INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY

Though you may approach a course in anatomy and physiology strictly as a requirement for your
field of study, the knowledge you gain in this course will serve you well in many aspects of your life. An
understanding of anatomy and physiology is not only fundamental to any career in the health
professions, but it can also benefit your own health. Familiarity with the human body can help you make
healthful choices and prompt you to take appropriate action when signs of illness arise. Your knowledge
in this field will help you understand news about nutrition, medications, medical devices, and
procedures and help you understand genetic or infectious diseases. At some point, everyone will have a
problem with some aspect of his or her body and your knowledge can help you to be a better parent,
spouse, partner, friend, colleague, or caregiver. This unit begins with an overview of anatomy and
physiology and a preview of the body regions and functions. It then covers the characteristics of life and
how the body works to maintain stable conditions. It introduces a set of standard terms for body
structures and for planes and positions in the body that will serve as a foundation for more
comprehensive information covered later in the text. It ends with examples of medical imaging used to
see inside the living body.

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

Human anatomy is the scientific study of the body’s structures. Some of these structures are
very small and can only be observed and analyzed with the assistance of a microscope. Other larger
structures can readily be seen, manipulated, measured, and weighed. The word “anatomy” comes from
a Greek root that means “to cut apart.” Human anatomy was first studied by observing the exterior of
the body and observing the wounds of soldiers and other injuries. Later, physicians were allowed to
dissect bodies of the dead to augment their knowledge. When a body is dissected, its structures are cut
apart in order to observe their physical attributes and their relationships to one another. Dissection is
still used in medical schools, anatomy courses, and in pathology labs. In order to observe structures in
living people, however, a number of imaging techniques have been developed. These techniques allow
clinicians to visualize structures inside the living body such as a cancerous tumor or a fractured bone.
Like most scientific disciplines, anatomy has areas of specialization. Gross anatomy is the study
of the larger structures of the body, those visible without the aid of magnification. Macro- means
“large,” thus, gross anatomy is also referred to as macroscopic anatomy. In contrast, micro- means
“small,” and microscopic anatomy is the study of structures that can be observed only with the use of a
microscope or other magnification devices. Microscopic anatomy includes cytology, the study of cells
and histology, the study of tissues. As the technology of microscopes has advanced, anatomists have
been able to observe smaller and smaller structures of the body, from slices of large structures like the
heart, to the three-dimensional structures of large molecules in the body.

Anatomists take two general approaches to the study of the body’s structures: regional and
systemic. Regional anatomy is the study of the interrelationships of all of the structures in a specific
body region, such as the abdomen. Studying regional anatomy helps us appreciate the interrelationships
of body structures, such as how muscles, nerves, blood vessels, and other structures work together to
serve a particular body region. In contrast, systemic anatomy is the study of the structures that make up
a discrete body system—that is, a group of structures that work together to perform a unique body
function. For example, a systemic anatomical study of the muscular system would consider all of the
skeletal muscles of the body.
Whereas anatomy is about structure, physiology is about function. Human physiology is the
scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the structures of the body and the ways in which they
work together to support the functions of life. Much of the study of physiology centers on the body’s
tendency toward homeostasis. Homeostasis is the state of steady internal conditions maintained by
living things. The study of physiology certainly includes observation, both with the naked eye and with
microscopes, as well as manipulations and measurements. However, current advances in physiology
usually depend on carefully designed laboratory experiments that reveal the functions of the many
structures and chemical compounds that make up the human body.
Your study of anatomy and physiology will make more sense if you continually relate the form of
the structures you are studying to their function. In fact, it can be somewhat frustrating to attempt to
study anatomy without an understanding of the physiology that a body structure supports. Imagine, for
example, trying to appreciate the unique arrangement of the bones of the human hand if you had no
conception of the function of the hand. Fortunately, your understanding of how the human hand
manipulates tools—from pens to cell phones—helps you appreciate the unique alignment of the thumb
in opposition to the four fingers, making your hand a structure that allows you to pinch and grasp
objects and type text messages.

The Levels of Organization

To study the chemical level of organization, scientists consider the simplest building blocks of
matter: subatomic particles, atoms and molecules. All matter in the universe is composed of one or
more unique pure substances called elements, familiar examples of which are hydrogen, oxygen,
carbon, nitrogen, calcium, and iron. The smallest unit of any of these pure substances (elements) is an
atom. Atoms are made up of subatomic particles such as the proton, electron and neutron. Two or more
atoms combine to form a molecule, such as the water molecules, proteins, and sugars found in living
things. Molecules are the chemical building blocks of all body structures.
A cell is the smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism. Even bacteria, which
are extremely small, independently-living organisms, have a cellular structure. Each bacterium is a single
cell. All living structures of human anatomy contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology
are performed in cells or are initiated by cells.
A human cell typically consists of flexible membranes that enclose cytoplasm, a water-based
cellular fluid together with a variety of tiny functioning units called organelles. In humans, as in all
organisms, cells perform all functions of life. A tissue is a group of many similar cells (though sometimes
composed of a few related types) that work together to perform a specific function. An organ is an
anatomically distinct structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types. Each organ performs
one or more specific physiological functions. An organ system is a group of organs that work together to
perform major functions or meet physiological needs of the body.
The organism level is the highest level of organization. An organism is a living being that has a
cellular structure and that can independently perform all physiologic functions necessary for life. In
multicellular organisms, including humans, all cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems of the body work
together to maintain the life and health of the organism.

Functions of Human Life

Organization

A human body consists of trillions of cells organized in a way that maintains distinct internal
compartments. These compartments keep body cells separated from external environmental threats
and keep the cells moist and nourished. They also separate internal body fluids from the countless
microorganisms that grow on body surfaces, including the lining of certain tracts, or passageways. The
intestinal tract, for example, is home to even more bacteria cells than the total of all human cells in the
body, yet these bacteria are outside the body and cannot be allowed to circulate freely inside the body.
Cells, for example, have a cell membrane (also referred to as the plasma membrane) that keeps the
intracellular environment—the fluids and organelles—separate from the extracellular environment.
Blood vessels keep blood inside a closed circulatory system, and nerves and muscles are wrapped in
connective tissue sheaths that separate them from surrounding structures. In the chest and abdomen, a
variety of internal membranes keep major organs such as the lungs, heart, and kidneys separate from
others. The body’s largest organ system is the integumentary system, which includes the skin and its
associated structures, such as hair and nails. The surface tissue of skin is a barrier that protects internal
structures and fluids from potentially harmful microorganisms and other toxins.

Metabolism

The first law of thermodynamics holds that energy can neither be created nor destroyed—it can
only change form. Your basic function as an organism is to consume (ingest) energy and molecules in the
foods you eat, convert some of it into fuel for movement, sustain your body functions, and build and
maintain your body structures. There are two types of reactions that accomplish this: anabolism and
catabolism.

• Anabolism is the process whereby smaller, simpler molecules are combined into larger, more complex
substances. Your body can assemble, by utilizing energy, the complex chemicals it needs by combining
small molecules derived from the foods you eat
• Catabolism is the process by which larger more complex substances are broken down into smaller
simpler molecules. Catabolism releases energy. The complex molecules found in foods are broken down
so the body can use their parts to assemble the structures and substances needed for life. Taken
together, these two processes are called metabolism. Metabolism is the sum of all anabolic and
catabolic reactions that take place in the body. Both anabolism and catabolism occur simultaneously and
continuously to keep you alive.

Every cell in your body makes use of a chemical compound, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), to store and
release energy. The cell stores energy in the synthesis (anabolism) of ATP, then moves the ATP
molecules to the location where energy is needed to fuel cellular activities. Then the ATP is broken down
(catabolism) and a controlled amount of energy is released, which is used by the cell to perform a
particular job.

Responsiveness

Responsiveness is the ability of an organism to adjust to changes in its internal and external
environments. An example of responsiveness to external stimuli could include moving toward sources of
food and water and away from perceived dangers. Changes in an organism’s internal environment, such
as increased body temperature, can cause the responses of sweating and the dilation of blood vessels in
the skin in order to decrease body temperature.
Movement

Human movement includes not only actions at the joints of the body, but also the motion of
individual organs and even individual cells. As you read these words, red and white blood cells are
moving throughout your body, muscle cells are contracting and relaxing to maintain your posture and to
focus your vision, and glands are secreting chemicals to regulate body functions. Your body is
coordinating the action of entire muscle groups to enable you to move air into and out of your lungs, to
push blood throughout your body, and to propel the food you have eaten through your digestive tract.
Consciously, of course, you contract your skeletal muscles to move the bones of your skeleton to get
from one place to another, and to carry out all of the activities of your daily life.

Development, Growth and Reproduction

Development is all of the changes the body goes through in life. Development includes the process of
differentiation, in which unspecialized cells become specialized in structure and function to perform
certain tasks in the body. Development also includes the processes of growth and repair, both of which
involve cell differentiation.
Growth is the increase in body size. Humans, like all multicellular organisms, grow by increasing the
number of existing cells, increasing the amount of non-cellular material around cells (such as mineral
deposits in bone), and, within very narrow limits, increasing the size of existing cells.
Reproduction is the formation of a new organism from parent organisms. In humans, reproduction is
carried out by the male and female reproductive systems. Because death will come to all complex
organisms, without reproduction, the line of organisms would end.

Requirements for Human Life

Humans have been adapting to life on Earth for at least the past 200,000 years. Earth and its
atmosphere have provided us with air to breathe, water to drink, and food to eat, but these are not the
only requirements for survival. Although you may rarely think about it, you also cannot live outside of a
certain range of temperature and pressure that the surface of our planet and its atmosphere provides.
The next sections explore these four requirements of life.

Oxygen

Atmospheric air is only about 20 percent oxygen, but that oxygen is a key component of the
chemical reactions that keep the body alive, including the reactions that produce ATP. Brain cells are
especially sensitive to lack of oxygen because of their requirement for a high-and-steady production of
ATP. Brain damage is likely within five minutes without oxygen, and death is likely within ten minutes.

Nutrients
 A nutrient is a substance in foods and beverages that is essential to human survival. The three
basic classes of nutrients are water, the energy-yielding and body-building nutrients, and the
micronutrients (vitamins and minerals).
The most critical nutrient is water. Depending on the environmental temperature and our state
of health, we may be able to survive for only a few days without water. The body’s functional chemicals
are dissolved and transported in water, and the chemical reactions of life take place in water. Moreover,
water is the largest component of cells, blood, and the fluid between cells, and water makes up about
70 percent of an adult’s body mass. Water also helps regulate our internal temperature and cushions,
protects, and lubricates joints and many other body structures.
The energy-yielding nutrients are primarily carbohydrates and lipids, while proteins mainly
supply the amino acids that are the building blocks of the body itself. You ingest these in plant and
animal foods and beverages, and the digestive system breaks them down into molecules small enough
to be absorbed. The breakdown products of carbohydrates and lipids can then be used in the metabolic
processes that convert them to ATP. Although you might feel as if you are starving after missing a single
meal, you can survive without consuming the energy-yielding nutrients for at least several weeks.
Water and the energy-yielding nutrients are also referred to as macronutrients because the
body needs them in large amounts. In contrast, micronutrients are vitamins and minerals. These
elements and compounds participate in many essential chemical reactions and processes, such as nerve
impulses, and some, such as calcium, also contribute to the body’s structure. Your body can store some
of the micronutrients in its tissues, and draw on those reserves if you fail to consume them in your diet
for a few days or weeks. Some others micronutrients, such as vitamin C and most of the B vitamins, are
water-soluble and cannot be stored, so you need to consume them every day or two.

Narrow Range of Temperature

You have probably seen news stories about athletes who died of heat stroke, or hikers who died
of exposure to cold. Such deaths occur because the chemical reactions upon which the body depends
can only take place within a narrow range of body temperature, from just below to just above 37°C
(98.6°F). When body temperature rises well above or drops well below normal, certain proteins
(enzymes) that facilitate chemical reactions lose their normal structure and their ability to function and
the chemical reactions of metabolism cannot proceed.
That said, the body can respond effectively to short-term exposure to heat or cold. One of the
body’s responses to heat is, of course, sweating. As sweat evaporates from skin, it removes some
thermal energy from the body, cooling it. Adequate water (from the extracellular fluid in the body) is
necessary to produce sweat, so adequate fluid intake is essential to balance that loss during the sweat
response. Not surprisingly, the sweat response is much less effective in a humid environment because
the air is already saturated with water. Thus, the sweat on the skin’s surface is not able to evaporate,
and internal body temperature can get dangerously high.
The body can also respond effectively to short-term exposure to cold. One response to cold is
shivering, which is random muscle movement that generates heat. Another response is increased
breakdown of stored energy to generate heat. When that energy reserve is depleted, however, and the
core temperature begins to drop significantly, red blood cells will lose their ability to give up oxygen,
denying the brain of this critical component of ATP production. This lack of oxygen can cause confusion,
lethargy, and eventually loss of consciousness and death. The body responds to cold by reducing blood
circulation to the extremities, the hands and feet, in order to prevent blood from cooling there and so
that the body’s core can stay warm. Even when core body temperature remains stable, however, tissues
exposed to severe cold, especially the fingers and toes, can develop frostbite when blood flow to the
extremities has been much reduced. This form of tissue damage can be permanent and lead to
gangrene, requiring amputation of the affected region.

Narrow Range of Atmospheric Pressure

Pressure is a force exerted by a substance that is in contact with another substance.

Atmospheric pressure is pressure exerted by the mixture of gases (primarily nitrogen and oxygen) in the
Earth’s atmosphere. Although you may not perceive it, atmospheric pressure is constantly pressing
down on your body. This pressure keeps gases within your body, such as the gaseous nitrogen in body
fluids, dissolved. If you were suddenly ejected from a space ship above Earth’s atmosphere, you would
go from a situation of normal pressure to one of very low pressure. The pressure of the nitrogen gas in
your blood would be much higher than the pressure of nitrogen in the space surrounding your body. As
a result, the nitrogen gas in your blood would expand, forming bubbles that could block blood vessels
and even cause cells to break apart.
Atmospheric pressure does more than just keep blood gases dissolved. Your ability to breathe—
that is, to take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide—also depends upon a precise atmospheric
pressure. Altitude sickness occurs in part because the atmosphere at high altitudes exerts less pressure,
reducing the exchange of these gases, and causing shortness of breath, confusion, headache, lethargy,
and nausea. Mountain climbers carry oxygen to reduce the effects of both low oxygen levels and low
barometric pressure at higher altitudes.

Homeostasis
Maintaining homeostasis requires that the body continuously monitor its internal conditions.
From body temperature to blood pressure to levels of certain nutrients, each physiological condition has
a particular set point. A set point is the physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates. A
normal range is the restricted set of values that is optimally healthful and stable. For example, the set
point for normal human body temperature is approximately 37°C (98.6°F) Physiological parameters,
such as body temperature and blood pressure, tend to fluctuate within a normal range a few degrees
above and below that point. Control centers in the brain and other parts of the body monitor and react
to deviations from homeostasis using negative feedback. Negative feedback is a mechanism that
reverses a deviation from the set point. Therefore, negative feedback maintains body parameters within
their normal range. The maintenance of homeostasis by negative feedback goes on throughout the body
at all times, and an understanding of negative feedback is thus fundamental to an understanding of
human physiology

Negative Feedback

A negative feedback system has three basic components. A sensor, also referred to a receptor, is
a component of a feedback system that monitors a physiological value. This value is reported to the
control center. The control center is the component in a feedback system that compares the value to
the normal range. If the value deviates too much from the set point, then the control center activates an
effector. An effector is the component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse the
situation and return the value to the normal range.
 In order to set the system in motion, a stimulus must drive a physiological parameter beyond its
normal range (that is, beyond homeostasis). This stimulus is “heard” by a specific sensor. For example, in
the control of blood glucose, specific endocrine cells in the pancreas detect excess glucose (the stimulus)
in the bloodstream. These pancreatic beta cells respond to the increased level of blood glucose by
releasing the hormone insulin into the bloodstream. The insulin signals skeletal muscle fibers, fat cells
(adipocytes), and liver cells to take up the excess glucose, removing it from the bloodstream. As glucose
concentration in the bloodstream drops, the decrease in concentration—the actual negative feedback—
is detected by pancreatic alpha cells, and insulin release stops. This prevents blood sugar levels from
continuing to drop below the normal range.
Humans have a similar temperature regulation feedback system that works by promoting either
heat loss or heat gain. When the brain’s temperature regulation center receives data from the sensors
indicating that the body’s temperature exceeds its normal range, it stimulates a cluster of brain cells
referred to as the “heat-loss center.” This stimulation has three major effects:

• Blood vessels in the skin begin to dilate allowing more blood from the body core to flow to the
surface
of the skin allowing the heat to radiate into the environment.
• As blood flow to the skin increases, sweat glands are activated to increase their output. As the
sweat
evaporates from the skin surface into the surrounding air, it takes heat with it.
• The depth of respiration increases, and a person may breathe through an open mouth instead
of
through the nasal passageways. This further increases heat loss from the lungs.

In contrast, activation of the brain’s heat-gain center by exposure to cold reduces blood flow to
the skin, and blood returning from the limbs is diverted into a network of deep veins. This arrangement
traps heat closer to the body core and restricts heat loss. If heat loss is severe, the brain triggers an
increase in random signals to skeletal muscles, causing them to contract and producing shivering. The
muscle contractions of shivering release heat while using up ATP. The brain triggers the thyroid gland in
the endocrine system to release thyroid hormone, which increases metabolic activity and heat
production in cells throughout the body. The brain also signals the adrenal glands to release epinephrine
(adrenaline), a hormone that causes the breakdown of glycogen into glucose, which can be used as an
energy source. The breakdown of glycogen into glucose also results in increased metabolism and heat
production.

Positive Feedback

Positive feedback intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing
it. A deviation from the normal range results in more change, and the system moves farther away from
the normal range. Positive feedback in the body is normal only when there is a definite end point.
Childbirth and the body’s response to blood loss are two examples of positive feedback loops that are
normal but are activated only when needed.
Childbirth at full term is an example of a situation in which the maintenance of the existing body
state is not desired. Enormous changes in the mother’s body are required to expel the baby at the end
of pregnancy. And the events of childbirth, once begun, must progress rapidly to a conclusion or the life
of the mother and the baby are at risk. The extreme muscular work of labor and delivery are the result
of a positive feedback system.
 The first contractions of labor (the stimulus) push the baby toward the cervix (the lowest part of
the uterus). The cervix contains stretch-sensitive nerve cells that monitor the degree of stretching (the
sensors). These nerve cells send messages to the brain, which in turn causes the pituitary gland at the
base of the brain to release the hormone oxytocin into the bloodstream. Oxytocin causes stronger
contractions of the smooth muscles in of the uterus (the effectors), pushing the baby further down the
birth canal. This causes even greater stretching of the cervix. The cycle of stretching, oxytocin release,
and increasingly more forceful contractions stops only when the baby is born. At this point, the
stretching of the cervix halts, stopping the release of oxytocin.
A second example of positive feedback centers on reversing extreme damage to the body.
Following a penetrating wound, the most immediate threat is excessive blood loss. Less blood circulating
means reduced blood pressure and reduced perfusion (penetration of blood) to the brain and other vital
organs. If perfusion is severely reduced, vital organs will shut down and the person will die. The body
responds to this potential catastrophe by releasing substances in the injured blood vessel wall that begin
the process of blood clotting. As each step of clotting occurs, it stimulates the release of more clotting
substances. This accelerates the processes of clotting and sealing off the damaged area. Clotting is
contained in a local area based on the tightly controlled availability of clotting proteins. This is an
adaptive, life-saving cascade of events.

Anatomical Terminology

Anatomical Position

To further increase precision, anatomists standardize the way in which they view the body. Just
as maps are normally oriented with north at the top, the standard body “map,” or anatomical position,
is that of the body standing upright, with the feet at shoulder width and parallel, toes forward. The
upper limbs are held out to each side, and the palms of the hands face forward. Using this standard
position reduces confusion. It does not matter how the body being described is oriented, the terms are
used as if it is in anatomical position. For example, a scar in the “anterior (front) carpal (wrist) region”
would be present on the palm side of the wrist. The term “anterior” would be used even if the hand
were palm down on a table.
A body that is lying down is described as either prone or supine. Prone describes a face-down
orientation, and supine describes a face up orientation. These terms are sometimes used in describing
the position of the body during specific physical examinations or surgical procedures.

Directional Terms

Certain directional anatomical terms appear throughout this and any other anatomy textbook.
These terms are essential for describing the relative locations of different body structures. For instance,
an anatomist might describe one band of tissue as “inferior to” another or a physician might describe a
tumor as “superficial to” a deeper body structure. Commit these terms to memory to avoid confusion
when you are studying or describing the locations of particular body parts.
 • Anterior (or ventral) Describes the front or direction toward the front of the body. The toes
are anterior to the foot.
• Posterior (or dorsal) Describes the back or direction toward the back of the body. The
popliteus is posterior to the patella.
• Superior (or cranial) describes a position above or higher than another part of the body
proper. The orbits are superior to the oris.
• Inferior (or caudal) describes a position below or lower than another part of the body proper;
near or toward the tail (in humans, the coccyx, or lowest part of the spinal column). The pelvis is
inferior to the abdomen.
• Lateral describes the side or direction toward the side of the body. The thumb (pollex) is
lateral to the digits.
• Medial describes the middle or direction toward the middle of the body. The hallux is the
medial toe.
• Proximal describes a position in a limb that is nearer to the point of attachment or the trunk of
thebody. The brachium is proximal to the antebrachium.
• Distal describes a position in a limb that is farther from the point of attachment or the trunk of
the body. The crus is distal to the femur.
• Superficial describes a position closer to the surface of the body. The skin is superficial to the
bones.
• Deep describes a position farther from the surface of the body. The brain is deep to the skull.

Body Planes

A section is a two-dimensional surface of a three-dimensional structure that has been cut.

Modern medical imaging devices enable clinicians to obtain “virtual sections” of living bodies. We call
these scans. Body sections and scans can be correctly interpreted, however, only if the viewer
understands the plane along which the section was made. A plane is an imaginary two-dimensional
surface that passes through the body. There are three planes commonly referred to in anatomy and
medicine.

. • The sagittal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ vertically into right and left
sides. If this vertical plane runs directly down the middle of the body, it is called the midsagittal or
median plane. If it divides the body into unequal right and left sides, it is called a parasagittal plane or
less commonly a longitudinal section.
• The frontal plane is the plane that divides the body or an organ into an anterior (front) portion
and a posterior (rear) portion. The frontal plane is often referred to as a coronal plane. (“Corona” is Latin
for “crown.”)
• The transverse plane is the plane that divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and
lower portions. Transverse planes produce images referred to as cross sections.

Body Cavities and Serous Membranes

The body maintains its internal organization by means of membranes, sheaths, and other
structures that separate compartments. The dorsal (posterior) cavity and the ventral (anterior) cavity
are the largest body compartments. These cavities contain and protect delicate internal organs, and the
ventral cavity allows for significant changes in the size and shape of the organs as they perform their
functions. The lungs, heart, stomach, and intestines, for example, can expand and contract without
distorting other tissues or disrupting the activity of nearby organs.
Subdivisions of the Posterior (Dorsal) and Anterior (Ventral) Cavities

The posterior (dorsal) and anterior (ventral) cavities are each subdivided into smaller cavities. In
the posterior (dorsal) cavity, the cranial cavity houses the brain, and the spinal cavity (or vertebral
cavity) encloses the spinal cord. Just as the brain and spinal cord make up a continuous, uninterrupted
structure, the cranial and spinal cavities that house them are also continuous. The brain and spinal cord
are protected by the bones of the skull and vertebral column and by cerebrospinal fluid, a colorless fluid
produced by the brain, which cushions the brain and spinal cord within the posterior (dorsal) cavity. The
anterior (ventral) cavity has two main subdivisions: the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.
The thoracic cavity is the more superior subdivision of the anterior cavity, and it is enclosed by the rib
cage. The thoracic cavity contains the lungs and the heart, which is located in the mediastinum. The
diaphragm forms the floor of the thoracic cavity and separates it from the more inferior abdominopelvic
cavity. The abdominopelvic cavity is the largest cavity in the body. Although no membrane physically
divides the abdominopelvic cavity, it can be useful to distinguish between the abdominal cavity, the
division that houses the digestive organs, and the pelvic cavity, the division that houses the organs of
reproduction.

Abdominal Regions and Quadrants

To promote clear communication, for instance about the location of a patient’s abdominal pain
or a suspicious mass, health care providers typically divide up the cavity into either nine regions or four
quadrants.
The more detailed regional approach subdivides the cavity with one horizontal line immediately inferior
to the ribs and one immediately superior to the pelvis, and two vertical lines drawn as if dropped from
the midpoint of each clavicle (collarbone). There are nine resulting regions. The simpler quadrants
approach, which is more commonly used in medicine, subdivides the cavity with one horizontal and one
vertical line that intersect at the patient’s umbilicus (navel).

Membranes of the Anterior (Ventral) Body Cavity

A serous membrane (also referred to a serosa) is one of the thin membranes that cover the
walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities. The parietal layers of the membranes line
the walls of the body cavity (parietal- refers to a cavity wall). The visceral layer of the membrane covers
the organs (the viscera). Between the parietal and visceral layers is a very thin, fluid-filled serous space,
or cavity.
There are three serous cavities and their associated membranes. The pleura are the serous
membrane that surrounds the lungs in the pleural cavity; the pericardium is the serous membrane that
surrounds the heart in the pericardial cavity; and the peritoneum is the serous membrane that
surrounds several organs in the abdominopelvic cavity. The serous membranes form fluid-filled sacs, or
cavities, that are meant to cushion and reduce friction on internal organs when they move, such as
when the lungs inflate or the heart beats. Both the parietal and visceral serosa secrete the thin, slippery
serous fluid located within the serous cavities. The pleural cavity reduces friction between the lungs and
the body wall. Likewise, the pericardial cavity reduces friction between the heart and the wall of the
pericardium. The peritoneal cavity reduces friction between the abdominal and pelvic organs and the
body wall. Therefore, serous membranes provide additional protection to the viscera they enclose by
reducing friction that could lead to inflammation of the organs.