continue, let us define what low and high orders of explosions are: Low-order explosion
describes an explosive event where the blast pressure front moves slowly, displacing or heaving (rather
than shattering) objects in its path. A high-order explosion describes an explosive event where the blast
pressure front moves rapidly, shattering objects in its path.

UXO and Low-Order Bursts. The most logical means of identifying the caliber of a projectile
is to inspect a UXO of that caliber. However, since a UXO may not always be available or may be too
dangerous to handle, a low-order burst is the next best means of identification. When the explosive
filler is not completely detonated, a low-order burst occurs, and large shell fragments result. Such large
pieces can be used to identify thread count, curvature, wall thickness, and so forth.

High-Order Bursts. A high-order burst normally results in small, deformed fragments. These
fragments are useless for identification purposes unless they include a section of either the rotating
band or the rotating band seat. Each shell has its own distinctive rotating band markings.

Rotating Bands and Band Seats. A shell may be identified as to caliber, type, and the nation of
origin from the:

• Pattern or rifling imprints on rotating bands

• Width, number, and size of rotating bands

• Dimensions and pattern of keying or knurling on the rotating band seat

• Dimensions and pattern of rotating band seat and knurling impressed on the rotating band

NOTE: Except for the rotating bands and band seats of the tail fins, different types of shells may
be identical in one dimension (such as wall thickness), but seldom will they be alike in two or more
dimensions. Therefore, it is necessary to obtain two or more dimensions to make a positive identification.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

Tail Fins. A mortar can be identified from the tail fins. Tail fins often are found in the fuse tunnel of
the crater. A mortar that is not fin-stabilized may be identified from the pieces of the projectile on which
the rifling is imprinted.

Fuses. Since the same type of fuse may be used with several different calibers or types of projectiles,
it is impossible to establish the type and caliber of a weapon by this means.

Summary

Let us review.

• UNMO should be aware of the different types of explosive hazards in order to accurately report
and assess.

• Never attempt to touch or move any explosive hazard.

• IEDs have become the weapon of choice of many armed groups.

• Seek assistance from the UN or other entity experts.

• Be AWARE of possible IED indicators.

• IED parts — SPICE — Switch, Power Source, Initiator, Container, Explosive.

• Be a hard target; avoid setting patterns.

• Crater analysis — determine the direction and location of weapon systems and examine
fragments for explosive order (EO) caliber and type.

Ugandan soldiers serving with the African Union Mission in Somalia walk past munitions suspected to have been used by the Al
Shabaab insurgent group to make IEDs on the outskirts of Afgooye, a town to the west of Somali capital Mogadishu. On the third day
of the mission's joint offensive with the Somali National Army, dubbed "Operation Free Shabelle", troops have advanced to almost two
kilometers outside the strategically important town, having captured along the way swathes of territory previously under the control of
Al Shabaab. 24 May 2012. UN Photo by Stuart Price.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. As an UNMO, you can make yourself a 6. What is an ERW? Name some examples.
"hard target" for attackers by _____.
A. varying your time of departure 7. True or False: If there are no official or
makeshift markers and flags, it means
B. varying your route
that the area is safe.
C. conducting a risk analysis before all patrols
A. True
D. All of the above
B. False

2. What should you do if you find yourself

in a minefield? 8. MINED is an acronym used to help UNMO
remember what to do when they find
themselves in a minefield. What does the
3. A 5-C drill is used to carry out a risk
"N" stand for?
assessment to mitigate risk if an IED
initiates. The 5-Cs are: A. Never panic

A. Confirm, Clear, Cordon, Control, Call B. No assistance

B. Cancel, Command, Clear, Cordon, Call C. Note the area

C. Command, Carry, Confirm, Call, D. Never initiate

Corroborate
9. _____ improvised explosive devices
D. Corroborate, Crater, Cancel, Call, Control (IEDs) detonate at the direction of the
aggressor.
4. What are some signs that an IED might
be emplaced? A. Victim-operated
B. Command-initiated
5. Landmines are divided into what two C. Time-initiated
categories? D. All of these
A. Anti-personnel and anti-vehicle
B. Abandoned explosive ordnance and 10. _____ are set to function after a set
period of time and are typically attached
unexploded ordnance
to a digital or analogue clock.
C. Victim-operated and command-initiated
A. Victim-operated
D. Military-grade explosives and home-made
B. Command-initiated
explosives
C. Time-initiated
D. All of these

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.7 | Mines, Explosive Remnants of War, Improvised Explosive Devices, and Crater Analysis

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. D

2. Do not move and radio for assistance.

3. A
4. Disturbed earth, freshly dug holes, wires from the ground,
marking rocks, flags, warning writing on walls.

5. A

6. Explosive remnants of war are both unexploded ordnance

(UXO) and abandoned ordnance (AXO). Examples are rockets,
grenades, bombs, mortars.

7. B. False

8. C

9. B

10. C

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

3.8 Language Assistants

By the end of this lesson,

you should be able to explain
how best to use language
assistants in a UN PKO
mission.

UN Photo by UNHCR/A Hollmann.

Lesson 3.8 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.8.1 Who are Language • Explain the administrative arrangement for
Assistants? language assistants.

Section 3.8.2 Administration of Language • Describe the preparation steps when working
Assistants with language assistants.

Section 3.8.3 Planning and Preparation • Explain how to use a language assistant in an
exercise.
Section 3.8.4 Challenges

Section 3.8.5 Work with Language

Assistants

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 LESSON 3.8 | Language Assistants

The United Nations Observer Mission in Georgia Military Observers' winter survival exercise in the Caucasus mountains. 1 March 2004.
UN Photo by Justyna Melnikiewicz.

Overview
Discussion »
Due to the multinational nature of peacekeeping operations, most
Have you worked
peacekeepers will not be able to communicate with local people of the
with a language
host country in their own language. The UN will typically employ local
assistant (LA) in a
people as language assistants to help peacekeepers with translation
UN PKO mission?
and interpretation.
What are some
This unit provides some guidance on how to work with language techniques that
assistants and how to make use of a language assistant in a negotiation helped you use
or conflict situation. It will help you to understand the cultural context the LA effectively?
that creates the need for interpretation and to understand the roles Write down these
and importance of language assistants. It will also include practical techniques and
information and good techniques for working with language assistants. review the list for

As an UNMO, you will most likely be working with language completeness at the

assistants, sometimes called "LAs" for short. It is important that you end of the lesson.

understand the proper and best methodology to work effectively and

efficiently with them.

In short, by the end of this lesson, you should be able to explain

how best to use language assistants in a UN PKO mission.

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 LESSON 3.8 | Language Assistants

Section 3.8.1 Who are Language Assistants?

Most interpreters in peacekeeping operations are not professionally trained. They have some
knowledge of the mission language, which is usually English or French, and the local languages. These
individuals have been hired by the mission as "language assistants" or LAs. Very few language assistants
receive formal training in interpretation.

Think of your language assistant as your ambassador to the local community. Language
assistants are normally influential in their communities because they are more educated.

Section 3.8.2 Administration of Language Assistants

The mission will have SOPs, policies, and
contracts governing the administration of language
assistants. It is important for UNMO to review these
modalities prior to working with language assistants.

Language assistants usually live and stay

within their own communities and will be asked by
family and friends about the experience of working
with the United Nations. This can lead to potential
United Nations police officers based in Akobo, South
security risks for both the language assistant and
Sudan, speak with three women detained inside a
the mission due to confidential issues. Maintain traditional tukul house at the local police headquarters.
situational awareness in the area of security and From right to left: Yuri Makarenko of Ukraine; Joseph
Mringera of Kenya; and Simon Machar, language assistant.
take precautions to ensure your language assistants
10 April 2013. UN Photo by Martine Perret.
are not at risk or put in a dangerous situation.

Section 3.8.3 Planning and Preparation

Preparation

Proper planning and preparation must be done prior to using a language assistant. A risk assessment
should be conducted prior to any LA activity/event. Here are three major areas that should be considered.
We will go into more detail on these topics in the next few sections.

• Information management

• Security issues

• Sensitive issues

Planning

» Information Management

Inform the language assistant in advance — as many working days ahead of time as possible
to allow scheduling and preparation.

Provide as much written information as possible, as far ahead as possible; this will allow
familiarization with materials, checking for meaning and context. Include the following items:

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 LESSON 3.8 | Language Assistants

• An agenda, list, titles, and backgrounds of speakers

• Copies of speeches, talking points, and documents to be distributed

• A list of technical words

Brief the language assistants about the event and the exact role expected of them.

• Will simultaneous translation be needed?

• Are copies of the presentation provided ahead of time?

• Will there be interpretation into a number of different languages?

• How many people will be speaking?

• Will there be a panel, group, or one speaker?

» Security Issues

Be aware of what potential security problems exist and inform the language assistant.
Be aware of the possibility of being in a location where the language assistant's ethnicity, role, or
relationship to others may put them at risk or compromise them. In some cases, another language
assistant may be required. Ensure adequate security for any venue used. UNMO must conduct a risk
assessment prior to any event when risks are identified.

» Sensitivity Issues

Pay specific attention to the needs of

female language assistants; examples may
include:

• Can they travel away from home?

• Is it appropriate to travel with

females by themselves, or should it
be separately or with another female
or family chaperone?

• Are there separate toilet facilities at

the venue?

• Is the venue one that is accessible

and open to women?

• What transport/security requirements

need to take place? Figure 3.8.1

Be aware of the sensitivity of a topic and questions/answers. Language assistants/interpreters may

be reluctant to interpret these or change the meaning to avoid embarrassment or offence. It may be
culturally inappropriate or embarrassing for male/female interpreters to interpret certain topics in public
or in front of the opposite sex.

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 LESSON 3.8 | Language Assistants

Section 3.8.4 Challenges

Interpreting a conversation between two
people of different languages and cultures
requires special sensitivity to and knowledge
of those languages and cultures so that
the words, together with the substance,
emotion, and context of the statements, can
be accurately communicated.

Due to these facts, some of what you

As part of the Ebola Emergency Response, peacekeepers from
say to the other party might not be conveyed
Uruguay serving with the United Nations Organization Stabilization
and understood in the same way as you said Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo perform daily

it or intended it to be understood. Likewise, patrols to ensure the security of the Butembo-Kalunguta road axes
in North Kivu and enable the Ebola response team to travel safely
you might not hear what the other party
and continue their work in the Kalunguta health zone. Seen in this
wanted to communicate to you. Instruct your photo are photographer Martine Perret; language assistant Mola

language assistant to be accurate and not to (second from right); Dacosta (left); Corporal Ugo Romero (back
left). 22 August 2019. UN Photo.
editorialize or change the meaning of what
is said.

Remember to devote twice the amount of a regular time estimate when you conduct a meeting,
negotiation, or mediation with interpretation.

Due to a lack of professional training, the interpretation might not be complete or accurate.

The major impact of communication happens through body language, postures, gestures, and eye
contact. The tone of voice has a high impact as well, and the least impact happens through the content
or the words used.

It often happens that the LAs cannot be deployed timely to the TS due to the lack of available
resources and the renewal of the contracts.

Section 3.8.5 Work with Language Assistants

Good Techniques

Since your language assistant most likely hasn't received formal training as an interpreter, you have
to brief him/her on how you want to conduct the session.

• Instruct your language assistant on the physical position you want them to take, such as six
inches behind you on your right when standing and talking or seated to your left when sitting
down.

• Keep looking at the person to whom you are speaking, not the language assistant, and keep
eye contact ― or show that you are focused on the other person in whatever way may be
culturally appropriate under the circumstances.

• Instruct the language assistant to repeat what is being said, not to give you a summary or
evaluation.

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 LESSON 3.8 | Language Assistants

• Brief the language assistant not to analyze, edit, purge, or "value-judge" any of the statements.
The language assistant may, however, explain the cultural nuances or context for you as
necessary, in addition to interpretation, and clearly distinguish the interpretation from the
contextualization.

The obligation of the negotiator/mediator is to make the work of the language assistant as easy as
possible:

• Use short sentences and encourage others to do the same.

• Avoid technical terms and abbreviations (where unavoidable, discuss the issues with the language
assistant/interpreters beforehand so that they can prepare appropriate translations).

• Avoid idioms and jokes that are culturally specific.

Summary

Preparation and planning are key elements when working with a language assistant.

• Brief the language assistants about the event and their expected role.

• Be aware of risks and potential security issues; conduct risk assessments.

• Pay attention to particular needs of certain because of gender.

• Be aware of the cultural sensitivity of topics, questions, and answers.

• Look at the person to whom you are speaking, not the language assistant.

• Brief the language assistant not to analyze, edit, purge, or "value-judge" statements. The
language assistant may, however, explain cultural nuances or context.

The Learning Activity for Lesson 3.8, Scenario-Based Role Playing Exercise "LOCALS’
UNWILLINGNESS TO NEGOTIATE", can be found in Appendix A, which is located in full in the
Online Classroom.

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 LESSON 3.8 | Language Assistants

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. List the areas of preparation when 6. What are three major areas that should
working with language assistants. be considered prior to any language
assistant (LA) activity/event?
2. True or False: Most interpreters in
peacekeeping operations are not 7. True or False: Language assistants may
professionally trained. explain the cultural nuances or context
A. True to you if necessary.

B. False A. True
B. False
3. Which are the following challenges you
may encounter when you use a language 8. Instruct your language assistant to
assistant? _____ and not to _____.
A. Potential security risks for both the LA and A. editorialize; be accurate
the mission due to confidential issues B. be accurate; editorialize
B. LAs may edit, purge, or "value-judge" C. change the meaning of what is said;
statements editorialize
C. LA may give incomplete/inaccurate D. None of these
interpretations
D. All of these 9. The major impact of communication
happens through which of the following?
4. Individuals hired by the mission to act A. Body language
as interpreters are called what?
B. Postures
A. HOMs C. Gestures
B. Ambassadors D. All of these
C. Language assistants (LAs)
D. UNMO 10. True or False: Always look at the
language assistant and not at the person
5. Language assistants (LAs) usually live to whom you are speaking.
and stay in _____. A. True
A. their own communities B. False
B. the mission's compounds
C. a hotel paid for by the mission
D. barracks

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.8 | Language Assistants

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. Answers include but are not limited to:

• Inform the language assistant in advance

• Provide documents prior

• Brief the language assistant about the event and the exact role expected of them

• Identify potential security problems and inform the language assistant; ensure adequate security for language assistants; conduct a risk
assessment

• Pay specific attention to gender needs of language assistants

• Ensure language assistant understand not to editorialize interpretation

2. A. True

3. D

4. C
5. A

6. Information management; Security issues; Sensitive issues

7. A. True

8. B

9. D

10. B. False

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

3.9 Media Relations

The aim of this section is to

familiarize Military Observers
with how individual interviews
contribute to the force media
strategy and develop their skills
in conducting interviews in order
to achieve positive effects in
sharing information with the
media.

UN Photo by Astrid-Helene Meister.

Lesson 3.9 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.9.1 Peacekeeping and the News • Explain the importance of media relations.

Section 3.9.2 Impacts of Media Reporting • Describe the role of the Public Information
Officer (PIO) in the force media strategy.
Section 3.9.3 Public Information Office

(PIO) • Explain how to conduct yourself in a simple

media interview.
Section 3.9.4 UNMO Responsibilities
• Discuss what information can be released to
Section 3.9.5 Relating to the Media
the media.
Section 3.9.6 Do's and Don'ts

Section 3.9.7 Managing an Interview

Section 3.9.8 Sample Media Questions

Annex F Lesson 3.9 Learning Activity:

Media Relations Role Playing

Exercise

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

Jan Egeland (left), former Under-Secretary-General for Humanitarian Affairs and UN Emergency Relief Coordinator, and Riek Machar
(right), Vice-President of the government of southern Sudan, speak to the press in Juba, Sudan, following their meeting on peace
talks between the Lord's Resistance Army and the Ugandan government. 11 November 2006. UN Photo by Tim McKulka.

Overview
While United Nations peacekeeping operations attract the attention of the
media, not all media reports are balanced and fair. Local media, for example,
may be so close to the situation that they are unwilling or unable to report
objectively. International media may overlook or misunderstand local elements
of vital importance. They may be more interested in reporting on the conflict
rather than on the peace process itself.

To help the peace process succeed, a peacekeeping mission must ensure

that it produces public information that is truthful, credible, and impartial.
Information that is inaccurate, unclear, or untimely can harm the mission. All
mission personnel communicate to the public through their actions and by the
impressions they make on a person-to-person basis. Hence, peacekeepers must
be able to understand the impact of their actions on the public.

All peacekeepers should understand that their engagement with the media
in mind is approved and cleared to do so. Mindful responses can have a positive
effect. Negative answers, irresponsible comments, or unclear answers can cause
harm. The media may distort information or misquote the person they interview.
For those reasons, peacekeepers need to know how to conduct themselves
wisely in their media relations.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

Close cooperation between the public information component and the military component is
essential to help ensure that the mission speaks with one voice, that information released to the public
is accurate, and that attempts to gain information by dividing the ranks are frustrated.

Section 3.9.1 Peacekeeping and the News

The news media can play a significant
role in the success of a peacekeeping
Learning Activity Media Interaction »
operation. What they report can have a Watch the following video from Al-Jazeera
positive or negative impact on the mission, and answer the questions below. Available
the implementation of its mandate, and from: <https://www.youtube.com/
the peace process. watch?v=hm3vpGep0Iw&feature=related>.

If the media are provided with

• What did you learn?
accurate and timely information, they
• How did peacekeepers
might help carry the right message that
speak about their tasks?
supports the mission.
• Were they experiencing
If the peacekeeping operation does
difficulties in their tasks and
not provide such information to the media,
mission?
the media will find perhaps less reliable
• Were there difficulties?
sources or speculate. In either case, the
result could harm the mission. • How did they get positive comments from the
interviewer?
Media

Topics such as conflict, violence, and natural disaster attract media attention because they attract
interest from the public.

Reporters may be impartial or partisan. They may be independent thinkers or may be controlled
or paid by one side or the other. In some cases, their families might be threatened with reprisal, or
they themselves may be under threat. They may be highly trained or unskilled. They may represent
local media outlets or international media organizations. Or they may be posting to blogs and various
websites.

Some journalists report the news impartially; some are sympathetic to the United Nations and what
it stands for, but others are not. The parties to the conflict may be trying to manipulate the population
through false information or hostile propaganda.

"Media" have changed — it now includes stringers, bloggers, and "citizen journalists" who post on
websites, social media, and platforms such as YouTube.

Dealing with Media

The United Nations peacekeeping operation must correct misinformation, counter hostile
reporting, and provide accurate, reliable, and impartial information. The peacekeeping operation
needs to explain to the local population why the mission is in its country and what they can expect from
the peace process. All members contribute to this, but especially Military Observers in their reporting
from the field.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

The mission must also inform the international community about its work. One way to do so is
through the media. The media, in turn, inform the world about United Nations peacekeeping. The
mission's public information component deals with the local, regional, and international media and
is equipped to handle most situations. You should know how the Public Information Office (PIO) of
the mission is structured and how the military (or police) public information office, if there is one, works
with the PIO and the mission spokesperson(s).

All mission personnel are also sources of information for the media through their individual actions
and interactions with the local population and the media, whether they are on duty or "off-duty". All
peacekeepers must understand that their conduct and behaviour are scrutinized and reported
to and by the media, and that will have an impact on the mission. Nothing can do as much
damage to the reputation of the United Nations or a national contingent as irresponsible acts by the
peacekeepers themselves.

Section 3.9.2 Impacts of Media Reporting

News media are interested in peacekeeping operations. They work 24 hours per day, 7 days per
week, often reporting in real-time. The availability of satellite communications, web and social
networking sites, camera phones, and portable audio and video equipment allow the media, as
well as individuals, to transmit their reports directly from anywhere in the world. News of an incident
can be disseminated around the world almost instantaneously, leaving the mission almost no time to
verify the facts, report to headquarters, or prepare a response.

Military observers should be careful to project the right image. Positive behaviour reinforces the
ability of the United Nations to facilitate the peace process and creates bonds of trust with the local
population. Negative or careless behaviour, on the other hand, undermines the reputation of the
national contingent and the United Nations and weakens the peace process. Bad news spreads fast.
Where and when the news happens, a reporter will be there! If not, the news can spread virally. Even
your personal photos will find their way to publication.

Parties to the conflict can exploit negative behaviour and use it to delay the peace process. Incidents
of sexual misconduct by peacekeepers in United Nations missions in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo,
Timor-Leste, Sierra Leone, Ethiopia/Eritrea, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and the Central
African Republic have been reported by the international media, sometimes extensively.

Section 3.9.3 Public Information Office (PIO)

Public information activities must be devised on the basis of information strategies mutually agreed
upon within the overall context of the mission mandate.

The mission's PIO develops and manages the mission's communications strategy, assists the media,
and ensures that the local population is informed about the mandate and the peace process.

The PIO releases information in a number of local languages as well as the appropriate languages
for the international media.

The PIO employs local staff, who have good knowledge and understanding of local customs and
traditions. The PIO accredits journalists and establishes procedures for them to obtain press identity
cards from the mission security office.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

The PIO works closely with the mission's military public

information structures — the military spokesperson and military Public Information
public information officers attached to contingents — to implement Office  »
the communications strategy and to be sure that all components • Develops an overall
of the mission speak with "one voice". communications

The PIO is the peacekeepers' resource for all sorts of information strategy

about the mandate, the peace process, and the mission. The PIO • Advises mission
can help contingents manage their media relations and promote personnel
a positive image of peacekeepers who engage in activities to help • Produces information
the local community.
• Employs local journalists
Members of the military can help to contribute to the PIO and other local staff
products with high-resolution photos and material for feature • Works with military
stories, which the PIO and/or the UN in New York feeds troop- and force PIO
police-contributing countries and other audiences.

Section 3.9.4 UNMO Responsibilities

UNMO Responsibilities include:

• Seek guidance from PIO on mission strategy for observers to engage with media at team
sites, especially following critical incidents.

• Ensure their reporting to the chain of command is timely and accurate, especially for critical
incidents likely to attract media attention.

• Report media inquiries at team sites to PIO in a timely fashion.

• If a reporter interviews you in the field, you should remember their name as well as that
of the media organization. If you do speak to a reporter, you should let your mission's PIO
know.

• Be prepared with a response for unexpected media inquiries. The following do's and don'ts
will help you prepare for this.

Section 3.9.5 Relating to the Media

The mandate of a peacekeeping operation is contained in a Security Council resolution. While
peacekeepers are not expected to remember all the details of a mandate, they should be familiar with
the main points.

You might ask your mission's PIO for a summary of the mandate. You might find the mandate useful
for your own understanding of your country's participation in the peacekeeping operation and in case
you talk to journalists. This knowledge enables you to place your work in the context of the mandate.

The media view all peacekeepers as a potential source of information. For that reason, peacekeepers
must follow certain guidelines when they talk to the media. The United Nations has issued a set of
guidelines to help mission personnel make their relations with the media as effective as possible.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

The Secretary-General has encouraged

transparency and openness with the media.
Peacekeepers may speak to reporters if they are
cleared about their own work or area of personal
responsibility in a factual manner. Peacekeepers
should understand, however, that they need
not speak to the media if they prefer not to
do so. They may politely decline any request for
information or their personal views.

Section 3.9.6 Do's and Don'ts

Do's As part of a feature photo news story, the United Nations

Assistance Mission in Afghanistan accompanied Georgette
Past experience shows that peacekeeping
Gagnon, an international human rights lawyer and Director
troops who talk to the media about their work can of Human Rights for the mission, on a recent field trip she

be very effective in conveying positive messages. took to eastern Afghanistan. Ms. Gagnon takes questions
from local journalists about her visit. 1 October 2013. UN
They should be positive about their role. They
Photo by Fardin Waezi.
should always be factual and impartial.

Be brief. If you say too much or if you are unclear, the opportunity to project a positive image might
be lost.

Peacekeepers should talk respectfully about the local population. They should try to empathize with
the situation of the local people and avoid remarks that may sound condescending or patronizing.

Always be polite with media reporters, even if they appear rude or unfriendly.

Use small sentences; for example, do not answer "yes" to the question "Do you like your work?"
Just say, "I enjoy my work with the UN".

Refer reporters to PIO if they ask you any questions that you are not authorized to answer.

Don'ts

When newsworthy events happen, the mission PIO is the only component that is authorized to deal
with the media.

Peacekeepers should be careful not to pass on to the media any information about incidents or
events being investigated. Journalists asking questions about such incidents or events must be referred
to the mission's PIO.

Do not offer your personal opinion about the peace process or UN activities. Any answer you provide
may be regarded as an official opinion.

Do not answer questions that are speculative, such as "What would happen if…?" You might provide
wrong information that could affect the mission.

Do not give any information about the mission's security plans or procedures.

Do not discuss the state or activities of local or other combatant forces.

Do not appear to support or favour one side over another. Remember, you are impartial.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

Do's » Don'ts »
• Be factual, impartial, • Do not talk about
and precise. critical incidents.

• Be respectful. • Do not give personal

• Refer to men and opinions.

women. • Do not give

• Be polite and speculations.

professional. • Do not talk about

• Use short sentences. operational security.

• Refer to superiors/PIO. • Do not show

favouritism.

• Do not make promises.

Section 3.9.7 Managing an Interview

The basic rules for handling an interview are few and simple. The camera or the reporter should
not intimidate you. You are a professional, and you are executing your mission in a highly professional
manner.

Always look at the reporter. Never look at the camera.

Listen carefully to each question. You may ask the reporter to repeat a question to gain time to
compose your answer.

Speak naturally and give facts, avoiding exaggerated movements with your hands and face.

Always decline to answer questions you are not authorized to answer or about which you
may not be sure.

Avoid the expression "off the record" with a reporter. If you have any doubt about the matter,
you should decline to answer.

Section 3.9.8 Sample Media Questions

Questions about Yourself/Generic Answers:

1. What is your name?

» My name is....

2. Where are you from?

» I come from....

3. How old are you?

» I am...years old.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

4. How long have you been here?

» I have been here...months.

Questions about Work — Generic Answers:

1. What do you do?

» I am here to work with the United Nations. My country is

helping the United Nations to bring peace.

2. What do you do here?

» Explain your duties.

3. Do you think your presence is useful?

» We are working to help to bring peace and stability to this

country. I think that is useful.

Questions Seeking Opinion

1. Do you like being here?

» I miss my friends and family, but I am glad if I can help

make things better here. It is a good experience for me,
even if the conditions are difficult.

2. How soon will we have peace?

» I don't know the answer to that. It depends on many

things. Please ask the mission's Public Information Office.

3. Fighting is still going on. What do you think will happen?

» I can't answer that question. The mission's Public

Information Office can help
you.

4. Aren't you afraid things will get

worse?

» I'm a UN Military Observer

and a peacekeeper. I've been
trained to do this job, and I'm
confident that the mission is
doing everything possible to
advance the peace process.

Brigadier General Bala Keita (fifth from left), Military Commander

of the Western Sector of the United Nations-African Union
Hybrid Mission in Darfur, talks with the Arab nomads following a
consultation meeting. 16 March 2008. UN Photo by Stuart Price.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

Tough Questions

1. Why are you favouring the xx faction by giving them arms?

» The UN is impartial. We do not favour any side, nor do we

give out arms.

2. Your colleagues were seen with teenage prostitutes last night, and we
have photos: Why are you taking advantage of our girls?

» Our rules are very strict: We can't go out with prostitutes.

If you have evidence, please take it to the Conduct and
Discipline Office.

3. What if you leave and the criminals return?

» It is not up to us when we leave, but our purpose here

is to give your local authorities the capacity to take
responsibility for your security.

Summary

• The news media has a significant role in the success of a peacekeeping operation. What they
report can have a positive or negative impact on the mission.

• Military Observers should be careful to project the right image. Positive behaviour reinforces
the ability of the United Nations to facilitate the peace process and creates bonds of trust with
the local population.

• The mission's PIO develops and manages the mission's communications strategy, assists the
media, and ensures that the local population is informed; seek guidance from PIO on mission
strategy for observers to engage with media.

• The basic rules for handling an interview are simple — you are a professional, and you are
executing your mission in a highly professional manner.

• Use care when posting on social media.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

Annex F: Lesson 3.9 Learning Activity: Media Relations Role Playing

Exercise »

Lesson 3.9 UNMO STM Learning Activity

Media Relations Role Playing Exercise

In this role-playing exercise with a military scenario, UNMOs in training should put into
practice the knowledge on developing positive media relations and managing interviews
presented in UNMO STM Lesson 3.9

Learning Activity Time Required:

10 minutes activity introduction and instructions, and

reading scenario
20 minutes role-playing exercise
05 minutes debrief in small groups
10 minutes debrief in plenary group
Total time: 45 minutes

Gamagara Ceasefire Violation Scenario

The current crisis in Naraland (see attached map), a fictitious island country off the
eastern coast of Southern Africa, has its origins in pre-colonial times. In the 1800s the
Kambo tribe was forced to flee from its ancestral lands by the more powerful Mananca.
The Mananca retained possession of the land now called Manancaland, while the
Kambo eventually settled east of the Mananca, in what is now the province of Kambona.
The Kambo have never abandoned their claims to Manancaland.
During the 1960s, the Kambo launched an unprovoked attack on Manancaland, which
the Mananca successfully halted. The areas held by the belligerent parties at the end of
those hostilities established the current provincial boundaries. Those boundaries have
never been accepted by belligerents, despite efforts by the Naraland Government to
mediate. Since then, repeated minor combats have taken place between the two
provinces and both sides have formed militias that have caches of light weapons and
landmines at their disposal.
In recent times, the Kambona Liberation Movement (KLM) and the Manancaland
Resistance Movement (MRM) have launched several attacks on each other’s provinces.
Despite heavy fighting which has resulted in a large number of casualties, especially
among the civilian population, neither of the belligerents has been able to achieve its
military objectives. The Naraland Government was able to negotiate a ceasefire (the
Treaty of Windhoek) and both parties agreed to international mediation and intervention.
The UN has responded by deploying an observer mission, the United Nations Mission in
Naraland (UNMIN), to monitor the belligerent parties. The Treaty of Windhoek set in
motion the establishment of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) and disarmament of militias.
UNMIN has now been deployed for 8 months and is well established. During the past
month, in particular the last 10 days, various incidents have occurred that indicate an
upsurge in tension among the two parties, including several shooting incidents, reports
of smuggling, unrest and recruitment in the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps,
and evidence of freshly laid anti-personnel mines.
Also there is evidence of a boom in the local economy, and everyone seems to be
This is quoting from UN guidance.
getting some form of benefit from the UN being there. Last week the local religious
leader informed that the prostitution situation was getting out of control. He stated that
UN personnel were approaching young ladies for help with housekeeping, but once
inside the UN compound, ladies were used as sexual workers, and some were living with
UN military. Many of the parents of these young women have complained to the religious
leader and now they are blaming Senior UNMO for allowing this to happen.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Chief
Military Observer to instruct all Sector Commanders to arrange meetings with the local
rebel commanders and local civil authorities in order to stabilize the situation and
reaffirm their commitment to the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and also the
respect of the UN code of conduct.
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Activity Guidelines:
 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

upsurge in tension among the two parties, including several shooting incidents, reports
of smuggling, unrest and recruitment in the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps,
and evidence of freshly laid anti-personnel mines.
Also there is evidence of a boom in the local economy, and everyone seems to be
getting some form of benefit from the UN being there. Last week the local religious
leader informed that the prostitution situation was getting out of control. He stated that
UN personnel were approaching young ladies for help with housekeeping, but once
inside the UN compound, ladies were used as sexual workers, and some were living with
UN military. Many of the parents of these young women have complained to the religious
leader and now they are blaming Senior UNMO for allowing this to happen.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Chief
Military Observer to instruct all Sector Commanders to arrange meetings with the local
rebel commanders and local civil authorities in order to stabilize the situation and
reaffirm their commitment to the implementation of the ceasefire agreement and also the
respect of the UN code of conduct.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background and instructions.
2. Divide the participants into four - five groups of equal size.
3. Designate at least one instructor/facilitator for each group to act as reporter
(Kambonan Local Reporter) and one cameraman with video camera
(Media professionals will be desired)
4. It is advisable for PKTC to designate a second reporter with photo camera
(International Newspaper Press Reporter). This reporter should design a
newspaper front page with a photo of the most suitable participant and the
correspondent headline, and provide the front page to each group during
the debriefing in the plenary discussion.
5. Ensure that all participants’ interviews are recorded to report back to the
group after the role-playing exercise.
6. Allow each group to study its own brief and decide on their strategy.
Preferably each participant group member should be interviewed playing
the role of Military Observer.
7. Allow the interviewing to take place according to the scenario until 5
minutes before the end of the exercise.
8. Stop interviews 5 minutes before the end of the exercise. Have each of the
groups evaluate their performance in screening the interviews, and report
back to the class as a whole during the debriefing in the plenary
discussion.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

Further Reading »
To view the accompanying assignment, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. What is the main role of news media 7. "Media" includes who of the following?
in the success of a peacekeeping
A. Bloggers
operation?
B. Journalists

2. What is the main impact of media C. Stringers

reporting? D. All of these

3. The _____ is the peacekeepers' resource 8. True or False: All peacekeepers must
for all sorts of information about the understand that their conduct and
mandate, the peace process, and the behaviour are scrutinized and reported
mission. to and by the media and that it will have
an impact on the mission.
A. Public Information Office
A. True
B. UNMO
B. False
C. language assistant
D. Chief Administration Officer 9. Which of the following should you do
when speaking with the media or giving
4. When conducting an interview with the an interview?
media, do not give _____.
A. Be respectful.
A. personal opinions
B. Be polite and professional.
B. speculations
C. Give short sentences.
C. information on operational security
D. All of these
D. All of the above

10. Always decline to answer questions you

5. How can you manage an interview? _____.
A. are not authorized to answer
6. True or False: All reporters are
impartial, independent thinkers who are B. do not feel like answering
sympathetic to the United Nations. C. feel are silly

A. True D. think are difficult

B. False

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.9 | Media Relations

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. The news media can play a significant role in the success of a peacekeeping operation. What they report can have a positive or negative impact on
the mission, the implementation of its mandate, and the peace process itself.

2. News media work 24/7, often reporting in real-time; they can be disseminated around the world almost instantaneously. The peacekeeper's positive
behaviour can help make good news and prevent negative reporting, while negative behaviour can have negative effects on the mission, the UN,
and the peace process.

3. A

4. D

5. To manage an interview, I must:

▪ Look at the reporter, not the camera.

▪ Listen carefully to the question.

▪ Answer with facts.

▪ Be brief and simple.

▪ Always decline to answer questions you are not authorized to answer.

6. B. False

7. D

8. A. True

9. D
10. A

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

LESSON

3.10 Procedures for Reporting

The aim of this lesson

is to allow you to better
understand the UNMO
reporting procedures.

UN Photo by Rick Bajornas.

Lesson 3.10 Content » Learning Outcomes »

Section 3.10.1 Reporting Requirements • Describe the reporting requirements at the

strategic, operational, and tactical levels.
Section 3.10.2 Writing and Submission
• Identify all types of reports related to Military
Section 3.10.3 Information Centres
Observers.
Annex G Lesson 3.10 Learning Activity:
• Apply procedures for preparing and
Reporting Procedures Role
submitting reports using standard templates.
Playing Exercise

Annex H Formats — All Reports

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

249
 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

The United Nations Truce Supervision Organization observes the maintenance in Palestine of the ceasefire and assists the parties
to the armistice agreements in the supervision of the application and observance of the terms of those agreements. A corps of UN
Military Observers is available to assist in investigating any complaints. En route to an out-station in Jordan, UN Military Observers and
a Jordanian Police Corporal (centre) stop to make inquiries of a camel driver. 1 May 1959. UN Photo.

The aim of this section is to familiarize

Military Observers with how to properly report
Reading »
in the UN system and apply the standard Review past UNMO
operating procedures for reports. daily or patrol reports/
SITREPs, which can
In short, by the end of this lesson,
be found using the UN
you should be able to explain how best to
Archives. Available from:
report in a UN mission. After this lesson, an
<https://archives.un.org/>.
UNMO should understand the UN operational
reporting system — both its requirements and
procedures.

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Section 3.10.1 Reporting Requirements

Figure 3.10.1

Within the UN Headquarters, the Department of Peace Operations (DPO) is responsible for providing
UN peacekeeping operations with policy guidance and strategic direction. In the field missions, the
Head of Mission (HOM) exercises operational authority over the UN peacekeeping operation's activities,
including military, police, and other civilian resources. The reporting and information systems start at
the tactical level and are gradually forwarded to the operational and strategic levels.

This chain of reporting helps Mission Command in their decision-making process.

From an UNMO perspective, reporting is a bottom-up approach. UNMO are deployed in TEAM
SITES. All significant information from UNMO activities (i.e. observation, patrolling, verification, etc.) is
collected at the TEAM SITE. From there, reports are generated according to mission standard operating
procedure (SOP).

Figure 3.10.2

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Section 3.10.2 Writing and Submission

Strategic Reporting

The Secretary-General will normally report to the Security Council on each mission when
appropriate or as directed by the Council. The HOM is responsible for regularly reporting to UN
Headquarters, through the USG DPO, on the developments concerning the activities of peacekeeping
missions and the implementation of each mission's mandate.

On matters that are predominantly military and technical in nature, the Head of Military
Component (HOMC) is authorized to communicate directly with the UN Military Advisor in UN
Headquarters. UN field missions have reporting requirements to the Security Council, but all report to
the UN Headquarters.

The HOM leads the field-based management of peace operations by the mission headquarters,
connecting the details of tactics to strategic objectives. The Head of Mission is the interface between the
Strategic and Operational levels. The Special Representative of the Secretary-General (SRSG) provides
political guidance in the mandate implementation.

Tactical Reporting Requirement Information is about military activities within the UN PKO. Military
Observer information is collected at Force HQ. The reporting chains culminate at the Joint Operation
Centre (JOC), where the Military Situation Report (SITREP) is processed. The UN PKOs Military SITREP
represents the military component input to the daily UN PKO SITREP to DPO/DOS/Situation Centre
(SITCEN) in New York.

Types of Reports

Here are examples of Mission Operational Reporting Requirements.

• Routine reports on a daily, weekly, and monthly basis

• Special reports on occurrence/special circumstances

• Mission-specific reports

Routine Reports

Here are routine UNMO reports that are military-specific. They are sent to the Force HQs on a daily,
weekly, and monthly basis.

• UNMO team site (TS) daily Situation Report

• UNMO FHQ daily Situation Report

• Patrol report

• Weekly patrol plan

• Weekly assessment report

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Special Reports

Military-specific special reports are provided by UNMO.

• Flash report/special incident report

• Shooting incident report

• Investigation report

• Ceasefire violation report

• Special patrol report

Figure 3.10.3

Figure 3.10.3 helps display the magnitude of reports that include daily/weekly Situation Reports.

• SITREPs are compiled by a designated office to meet the submission deadline for UNHQ.

• The designated office must cross-check inputs from different components to ensure the report
is accurate. If several components of the mission are reporting on the same incident, the
information should be consolidated.

• SITREPs can be signed by the civilian, military, or police officials provided with the delegated
authority.

• The JOC will handle the preparation of Situation and Special Incident Reports in their entirety.
The Chief JOC or the mission's Chief of Staff may sign the Situation and Special Incident
Reports to UNHQ.

• SITREPs are transmitted to the DPO Situation Centre and Office of Military Affairs.

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Figure 3.10.4

Daily Situation Reports cover the 24-hour period up to midnight Local Time (LT) and must reach
the DPO Situation Centre and Office of Military Affairs no later than 0600 New York Time (NYT).
Arrangements will be made to adjust submission timelines.

Weekly SITREPs cover the period from 00:01hrs Tuesday to 24:00hrs Monday and must reach the
DPO Situation Centre and Office of Military Affairs by 09:00hrs NYT on Tuesdays.

Of note, these times and dates (weekday) may vary and change as per SOPs.

Daily/weekly Situation Reports should be short but still self-contained, based on the following
criteria:

• Description of any event, incident, or development must answer the basic questions of "who,
what, where, when, why, and how".

• If information is insufficient, it should be noted, and a follow-up SITREP should be done.

• The designation "NSTR" (Nothing Significant to Report) can be used when there has been no
development of importance.

• Geographical locations must be identified through the place name and distance from the closest
major UN position. Missions with GIS (Geographic Information System) capacity should include
either a map and/or geographic coordinates.

• Weekly SITREPs should not reiterate the operational details contained in the daily SITREPS but
recap the most significant events, updates, and assessments.

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Figure 3.10.5

Transmittal SITREPs must be sent by encrypted e-mail using the secure system. In exceptional
circumstances, when encrypted e-mail facilities are not available or temporarily disabled, SITREPs can
be sent by regular code cable.

SITREPs contain important details of UN operations and other information not in the public domain;
they are classified at the same level of information security as a regular code cable. SITREPs are
internal, UN restricted documents and cannot be published, even in edited form, in any open-source
environment.

Figure 3.10.6

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Section 3.10.3 Information Centres

Joint Operations Centre

The JOC is a jointly staffed information hub established at mission headquarters to ensure
mission-wide situational awareness through integrating reporting on current operations as
well as day-to-day situation reporting. During a crisis, the JOC will operate as the primary facility
to support mission crisis management.

The JOC provides the HOM and the Senior Management Team (SMT) with a 24-hour information
centre responsible for ensuring full situational awareness through timely and accurate monitoring and
reporting.

The JOC is responsible in its day-to-day functions to:

• Monitor the implementation of mission operational activities

• Request and collect situation updates

• Collate and disseminate information of immediate operational interest

• Provide consolidated daily operational reports

• Provide a 24-hour communication link between the HOM, senior management, the various
missions entities, regional offices/Sector Headquarters, UN agencies, programmes and funds,
UN Headquarters, and others, as required

JOC and Emergencies

In the event of a crisis, the JOC acts as the crisis management centre for the HOM and other
members of the mission Crisis Management Team (CMT). It supports the CMT decision-making
process through effective and uninterrupted crisis communications and information management. All
mission components provide the JOC with Situation Reports. The provision of copies of all reports to JOC
is instituted in the Standard Reporting Procedures for mission components.

The Chief of JOC (C/JOC) reports to the HOM. The HOM may establish reporting lines through either
the Mission Chief of Staff or Deputy HOM.

The C/JOC is responsible for:

• Day-to-day management of the JOC

• Relations with sector/regional offices and with UNHQ

• The processing and timely dissemination of operational reports

• Organization of the first response to emergencies

• Information exchange with DPO Situation Centre in NY

Joint Military Analysis Centre (JMAC)

The Joint Military Analysis Centre (JMAC) provides the HOM and SMT with the capacity to
collect and synthesize all-source information to produce medium- and long-term integrated
analysis. JMAC integrated analysis products provide the HOM and SMT with an improved understanding
of issues and trends, their implications, and potential developments, as well as assessments of cross-

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

cutting issues and threats that may affect the mission. JMAC analytical products provide the basis for
enhanced mission planning and decision-making.

JMAC is responsible for the following:

• Merging and managing mission information

from the HOM and SMT

• Acquiring and integrating information from

mission components and other sources

• Analyzing and synthesizing information,

including intelligence-related material, to
prepare integrated analyses and medium-
and long-term evaluations Sergeant Dora Doroye (left), physical instructor of the
United Nations Mission in Liberia, briefs some of the
• Preparing and disseminating operational
other female members of the Ghanaian battalion during
and mission-level assessments to
a daily patrol of the city. 17 April 2009. UN Photo by
support planning, decision-making, and Christopher Herwig.
implementation of mission mandates

UNMO Verbal Briefs

Many of us are familiar with briefings. As a reminder, here are a few tips that will help reinforce the
skills needed for a successful verbal briefing in the UN.

The UNMO briefing is normally reporting on an activity such as fact-finding, verification, or an

observation patrol. UNMO must remember that verbal briefs are just that — they are brief. The SITREP
and patrol report should contain a more detailed narrative of events.

The UNMO must accurately convey basic "W" questions — what were the peacekeeping objective
and tasks? Where and when was the activity? What were the observations? It should also answer the
ultimate question of so what? For higher command, this means what assessment or conclusion does the
UNMO draw from the observations?

Questions for Consideration »

1. To whom do you submit reports?

2. What is the Military Observer chain of command?

3. What can you do to ensure you complete the report after your patrol?

4. Is it OK to include trends and other analyses in your reports?

5. What is the most important content in a daily Situation Report (SITREP)?

6. How can you best identify what is normal and abnormal?

7. How do the roles of the Joint Operations Centre (JOC) and the Joint Military
Analysis Centre (JMAC) differ in the UN reporting?

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Summary

Let us review the lesson:

• HOM connects the tactical and strategic goals to the mandate.

• Military information is collected at the Force-HQ level and sent to JOC.

• JOC combines all mission component inputs into daily SITREPs to DPO in NY.

• UNMO submit military reports daily, weekly, monthly, and in special cases.

• Missions have report SOPs; UNMO will receive these at induction training.

• Reports should be short and self-contained and answer the 5-W's.

• SITREPs are sensitive and classified and require special handling.

• The JOC ensures mission-wide situational awareness and integrates reports.

• JMAC integrates mission information to develop analytical and decision-making products.

Learning Activity »
Choose one of the two videos to watch and come up with a five-minute verbal briefing.

Bangui Peacekeepers Patrol (United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization

Mission in the Central African Republic, 2017):
<https://www.unmultimedia.org/avlibrary/asset/2010/2010600/>.

Hama Observers Patrol (United Nations Supervision Mission in Syria, 2012):

<https://www.unmultimedia.org/avlibrary/asset/U120/U120605b/>.

The brief should bring out the following topics:

» Was the brief clear?

» Did it use UN vocabulary?

» What are the 5-W's? And more importantly, what

was the "so what" of the briefing?

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Annex G: Lesson 3.10 Learning Activity Reporting Procedures Role

Playing Exercise »

UNMO STM Lesson 3.10 Learning Activity

Reporting Procedures
Role Playing Exercise

In this role-playing exercise with a military scenario; UNMOs in training should put into
practice the knowledge about UNMO reporting, correspondence and briefing presented
in UNMO STM Lesson 3.10

50
Learning Activity Time Required:

10 minutes Activity introduction and instructions and

reading the scenario
15 minutes Role-playing exercise
10 minutes Draft a special incident report individually
05 minutes Debrief in small groups
10 minutes Debrief in the plenary group
Total time: 50 minutes

Gamagara Ceasefire Violation Scenario

The current crisis in Naraland (see attached map), a fictitious island country off the
eastern coast of Southern Africa, has its origins in pre-colonial times. In the 1800s the
Kambo tribe was forced to flee from its ancestral lands by the more powerful Mananca.
The Mananca retained possession of the land now called Manancaland, while the
Kambo eventually settled east of the Mananca, in what is now the province of Kambona.
The Kambo have never abandoned their claims to Manancaland.
During the 1960s, the Kambo launched an unprovoked attack on Manancaland, which
the Mananca successfully halted. The areas held by the belligerent parties at the end of
those hostilities established the current provincial boundaries. Those boundaries have
never been accepted by belligerents, despite efforts by the Naraland Government to
mediate. Since then, repeated minor combats have taken place between the two
provinces and both sides have formed militias that have caches of light weapons and
landmines at their disposal.
In recent times, the Kambona Liberation Movement (KLM) and the Manancaland
Resistance Movement (MRM) have launched several attacks on each other’s provinces.
Despite heavy fighting which has resulted in a large number of casualties, especially
among the civilian population, neither of the belligerents has been able to achieve its
military objectives. The Naraland Government was able to negotiate a ceasefire (the
Treaty of Windhoek) and both parties agreed to international mediation and intervention.
The UN has responded by deploying an observer mission, the United Nations Mission in
Naraland (UNMIN), to monitor the belligerent parties. The Treaty of Windhoek set in
motion the establishment of a demilitarized zone (DMZ) and disarmament of militias.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

UNMIN has now been deployed for 8 months and is well established. During the past
month, in particular the last 10 days, various incidents have occurred that indicate an
upsurge in tension among the two parties, including several shooting incidents, reports
of smuggling, unrest and recruitment in the internally displaced persons (IDP) camps,
and evidence of freshly laid anti-personnel mines.
As a result, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General has tasked the Chief
Military Observer to instruct all the Sector Commanders to arrange meetings with the
local rebel commanders and local civil authorities in order to stabilize the situation and
reaffirm their commitment to the implementation of the ceasefire agreement.

Activity Guidelines:
1. Use the first few minutes to distribute and allow the participants to read
though the scenario background and instructions.
2. Divide the participants into three - four groups of equal size:
3. Designate at least one instructor/facilitator for each group to act as local
villager (Manancan Local Villager).
4. Ensure that someone is appointed to observe the investigation process
and report back to the group after the role-playing exercise.
5. Allow each group to study its own brief and decide on the strategy. All
group members should play the UNMO role.
6. Allow the interviewing to take place according to the scenario until 5
minutes before the end of the exercise.
7. Stop the activity 5 minutes before the end of the exercise. Have each of the
groups evaluate its own performance in terms of investigation efforts and
should prepare a briefing about the incident during the debriefing in the
plenary discussion.
8. Group members are to draft a special incident report individually and give
them to the instructors for evaluation purposes.
9. As instructors/facilitators, monitor the progress and content of the
interviews and regularly remind participants of the objective of the exercise,
without interfering unduly.

This is quoting from UN guidance.

Further Reading »
To view the accompanying assignment, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

Annex H: Formats — All Reports »

FORMATS – ALL REPORTS

Routine Reports
 MILOBS Team Site (TS) Daily Situation Report (SITREP)
 MILOBS FHQ (Force Headquarters) SITREP
 Patrol Report
 Weekly Assessment Report
 Weekly Patrol Plan
Special Reports
 Flash / Special Incident Report (SINREP)
 Shooting incident report
 Investigation Report
 Cease-Fire Violation Report
 Special Patrol Report

UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS DAILY SITREP

From SECTOR xyx – MILOBS TEAM SITE
To:
CC: Sector G2, Sector G3, Sector G5, Sector JOC,…
Date: Xxxx
Period Covered: xxx – xxx
Unit Location:

1. OPERATIONAL:
a. Places Visited/Patrolled
Ptrl Places ToD ToA* ToA TS Country/District Last
Visited TS* Visited

This is quoting from UN guidance.

Further Reading »
To read the entire document, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

261
 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

1. True or False: SITREPs are external, 6. All significant information from UNMO
public-facing documents. activities (i.e. observation, patrolling,
verification, etc.) is collected at the
A. True
_____.
B. False
A. Joint Operations Centre
2. During a crisis, the _____ will operate as B. Logistics Branch
the primary facility to support mission C. Joint Military Analysis Centre
crisis management.
D. UNMO team site
A. Joint Operations Centre
B. Joint Military Analysis Centre 7. If information contained in a SITREP is
insufficient, what should happen?
C. UNHQ
D. Logistics Branch A. A follow-up SITREP should be conducted
B. It should be designated as NSTR (Nothing
3. The _____ provides the HOM and Significant to Report)
SMT with the capacity to collect and
C. Future attempts to capture this information
synthesize all-source information
should be avoided
to produce medium- and long-term
integrated analysis. D. The SITREP should be discontinued

A. Joint Operations Centre

8. True or False: The Situation Reports
B. Joint Military Analysis Centre (SITREPs) can be signed by the civilian,
C. SRSG military, or police officials provided with
D. UNMO Sector HQ
the delegated authority.
A. True
4. True or False: UNMO briefings are long B. False
and filled with small details.
A. True 9. From an UNMO perspective, reporting is
B. False
a _____ approach.
A. bottom-up
5. Which is an example of a routine report? B. top-bottom
A. Shooting incident report C. lateral
B. Ceasefire violation report D. diagonal
C. Weekly assessment report
D. Special incident report 10. Provide examples of routine UNMO
reports that are military-specific.

Answer Key provided on the next page.

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 LESSON 3.10 | Procedures for Reporting

End-of-Lesson Quiz »

Answer Key »
1. B. False

2. A

3. B

4. B. False

5. C

6. D

7. A

8. A. True

9. A

10. UNMO team site (TS) daily Situation Report;

UNMO FHQ daily Situation Report; Patrol report;
Weekly patrol plan; Weekly assessment report

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

MODULE
Operational Framework
3 Wrap Up

Manning the telescope in the Golan Heights sector is

Captain R. R. Debois of the Danish Army, and using the field
telephone is Captain J. Clarke of the Irish Army. 1 October
1969. UN Photo by Anderson.

At the conclusion of Module 3, some key elements should become clearer:

• The key operational framework covering UNMO operating in UN peacekeeping operation

• The main skillsets required for UNMO operating in UN peacekeeping operations (PKOs)

• The UNMO is an enabling asset

• Tactical level employment of an UNMO and a general overview of the operational level concepts to help
leaders understand how an UNMO can contribute to the accomplishment of the UN mandate

The Table Top Exercise (TTX) will give you a better understanding of the UNMO operations in a UN PKO, along

with the essential planning parameters, skills, and tasks performed. The TTX provides you some tools to apply in the

employment of UNMO, the decision-making processes that might be used in a PKO, and a platform for understanding

how UNMO support the mandate.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

Appendix A: Learning Activity - UNMO STM Table Top Exercise (TTX)

Learning Activity - UNMO STM

Table Top Exercise (TTX)
Description / Primer
Purpose: This exercise is a learning activity to consolidate the learning outcomes
and help reinforce the lesson “Take Away”.

Target audience: UNMO leadership, UNMO on staff and in-training / deployed

UNMO.

Definition: TTXs are set in an informal setting where the target audience is able to
discuss the principles and concepts of operating in a United Nations
Peacekeeping operation using the hypothetical, scenarios, specific situations
and incidents. This exercise is used to help reinforce the learning objectives. More
importantly, this TTX helps participants to better understand the manifestation of
integrating units in a peacekeeping environment. Also, it can be a learning
activity that reinforces and helps TCCs, prior to deployment, make adjustments to
their current planning, policies, procedures, training, logistics, resources, and
command & control. The effectiveness of a TTX is derived from the energetic
involvement of participants and their assessment of recommended revisions to
the Course of Actions (COAs) that may affect current policies, procedures, and
plans to be able to operate effectively / efficiently in a UN peacekeeping
environment.

Methodology:

Participants are encouraged to discuss issues in depth through a slow-paced

problem solving methodology, rather than the rapid, spontaneous decision
making or a long drawn out detailed orders development drill. Instead the TTX is
a modified COA development process. Using their national problem solving

This is quoting from UN guidance.

Further Reading »
To read the entire document, access your POTI student classroom:
<https://www.peaceopstraining.org/users/user-login/?next=/users/>.

PEACE OPERATIONS TRAINING INSTITUTE

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

Appendix B: List of Acronyms

ADM/Admin administration

ADV advisor

AFVs armoured fighting vehicles

AMISOM African Union Mission in Somalia

AOO area of operation

AOR Area of Responsibility

AP anti-personnel

APC armoured personnel carriers

ASC Area Security Coordinator

ASMT Area Security Management Team

AT anti-tank

AV anti-vehicle

AXO abandoned explosive ordnance

Brig Brigadier General

BSAFE Basic Security in the Field

C2 command and control

CAO Chief Administration Officer

CASEVAC Casualty Evacuation

CCIRs Commander's PIRs and Critical Information Requirements

C-IED counter-IED efforts

CIMIC Civil-Military Coordination

CIVPOL UN Civilian Police

CJMAC Chief of Joint Mission Analysis Centre

C/JOC Chief of JOC

CMO Chief Military Observer

CMS Chief of Mission Support

CMT Crisis Management Team

COAs Courses of Action

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 SPECIALISED TRAINING MATERIALS ON UNITED NATIONS MILITARY OBSERVERS

Col Colonel

COO Chief Operations Officer

COP common operating picture

CPA child protection advisor

CPOC Comprehensive Protection of Civilians Training Materials

CPTM Core Pre-Deployment Training Materials

CRSV conflict-related sexual violence

CSA Chief Security Advisor

DCMO Deputy Chief Military Observer

DCOS OPS Deputy Chief of Staff Operations

DCOS PET Deputy Chief of Staff Personnel, Evaluation, and Training

DCOS SPT Deputy Chief of Staff Support

DDR Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration

DFC Deputy Force Commander

DMS Director of Mission Support

DMZ demilitarized zone

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid

DO Designated Official

DOS Department of Operational Support

DPKO Department of Peacekeeping Operations

DPO Department of Peace Operations

D SMO Deputy SMO

DSRSG Deputy Special Representative of the Secretary-General

DSS Department of Safety and Security

DSS USG Under-Secretary-General for Safety and Security

DTSL Deputy Team Site Leader

DUF Directives on the Force

EO explosive order

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EOD explosive ordnance disposal

ERW explosive remnants of war

EW electronic warfare

FARDC Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

FC Force Commander

FCOS Force Chief of Staff

FHQ Force Headquarters

GIS Geographic Information System

GPS global positioning satellite

HF high frequency

HN host nation

HoA Head of Agency

HOM Head of Mission

HOMC Head of Military Component

HRDDP UN Human Rights Due Diligence Policy on Support for Non-United

Nations Security Forces

HRV human rights violations

IAP Information Acquisition Plan

ICC International Criminal Court

ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross

ICTR International Criminal Tribunals for Rwanda

ICTY International Criminal Tribunals for the former Yugoslavia

ID identification/identity

IDPs internally displaced persons

IEDs improvised explosive devices

IFVs infantry fighting vehicles

IHL international humanitarian law

IHRL international human rights law

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INGOs international non-governmental organizations

IOs international organizations

IRs Information Requirements

ISP Intelligence Support Plan

ISR Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance

JMAC Joint Mission Analysis Centre

JOC Joint Operations Centre

LA language assistant

LO Liaison Officer

LOA Letter of Assist

Log logistics

LT Local Time

LT Col Lieutenant Colonel

Maj Gen Major General

MEDEVAC Medical Evacuation

MEOM Military Experts on Mission

MIAP Mission Information Acquisition Plan

MILADs Military Advisors

MILOB Military Observer

MICM Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence Coordination Mechanism

MIO Military Information/Intelligence Officer

MISP Mission Peacekeeping-Intelligence Support Plan

MLOs Military Liaison Officers

MLUs military logistics units

MO Military Officer

MONUSCO United Nations Peacekeeping Force in the Democratic Republic of the

Congo

MOU Memorandum of Understanding

MOVT Mixed Observation and Verification Team

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MPKI Military Peacekeeping-Intelligence

MRC Revolutionary Movement of Congo

MSA Mission Subsistence Allowance

MSN mission

NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization

NGOs non-governmental organizations

NIAC non-international armed conflict

NPOE Non-Permissive Operative Environments

NSTR Nothing Significant to Report

NYT New York Time

OCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

Offr officer

OHCHR Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights

OMA Office of Military Affairs

OPCON operational control

Ops operations

Ops Gp Operations Group

Ops Section Operations Section

PCCs police-contributing countries

PEP Post-Exposure Prophylaxis

PIO Public Information Office/Officer

PIR passive infrared

PIRs Priority Intelligence Requirements

PKI peacekeeping intelligence

POC protection of civilians

POWs prisoners of war

PPE personal protective equipment

PSA Principal Security Advisor

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QRF Quick Reaction Force

RC radio-controlled

RC/HC Resident/Humanitarian Coordinator

ROE Rules of Engagement

SA Security Advisor

SALW small arms and light weapons

SC Security Council

SCR Security Council Resolution

SEA sexual exploitation and abuse

SG Secretary-General

SGBV sexual and gender-based violence

SHQ Sector Headquarters

SITCEN Situation Centre

SITREPs Situation Report

SMO Senior Military Observer

SMS Security Management System

SMT Senior Management Team

SOFA Status of Forces Agreement

SOMA Status of Mission Agreement

SOP(s) standard operating procedure(s)

SRM Security Risk Management

SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary-General

SSR security sector reform

STL Sector Team Leader

STM Specialised Training Material

TACON Tactical Control

TCCs troop-contributing countries

Tng training

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Tpt transportation

TRIP Travel Request Information Process

TS team site

TSL Team Site Leader

TTX Table Top Exercise

UAVs Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

UN United Nations

UNAMI United Nations Assistance Mission for Iraq

UNDOF United Nations Disengagement Observer Force

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNDSS Under-Secretary-General for Safety and Security

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

UNHQ UN Headquarters

UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund

UNMACC United Nations Mine Action Coordination Centre

UNMAS United Nations Mine Action Service

UNMIL United Nations Mission in Liberia

UNMACA United Nations Mine Action Centre in Afghanistan

UNMACC UN Mine Action Coordination Centre

UNMAS United Nations Mine Action Service

UNMO United Nations Military Observer(s)

UNOE UN-Owned Equipment

UNPK UN peacekeeper/peacekeeping

UN PKI United Nations peacekeeping intelligence

UN PKO United Nations peacekeeping operation

UNPOL United Nations Police

UNSC UN Security Council

UNSMS UN Security Management System

USG Under-Secretary-General

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USG DPO Under-Secretary-General of the Department of Peace Operations

UXO unexploded ordnance

VHF very high frequency

VOIED victim-operated IED

WHO World Health Organization

WFP World Food Programme

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Appendix C: Current Peacekeeping Operations

Adopted from UN Peacekeeping Map from the UN Cartographic Section: <www.un.org/Depts/Cartographic/map/dpko/P_K_O.pdf>.

» Looking for statistics or other data about

peacekeeping around the world today? Visit
the UN Peacekeeping resource page for the
most up-to-date information about current
peacekeeping operations and other UN
missions:
<https://peacekeeping.un.org/en/resources>.

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Instructions for the End-of-Course Examination

Format and Material

The End-of-Course Examination is a multiple-choice exam that is accessed from the Online
Classroom. Most exams have 50 questions. Each question gives the student four choices (A, B, C, and
D), and only one is the correct answer. The exam covers material from all modules of the course and
may also include information found in the annexes and appendices. Video content will not be tested.

» Access the exam from your Online Classroom.

Time Limit

There is no time limit for the exam. This allows the student to read and study the questions
carefully and to consult the course text. Furthermore, if the student cannot complete the exam in one
sitting, he or she may save the exam and come back to it without being graded. The “Save” button is
located at the bottom of the exam, next to the “Submit my answers” button. Clicking on the “Submit
my answers” button will end the exam.

Passing Grade

To pass the exam, a score of 75 per cent or better is required. An electronic Certificate of Completion
will be awarded to those who have passed the exam. A score of less than 75 per cent is a failing grade,
and students who have received a failing grade will be provided with a second, alternate version of the
exam, which may also be completed without a time limit. Students who pass the second exam will be
awarded a Certificate of Completion.

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