PART TWO

ROM THE BATTLE

OF MOHÁCS TO 1956
430 YEARS

Turkish and Hungarian warriors

on a Calvary altar made by Meister
M.S. in Selmecbánya (Banska
Stiavnica)
 HE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY
FROM THE BATTLE
OF MOHÁCS TO THE
BATTLE OF ZENTA: 1526–1697

Anna Kubinyi: Meeting of millenia

Mass grave in Heroes’ Square
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 220

The Battle of Mohács*

The victory at Szávaszentdemeter (Sremska logical continuation of the campaign five

Mitrovica, Serbia) merely gave the Hungarian years previously, and was clearly directed at
border defence forces a little breathing space. crushing the Hungarian defence. Accordingly,
The main Turkish forces did not attack over the Sultan set off from Istanbul at the head
the next two years, but there were several of his army in the last week of April. The
minor incursions. The Hungarians came Anatolian army crossed the Bosphorus
through these with a mixed balance sheet. at Gallipoli and arrived in Philippopolis
Klissza (Klis, Croatia), the most southerly (Plovdiv) two days after the Sultan, on 21
of the border fortresses, was successfully May. Here, the Ottoman army split in two:
defended twice (1522, 1524), and there was the Janissary infantry, the artillery and the
also a successful relief expedition to Jajca baggage proceeded along the most common
(Jajce, Bosnia-Hercegovina) in 1525. At the route, through the Traianus Gate (Derbent
other end of the defensive line, however, Pass) towards Sofia, and the Anatolian and
they lost two castles on the left bank of the Rumelian cavalry via the Slatica Pass, known
Danube, Orsova and Szörény. from Hunyadi’s campaign. The victualling of
Although the military situation had not the army was organised with the usual care,
deteriorated dramatically since 1523, Hungary as far as possible sparing the population of
had become fatally isolated politically. One the towns on the marching route. In Sofia,
of the powers which might have been looked Suleyman held a review of his army and sent
to for assistance, the empire of Charles V, Grand Vizier Ibrahim at the head of the
was preoccupied with a war against France, Rumelian army, reinforced with Janissaries,
and insofar as it was concerned with defence to secure the crossing of the River Sava.
against the Ottomans, it concentrated its When the Sultan arrived at Nándorfehérvár
efforts on the Mediterranean. The contest (Belgrade) on 30 June, the bridge was ready;
between France and the Habsburg Empire had the Hungarian forces had made no attempt to
a tragic consequence for Hungary: the French disrupt its construction work.
court directly asked the Ottoman Empire for Although alarming news reached Hungary
support against the Emperor, thus involving continuously from February 1526 onwards,
the Sultan in the European diplomatic arena. the court was paralysed by lack of funds. The
The struggle against the Ottomans was Captain-in-Chief of the border forts, Pál
close to the heart of the Emperor’s younger Tomori (Archbishop of Kalocsa), attempted
brother Archduke Ferdinand, who ruled the to obtain money in Buda in March, but to no
hereditary lands of Austria, but his resources avail. At the end of the month, he and the
were for the moment sufficient only for the border fortress commanders tendered their
defence of the most-threatened province, resignation. In the event, he stayed in his post,
Krajna. Venice had recently signed a truce with but still received no aid. At the end of April,
the Ottomans, and provided Hungary with a Diet was held in Rákos, where the Turkish
no further support except a minor financial attack was initially not even mentioned. The
subvention. Poland, threatened by the Tartars, Diet did ultimately call for a tax to be levied
acted similarly and King Sigismund pressed for defence of the realm, but without hope
his nephew Louis II to settle with the Sultan. of it being collected. In June, the King’s
Only the Pope sent regular financial aid, and government sent out orders for mobilisation.
his legates in Hungary strictly supervised its In the light of events five years previously,
use. this meant that the whole Hungarian army
The Ottomans launched the decisive would not muster before September. The King Charles V of Spain (1500–1558), Holy Roman Emperor.
campaign in 1526. The offensive was the King requested cannon and infantry from the Engraving by Viennese engraver Franz Leopold Schmitner (1703–1761)
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 222 223 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Syrmia, completing the neutralisation of the a position north of the Drava. King Louis gathered at Mohács. Although some historians
south-eastern stretch of the Hungarian border sent from his camp at Tolna the Palatine and calculate the strength of the Hungarian army
fortress line. On 14 August, the Turks were at former Lord Chief Justice Ambrus Sárkány, at at 50-60,000, in view of the difficulties of
the Drava. the head of the Pápa infantry and the county mobilisation there is no reason to doubt
On 20 July, King Louis set off from Buda levée, to defend Eszék Castle and prevent Brodarics’ figure. Even if we take the number
with intention, following the customary the river crossing, but they either did not go as 50,000 and add Szapolyai’s Transylvanian
procedure, of gathering troops from various at all, or turned back on the way, so that the and Krsto Frankapan’s Croatian armies
places as he marched. From 6 August he Ottoman army crossed the Drava unimpeded and the German and Bohemian auxiliaries,
camped at Tolna for two weeks, but the army between 21 and 23 August, burning the bridge putting the potential size of the Hungarian
swelled in number only very slowly. By that behind them. The causeways through the army at 80,000, this strength, together with
time the noble levée had been proclaimed marshes to the north of the Drava offered the the adverse terrain and other conditions
in every county, the bloody sword had gone last chance of stopping the Ottoman advance would not have justified engaging in battle
its round, the signal for mobilisation of a in circumstances unfavourable to them. at Mohács. Furthermore, since the regular
section of the tenant peasantry. At the King’s The Hungarian military leadership made no units of the Ottoman army numbered no
command, Tomori threatened shirkers with the attempt at this, indeed Tomori ordered his more than 60,000, a Hungarian army of
rope. Mobilisation was delayed by the harvest troops back to the royal camp. similar size, even considering the undoubted
and the long distances, and most of all by the In the end, according to the eye-witness difference in quality, would not have suffered
long-standing inertia and internal divisions of Chancellor Brodarics, some 25,000 men such a catastrophic defeat. The Hungarian
the Jagiello government. This explains why the
Portrait of Louis II Croatian forces and some of the Bohemian
and Moravian infantry did not come to the
towns, and the counties called on the nobles to Mohács camp at all, and Ferenc Batthyány,
muster. In the southern counties, the order had Ban of Croatia–Slavonia, arrived only on
already gone out for the peasants to present the morning of the battle, with one-third of
for military service after the harvest. Because his promised strength, some 4000 men. It is
of the difficulties of mobilisation, by the time telling that, having received the command to
the Ottoman army was already crossing the mobilise on 23 June, the Slavonian estates only
Sava at the end of June, only Tomori’s border gathered at the beginning of August, and set
fortress troops, the militias of some southern off in the middle of the month. The Voivode
barons and prelates, and the Archbishop of of Transylvania, János Szapolyai, was sent
Esztergom’s contingent serving in the south, contradictory instructions: he first received
no more than a few thousand men in all, were an order to exploit the absence of the Sultan’s
in a combat-ready state. army to invade Ottoman territory together
At Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade, Serbia), with the Voivode of Wallachia, but when the
the Ottoman army was joined by troops magnitude of the peril became apparent, he
of the Sanjak of Bosnia, the Akindjis of was instructed to join the King’s army. He set
the border country and the Black Sea fleet. off with an army, but only reached Szeged.
Sultan Suleyman held a review of his armies Given the example of the Slavonians, it is
as they crossed the Sava bridge; the crossing more than probable that Szapolyai would not
took a whole week. On 13 July, Grand Vizier have managed to arrive in Mohács before the
Ibrahim, supported by the river flotilla, put the end of August even if he had received clear
last major Hungarian border fortress on the orders.
Danube, Pétervárad (Petrovaradin, Serbia), On 15 August, the Turks started to build a
under siege. The defenders surrendered two bridge at Eszék (Osijek, Croatia), and finished
weeks later. Tomori, leading an army only a it on the 19th. Although Tomori had quite
few thousand strong and suffering difficulties rightly realised that defence of the Osijek
of supply, could not even attempt the relief crossing point was their only chance to hold
of this key fort. On 1 August, Ibrahim’s army up the Ottoman army, neither he nor Palatine
started the siege of Újlak (Ilok, Croatia), Báthori, who had been specifically ordered to
weaker than Pétervárad, and it fell within a do so, acted in time. After the fall of Pétervárad,
week. As the siege of Újlak progressed, the Tomori retreated to his archiepiscopal seat
Ottoman army captured the smaller forts in of Bács, crossed the Danube, and took up
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 224 225 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

army comprised about 15,000 cavalry, most declined leadership because of his illness, and
of them armoured, and about 10,000 infantry, Lord Chief Justice János Drágffy, who had
mostly Bohemian, Moravian and German. military experience as ispán (comes) of Temes,
The highest combat-value formations were was not considered, for reasons unknown.
the border fortress companies, the banderia He was given the flag of the kingdom, and
(militias) who had served extended terms in his spurs were loosened so that he could not
the south, and foreign mercenaries. run away. Ultimately, the matter went to an
One of the main questions surrounding the unprecedented vote, and the choice fell on the
Battle of Mohács is the choice of battlefield. Voivode’s younger brother György Szapolyai
Why that particular location? The logical and the reluctant Tomori. Szapolyai had no
option of retreating, building up strength, and experience of command at all, and Tomori’s
only then taking up battle, is one which arose military exploits had been accomplished at the
at the council of war. Considering that on the head of cavalry formations no more than a
day of the battle Szapolyai was in Szeged, the few hundred strong. An interesting figure was
Bohemian auxiliaries at Székesfehérvár, and the Polish officer Lenart Gnoinski, appointed
Frankapan’s cavalry at Zagreb, retreat must chief of the general staff. He interestingly cited
surely have been advisable given what was the lessons of the Turkish–Hungarian wars of
at stake, even at the expense of some losses. the 1440s. His main proposal, that a fortified
According to Brodarics, the King himself wagon fort be set up as Hunyadi had done at
argued for this: “If the enemy were to seize the Kosovo Polje, went unheeded. He also argued
land between Mohács and Pozsony, and even the importance of the personal defence of
to lay it waste, Hungary would suffer less harm the King, and here he found agreement: Louis
than if such a great army, and with it the King II’s protection was entrusted to three highly-
and so many dignitaries and soldiers, were to capable cavalry captains, Gáspár Ráskai, János
be destroyed in a single battle.” A proposition Vitéz of Kálla and Bálint Török.
which would have handed over to the enemy The Hungarian army took up battle order
the most densely-populated counties of the on a field to the south of Mohács on 29
country, and may have required temporary August 1526. The field was bounded to the
evacuation of the capital, Buda, was not likely east by the marshy flood plain of the Danube,
to arouse much enthusiasm, but in the event and to the south and west by a 25-30 metre
it was not such rational arguments which high terrace, whose exact gradient is hotly
decided the issue so much as desperation- disputed by historians. What is certain is that
induced indiscipline. Upon learning of the this terrace was crucial to the course of the
generals’ hesitation, Tomori’s border fortress battle. The Borza stream runs through the
men, the best soldiers in the army, threatened field, and it was to the south of this stream
to turn against the royal camp if battle was that King Louis and his army took up their
not immediately joined. position. The Hungarians most probably
Another difficulty was the choice of stood some 2-2.5 km from the terrace. The
commander-in-chief. No Hungarian army area in between was described by the eye-
had engaged either an Ottoman or any other witness Brodarics as a plain, but in reality it
major army in regular battle since 1448. As was divided by small ridges and valleys which
a result, there was not a single soldier in the hampered the clear view of the battlefield.
kingdom who had experience of commanding There was a village at the foot of the terrace,
such a large body of several tens of thousands usually identified by historians as Földvár. The
of men. There were generals who had led – choice of battlefield suggests that Tomori
and defended against – many border raids, wanted to engage with the Ottoman army at
and had besieged minor forts, including the foot of the terrace and – in view of the
Palatine Báthori (who was suffering from lower numerical strength of the Hungarian
gout), Szapolyai and Tomori himself. But army – drew up an offensive battle plan.
they knew from Hunyadi’s example that these There is no definite evidence, however, for
capabilities were inadequate against Ottoman the historian’s hypothesis that the Hungarian
Louis II holds a council of war near Mohács. armies toughened in battle in the east. Báthori commanders envisaged an attack on the
The armoured knights are lined up in closed ranks behind the tents. Contemporary Turkish miniature.
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 226 227 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

These two tableaux are the most authentic Turkish representations of the battle of Mohács. Suleyman and his war retinue are centre right.
The artillery in action in front of him opens a way for the Sultan and the flag-bearing horsemen. The Turkish figures in the battle scene are mainly
Spahis, Janissaries and Solaks. On the bottom left are Turkish and Hungarian cavalry in fierce combat. The dead lie all around.
The Hungarian army is shown in close battle order at the top of the picture.
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 228 229 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Turks as they came down from the terrace or so infantry stood in the centre of the anywhere as became necessary. The King army. Tomori distributed the Hungarian
out of their battle order. It is interesting, if front echelon, making up a front about one stood in the second echelon with some three artillery along the line of the first echelon.
not astonishing, that Tomori did not prepare kilometre long. On the right wing stood Ban thousand heavy cavalry, arranged in the centre. On the morning of 29 August, the Ottoman
for the option of an orderly retreat, the same Ferenc Batthyány of Slavonia with his heavy The light cavalry units protecting Louis were army, having camped on the north bank of the
mistake Hunyadi had made at Kosovo Polje in cavalry, and on the left Péter Perényi, whose also in the second echelon, as were a small Karassó stream, set out, in battle formation,
1448. Once again, the Hungarian tactics were troops were also mainly heavy cavalry. The number of infantry. The Hungarian army as towards what was to become the battlefield.
based on a single, devastating charge. most reliable expert on the Battle of Mohács, a whole was not structured in depth, and the Somewhat before this, Grand Vizier Ibrahim
The Hungarian army lined up in two Géza Perjés, has estimated the first echelon second echelon was not strong enough to left camp with the Rumelian corps and his
echelons parallel with the terrace, in the to have extended along a front of 4 km. The follow up a successful charge. This implies Janissaries and artillery.
north-west/south-east direction, at dawn two commanders, Tomori and Szapolyai, were that anything short of complete success by the Since they took nearly seven hours to
on 29 August. Most of the ten thousand also in the front echelon, ready to intervene charge would seal the fate of the Hungarian complete the distance of not more than

Mór Than’s painting

of the 1526 Battle of Mohács
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 230 231 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

12 km to the terrace (according to Suleyman’s

diary the Turks arrived at Mohács field at
around two in the afternoon), the Ottoman
army must clearly have maintained battle
order throughout. This must have been true
even in what must have been difficult going,
over land soaked by the very heavy rain which
is known to have fallen. It can be established
quite definitely from the sources that when
the Ottoman generals came to the edge of the
terrace, they got a clear view of the Hungarian
army and its battle order, and so had a good
basis for choosing their tactics.
Despite countless reconstructions, the
course of the battle has not been satisfactorily
determined. Géza Perjés has clearly established
that the battle order of the Hungarian army
was “good for nothing except a desperate
charge.” The Turks also saw it that way: the
Bey of Nándorfehérvár advised the Grand
Vizier not to stand up to the charge but to avert
it. The Ottoman army was certainly ready for
battle, the Sultan having issued the command
the day before. They held a council of war
at the edge of the terrace in full knowledge
of the Hungarian battle order, and then the
Rumelian corps started the descent to the foot
of the terrace. At the same time, the Grand
Vizier sent the light cavalry of Bali Bey and
Khosrev Bey to the flanks of the Hungarian
army. The purpose was clearly to distract the
Hungarians while the main Turkish army
made the descent. Tomori sent against them
the cavalry assigned to guarding the King, a
move that has generated much argument since.
The view that this was a tragic and irreparable
mistake seems to stand up to scrutiny.
Later events make clear that the Rumelian
corps descended to the foot of the terrace
unopposed, and even had time to set up their
cannon in the customary batteries, defended
by stakes. It is not known where the Sultan
and the Porte mercenaries, or the Anatolian
corps, were at that time. It is generally assumed
that they only came to the terrace after the
Hungarian charge. Géza Perjés, who carried
out the most thorough calculations, estimated
► a 5-6 km lag. He also established, however,
Bertalan Székely (1835–1910), that the Anatolian corps only had to march
Discovery of the Body of King Louis II, 6-8 km on the day of battle, which would
painted in 1860. This was Székely’s mean they had not even started out from camp
first major historical painting. before noon, and this is utterly inconceivable.
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 232 233 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Much more likely is that when the Rumelian

corps started their descent, the whole
Ottoman army was standing on the edge of
the terrace, and could not even have been very
tired, because a 6-8 km march even in battle
order does not take too much out of soldiers.
When the Rumelian corps reached the
foot of the terrace, the Sultan nonetheless
unexpectedly commanded them to pitch
camp. Similar preparations were being made
on the Hungarian side. Some take the view
that the Hungarians saw that the Turks did
not want to join battle that day. According to
Brodarics, “the sun was already heading west”,
so that the afternoon was well advanced. The
catch is that the return to camp was, according
to the Chancellor, proposed by the barons
close to the King, who – as Brodarics himself
– could not see what was happening with the
Rumelian corps because of the battle line in
front of them and the undulating land. What
probably happened was that both the Sultan’s
council and King Louis’ retinue judged that it
was too late for starting a battle, and wanted
to postpone it to the next day. It should be
remembered that the Hungarian army had
been standing in battle order since dawn, and
so must have been at least as tired as the Turks
forming up from the march.
Nonetheless, Tomori, in the front echelon,
ordered the charge sometime between 3 and
4 in the afternoon. For this, however, he had
to ride back to the King to convince him it
was the right action to take. He then returned
to his place and ordered the right wing, led
by Batthyány, and the central infantry, to
charge. His plan must have been to rout the
Rumelian corps before the Sultan’s central
army had formed up. The Hungarian heavy
cavalry could in principle have made the one-
and-a-half or two kilometre distance in a few
minutes without their battle order breaking up.
It had to take account, however, of its infantry,
which had to arrive in time at the gap opened
up by the cavalry. The infantry needed at least
Mihály Kovács: Dorottya Kanizsai
half an hour to approach the Turks. This was buries the dead on the Mohács
more than enough time for the Turkish cavalry battlefield. After the defeat
to take up battle order again and execute the of Mohács, Dorottya Kanizsai
partition proposed by Bali Bey. Not for the looked for her son’s body on the
first time, this practised movement by the battlefield, and with the help of local
Spahis was interpreted by the Hungarian priests and peasants buried the fallen
commanders as victory. Tomori also fell for it, soldiers in a common grave.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 234 235 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

and gave the command for the second echelon to failure in any case. According to the Turkish
to charge. sources, the Hungarian cavalry thrown back by
In the meantime, the Rumelian corps’s the volleys regrouped several times, but were
artillery went into action, but the balls flew incapable of breaking through the solid wall
above the heads of the charging Hungarians. of Janissaries. Finally, like the remnants of the
Not so the volleys of the Janissaries; the cavalry right wing led by Batthyány, they were obliged
came to a halt in front of the Turkish infantry to give up the hopeless struggle.
guarding the cannon, and were forced to In the words of Géza Perjés, the Battle of
move to the side, taking serious losses as they Mohács ended with “the total destruction of
did so. It seems that by the time the infantry the Hungarian army.” The casualties numbered
and the second echelon cavalry arrived, the ten thousand infantry, four thousand cavalry
Turkish central army and the Anatolian corps (one third of the total), seven prelates, twenty-
had formed up in battle order at the foot of eight barons and the flower of the Hungarian
the terrace, giving the Turks an overwhelming nobility. The real catastrophe, however, as
superiority. In the melee, Tomori lost contact at Varna, was the death of the King and the
with Perényi’s corps and central command of ensuing consequences. Unlike that 1444
the army slipped away. Tomori was trying to defeat, when the Hungarian army was fighting
stop the retreating cavalry when he was cut far from the borders of the kingdom and
down. It is not sure when the King was taken the Sultan was not strong enough to invade,
out of the fray; all that we know is that unlike Suleyman in August 1526 had an open road
the barons and bishops in the second echelon, to the capital. When the news of the Mohács
he did not fall on the battlefield but in flight, catastrophe reached Buda on 30 August,
drowning in the marsh. Queen Mary and her retinue immediately
After the remaining cavalry has fled, the abandoned the city, followed by the German
infantry were left to themselves to fight for and Hungarian burghers.
their lives. The Turkish numerical superiority The Sultan reached Buda on 11 September.
now prevailed to the full extent, and the After inspecting the city and plundering the
infantry had no option but to fight to the end castle, he ordered Buda to be burned. The
of their strength, the Turkish light cavalry same fate befell Pest. The flames which raged
standing ready to cut off any attempt at retreat. for several days in these two wealthy cities
The experienced, and largely non-Hungarian, symbolised the fall of the medieval Kingdom
mercenaries managed to assume some kind of of Hungary. The country still had some
order, and held out for longer. In the hand- armed strength, but the nearly 150 year-long
to-hand fighting, firearms naturally played no first stage of the Turkish–Hungarian struggle
part, and the bloody close-quarters combat had come to an end. It was no reprieve for
practically ended in the complete destruction the kingdom that Suleyman did not intend
of the Christian infantry. At a cautious to leave a garrison in the capital at that
estimate, ten thousand infantrymen lay dead point. The Ottomans built a bridge over the
on the field. Danube, and their whole army crossed it to
Tomori’s unexpected charge had left leave Hungary in two columns through the
Perényi’s left wing unable to exert any effective land between the Danube and the Tisza. The
influence on the battle. Neither is it clear Sultan entered Nándorfehérvár, the former
whether Perényi received the order to charge gateway to Hungary, on 10 October. This, too,
from Tomori or decided himself to rush at the was symbolic: both Hunyadi’s Long Campaign,
Anatolian corps. What is certain is that when which had given new momentum to the fight
the heavy cavalry of the left wing started their against the Ottomans, and the 1526 campaign
offensive, the Janissaries of the Anatolian corps marking the collapse of the Kingdom of
were already standing in battle order at the foot Hungary, ended at Nándorfehérvár.
The capture of Buda Castle in 1526 proclaimed the triumph of the Ottoman army. The collapse of the enormous bastion in the picture is probably of the terrace and received the Hungarians
the result of an explosion. Much of the castle is still in the hands of the defenders, with withering musket fire. A series of volleys *Excerpt from Tamás Pálosfalvi: Nikápolytól Mohácsig
“with its extensive walls, stout construction, soaring towers and bastions stretching up to the Pleiades was enormously strong, … severely thinned out Perényi’s division, whose 1396–1526 (From Nicopolis to Mohács 1396–1526, Zrínyi
the pride of the giaurs.” (Detail from a miniature in the Topkapi Seray Museum) lack of follow-on infantry doomed his attack Kiadó, Budapest, 2005)
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 236 237 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

István Brodarics: many of our men lying dead on the field, and Some barons who remained loyal to the castles (Bánmonostor [Banoštor, Serbia] and
A true account even more of the enemy, and some were still widowed Queen, Mary Habsburg, including the Cserög [Čerević]), and arranged defence by
of the Hungarians’ battle alive and breathing. Our men were still engaging Palatine, István Báthori, at a Diet called in Poz- settling Serb soldiers fleeing the Turks, led by
with the Turks at Mohács* the enemy, fighting valiantly, and in the meantime sony (Bratislava), elected her brother Ferdinand, Jován Cserni. His experiment did not succeed.
the King’s squadron hurried there, insofar as an Archduke of Austria and already crowned King The Serbs fell into conflict with the local land-
The signal for battle was given, at which those in armoured squadron can hurry, but the right wing of Bohemia, as King of Hungary, citing dynastic owners and inhabitants, and were driven off by
the front rank bravely charged at the enemy. All began to yield. Many started to flee on that side, I contracts made with the Jagiellos. the armies of Péter Perényi and Bálint Török,
of our guns discharged, but the fighting caused believe taking fright from the cannonballs which Ferdinand had no substantial army, but his together with local peasants.
only minor loss to the enemy, even though it the enemy had only now started to deploy. This brother Charles V, ruler of the Spanish Empire A marriage with the widowed Queen was pro-
was most spirited considering our numbers, circumstance, and the cannonballs now flying (1516–1556) and Holy Roman Empire (1519– posed as a way of settling with the Habsburgs,
and more of the enemy fell than of our ranks. above our heads, struck fear in all of those beside 1556) promised in a letter to defend his brother’s but none of the main protagonists were pre-
Finally the fierce fighting by our men caused the the King. From that time, the King was no more country from the Ottomans. The assistance he pared for such a dramatic turn of events, and The failed Turkish siege of Vienna in
enemy to withdraw, either because our charge among our ranks! sent, in the form of money and troops, arrived the attempts to break out of the crisis – the elec- 1529 from the Nuremberg edition of
the Hieronymus Ortelius and Martin
had forced them, or to draw us towards their only the next year. tion of two kings – almost inevitably descended
Meyer’s chronicle Ortelius redivivus et
guns. András Báthori rushed to the King’s side Sultan Suleyman was satisfied with the out- into political chaos and civil war, from which
continuatus (1602). The engraving was
to say that the enemy was in flight, victory was come of his campaign. He had paralysed his only the Ottomans benefited. made by Ortelius’s brother-in law Johann
ours, let us press forward and help our men in enemy, occupied Nándorfehérvár (Belgrade), The civil war began in summer 1527. Fer- Sibmacher, the Nuremberg painter and
pursuing the retreating enemy. We advanced over *Excerpt from Tamás Katona the key to the kingdom, and retaken solid pos- dinand, with an army of about 18,000, succeed- engraver, whose pictures are among the
hedge and ditch, and when we came to the place (ed.): Mohács emlékezete (Memories of Mohács, Európa Kiadó, session of the Syrmian castles, i.e. the military ed in expelling John from the country within a finest 17th-century vedutas (views) of
where the battle had proceeded we could see Budapest, 1976) road along the Danube to Hungary. period of less than three months. Such military Hungary. The events of the Turkish
wars in Hungary were of great interest
Now elected king, John Szapolyai had to re- supremacy was enough to convince most of John
to foreign contemporaries, especially
constitute the government and try to patch up I’s followers to change over to the Habsburg
Germans, Italians and French. The fear
the gap in the southern defences caused by the side. When the crown of St Stephen was placed of the Turks in countries to the west of
lost of the Syrmian castles. In the winter of upon the head of Ferdinand at Székesfehérvár, Hungary inspired innumerable Hungary-
1526/1527, his forces recaptured some minor it was in the presence of most of the barons related pamphlets and books.

Two kings and civil war

A f ter the Battle of Mohács, the victorious

Suleyman I marched unresisted to Buda
and occupied the seat of the Hungarian kings
capitated: the casualties included the King, seven
bishops and thirty barons. From being a medium
European power under Matthias I, Hungary had
(12 September 1526). He waited, but no peace suddenly been left without a ruler and without
delegation came, nor did any Christian army any substantial military strength.
appear for another trial of strength. No Ottoman The only combat-ready army was in the hands
army had ever penetrated so far into the country, of John Szapolyai, Voivode of Transylvania.
and indeed the present one had not expected to. This, comprising 10,000 troops, stood on the
A month later, with several tens of thousands left side of the Tisza and observed the Ottoman
of inhabitants in chains, they withdrew from the army as it marched home beside the Danube.
country. Most of the nobility thought they had found the
The paralysis was understandable. Hungary strongman of the country, and at a hurried Diet
had suffered more than a simple military defeat at Tokaj, the majority of the nobility elected Sza-
at Mohács. Its political leadership had been de- polyai as King John I, on 17 October.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 238 239 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Vienna, Hungary would fall into his lap, and The Ottomans first pushed forward the bor-
become a buffer zone between the world’s two ders of their Empire in Habsburg-ruled Croatia
largest empires. and Slavonia, by taking Pozsega (Požega),
The Sultan’s army, after accumulating victory Obrovác and Klissza (Klis). In the Kingdom of
after victory, was forced to a halt before Vien- Hungary, ruled by John I apart from the western
na. Arriving at Vienna late in 1529, only at the strip, they used the first phase of their success-
end of September, the Ottoman army made no ful Balkan strategy of accustoming the country
headway against the well-prepared and deter- to Turkish presence. John’s supporters in the
mined defenders. Three years later, the Sultan’s civil war played into the Ottoman’s hands by re-
army made rapid progress along the Drava, but questing and receiving assistance from Ottoman
were held up at the tiny castle of Kőszeg by 600- forces occupying the south of the country.
700 troops led by Miklós Jurisics.
Jurisics’ performance was exemplary, although
what finally brought the Ottoman war machine
to a halt was Charles V’s 80,000-strong imperial
army outside Vienna. Seeing this Habsburg dis-
play of power, Suleyman did not push the cam-
paign any further. From these defeats, he drew
the lesson that he had to take possession of the
Kingdom of Hungary before he could realise
his dream of “restoring the Roman Empire”, i.e. Kőszeg Castle today
conquering Europe. (Photo: Attila Barczi)

A treaty with the Ottoman Empire

recognised John Szapolyai as King of
Hungary. John Szapolyai went before
the Sultan at Mohács and surrendered
to him on the battlefield. The ceremony
is recorded on this Turkish miniature.

who had crowned John Szapolyai as king one as King of Hungary, for the moment without
year previously. payment of tribute, and undertook to provide
Szapolyai’s military defeats were compound- military support.
ed by his diplomatic isolation. First of all he Szapolyai initially set out to maintain the unity
sought the support of King Francis I of France of the country as he manoeuvred between the
(1515–1547), the old enemy of the Habsburgs, Ottoman and Habsburg Empires, but it soon
and joined the anti-Habsburg coalition of became clear that the path he had set out on was
France, Milan, Venice, Florence and the Papal leading not to the integrity and independence of
States (the League of Cognac), but this gained the kingdom, but to the opposite, vassalage and
him no assistance. In his straitened position, he break-up.
sent an emissary to Istanbul, and accepted Sul- On the pretext of assisting his “protégé”, Su-
tan Suleyman’s “offer”. The treaty signed with leyman I had virtually free passage into Hun-
the Ottoman Empire in early 1528 seemed very gary, but his objective was now to occupy Fer-
advantageous, because it recognised Szapolyai dinand I’s capital. He thought that, by capturing
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 240 241 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

The fight for the castles as unreliable, broke with his policy, and to pre- Over the next few years, Suleyman took
of Hungary (1543–1566) vent the unification of the kingdom under the devastating advantage of the Christian forces’
“Viennese king”, decided to occupy the centre powerlessness. He reinforced his route along the
of the Kingdom of Hungary. On the 15th anni- Danube, and set up a defence zone around Buda.
versary of his victory at Mohács, he took Buda In 1543, he took the castles of Siklós and Pécs
by a trick, and informed the barons, upon sum- in South Transdanubia, Esztergom, with its com-

A
moning them to his camp, that John I’s widow manding position on the Danube, and then Tata
l though European and Hungarian history to transfer the lands under his rule even in the
Queen Isabella may continue to rule the eastern and Székesfehérvár.
is studded with struggles amongst various case of a male successor. Szapolyai did have a
part of the country. This established a new state, After the fall of the archiepiscopal seat, Arch-
interest groups within the estates, leagues of son before he died, prompting his followers, led
the Principality of Transylvania, and split the bishop of Esztergom Pál Várday transferred his
barons, and between them and the king, the by the man who had guided his political strategy,
kingdom into three parts. residence to Nagyszombat (Trnava, Slovakia) and
tussles between power groups in the period George Martinuzzi, Bishop of Várad, to refuse
The fall of Buda to the Ottomans provoked replaced his lost fortress by building Érsekújvár
after 1526 were particularly destructive. The to abide by the treaty, and upheld the claim to the
fear and panic in the Austrian and German (“New Archbishop’s Castle”, now Nové Zámky)
barons put their own narrow ambitions above throne by the infant John Sigismund (1540–1571).
provinces of the Empire, quite reasonably con- on the River Nyitra (Nitra). Within a few dec-
the interests of the kingdom, ultimately serving Ferdinand decided to implement the treaty by
cerned that they would be Suleyman’s next prey. ades, it took shape as one of the most advanced
nobody except the conquerors. All members of force of arms, and set out with an army of nearly
Tata Castle (Dotis Ungaris Thata) A 50,000-strong army was assembled, with great fortresses in the country, and became the seat of
the political elite recognised this danger, but were 30,000 to besiege Buda. Despite the help of the
from the six-volume Civitates Orbis effort, out of German, Austrian and Hungarian the Captain General.
unable to agree on who should withdraw. They citizens of Buda, he was unable to capture the
Terrarum (Cities of the World), soldiers and moved at snail’s pace towards Buda. George Martinuzzi, acting as regent for the
did at least encourage their rulers to come to a fortress, which was relieved by Hungarian forces Eger Castle in the late 16th century,
published in Cologne between 1572 Against an enemy which had had time to pre- child king John Sigismund, created a new state
and 1617. The city plan bears the
settlement. John Szapolyai soon realised that his under Bálint Török, with Turkish assistance. At from George Braun and Franz
pare, the campaign ended in humiliating failure, out of Transylvania and the counties of Tiszántúl
name of a Belgian artist Georg rule was advancing the Turkish cause, and so he this point, Sultan Suleyman I arrived in Buda Hogenberg’s six-volume Civitates
without even an attempt to take Buda, and only a known as “the Partium” and worked towards a Orbis Terrarum
Houfnagel (1542–1600) with the made a secret truce with Ferdinand I in Várad with his main army and defeated Ferdinand’s
half-hearted siege of Pest. settlement with King Ferdinand. The treaty as- (Cities of the World).
word communicauit (“published by”). (now Oradea, Romania) in 1538, undertaking army. Suleyman, who now looked on his allies
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 242 243 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

signing Transylvania and the Partium was signed more than can be said for Bernardo Aldana’s sol-
in 1549, and in June 1551, a royal army of 7000 diers, who left the well-fortified Lippa (Lipova)
mercenaries led by Gianbatista Castaldo arrived to its fate.
to take over Transylvania. Queen Isabella clung After capturing the Temesköz area, the main
to power, and could only be persuaded by force army united at Szolnok with the troops of Ali
of arms to relinquish Transylvania and renounce Pasha of Buda, and after a brief siege captured
her son’s claim to the throne (as John II). (on 4 September) the castle of Szolnok, with its
Since George Martinuzzi realised that the mili- command over the second largest waterway of
tary assistance sent by Ferdinand would be in- the country, the River Tisza.
sufficient to defend the country, he tried to gain The crowning objective of this success-
time by misleading the Turks. This was a fatal ful campaign was to be the capture of Eger,
mistake. The Turks no longer trusted him, and the gateway to Upper Hungary. Possession of
Castaldo, regarding his talks with the enemy as this fortress would have divided the Habsburg-
treachery, had him killed in December 1551. controlled north and east parts of the coun-
Istanbul would not tolerate the “Viennese try from each other. For 38 days, the castellan,
king” getting his hands on its vassal province of István Dobó, with only 2000 defenders, beat
Transylvania, and set out to put a stop, once and off the enemy assaults. Kara Ahmed Pasha was
for all, to any attempts to unite the kingdom. In ultimately obliged to abandon the siege on 18
late spring 1552, the Ottoman armies started an October, thus breaking a run of successes by
offensive against the Kingdom of Hungary on the Ottoman military which had continued for
four fronts. a generation.
The Buda garrison troops under Hadim Ali The heroic defence of Eger in 1552 immedi-
Pasha relieved the castle of Szeged, under siege ately became the symbol of heroic resistance at
by the Hajduks, on the first day of March. In the time, and the tradition lives on today, made
summer, they took the castle of Veszprém by immortal through Géza Gárdonyi’s novel Egri
siege and in the county of Nógrád took a series Csillagok (Eclipse of the Crescent Moon), telling
of castles: Buják, Drégely and Szécsény. the story of István Dobó and his comrades.
The Sultan sent Kara
Ahmed Pasha, the Second The siege of Pápa

Vizier, with an army some

50-60,000 strong to take
the part of the kingdom
just handed over to Fer-
dinand, Transylvania. The
first obstacle was Temesvár
(Timişoara). István Loson-
czy, ispán (Comes) of Temes,
defended the fort heroically
with 2300 Hungarian, Span-
ish and Czech soldiers. After
holding on for 32 days, their
depleted numbers squeezed
into the inner castle by the
constant artillery fire and
waves of Turkish assaults,
were forced to surrender
on 27 July. The Spanish de- ◄◄
fenders of Temesvár fought Women of Eger,
tooth and nail for every cor- monumental painting
ner of the castle, which is by Bertalan Székely (1835–1910)
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 244 245 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Szigetvár ultimately fell to Sultan Suleyman

on his seventh and last campaign in 1566. The
Turks started the war on the pretext of sup-
porting an expansion into Upper Hungary by
John Sigismund, Voivode of Transylvania. He
sent Pertev Pasha, the Second Vizier, to take
Gyula and he marched with the main army to
Szigetvár, defended by Miklós Zrínyi with 2300
Croatian and Hungarian soldiers. The garrison
of Gyula held out for two months, and Szigetvár
withstood a siege by the Sultan’s army of 50,000
regular soldiers for 38 days.The story of the de-
fenders’ heroic stand and the death of Miklós
Zrínyi as he burst out of the ruined castle were
forged into an essential part of the Hungarian
historical consciousness in a ballad written in
the following century by his great-grandson and
namesake. The ageing Suleyman did not survive
to see the castle’s fall, dying in his Szigetvár camp
István Dobó; Drawings by Endre on 6 September, two days before the defenders’
Szász (1926–2003) for the film
breakout. The capture of Szigetvár marked the
Eclipse of the Crescent Moon. Also
published in book form in 1969 end of the great era of Ottoman conquest of
Hungary.

The heroic defence of the little castle of

Drégely gained national fame through the ballad
by the frontier troubadour of the time, Sebestyén
Lantos of Tinódi. Three centuries later, the
poems of Ferenc Kölcsey and János Arany made
the heroic deeds of György Szondi and his sol-
diers the symbol of self-sacrifice and courage.
Despite the failure to take Eger, the 1552 Turk-
ish campaign was extremely successful. It com-
pleted the defensive ring of Buda, and the new
vilayet centred on Temesvár ensured control over
John Sigismund, the vassal who was now restored
to rule Transylvania. Although the Porte did not
press further expansion in Hungary owing to the
Persian War, the local Turkish forces did make
expand their conquests in the country. The ambi-
tious Toygun Pasha of Buda captured Fülek in
1554, driving a wedge between the western and
eastern Habsburg-held areas. Later, Hadim Ali,
returning to Buda, attempted to take Szigetvár The Turkish Sultan. Drawings
by Endre Szász (1926–2003)
(1556). He had less success than he had four years
for the film Eclipse of the Crescent
previously. The castle held out against Hadim Moon. Also published in book form
Ali’s siege for fifty days. in 1969
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 246 247 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

The sabre and helmet of

Miklós Zrínyi,
hero of Szigetvár

Peter Krafft Sr. (1780–1856):

Zrínyi’s Sally (1825)
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 248 249 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Although the inscription on the miniature states that Suleyman led the army to Szigetvár, he did not live to see the victory.
His death was kept secret for three weeks.
The first miniature shows the splendid Ottoman army and the second a fine representation of Szigetvár Castle.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 250 251 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Suleyman’s successor Selim II signed a peace Hungary. If he had no successor, the Principality One country,
treaty with Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I would pass to the Habsburg ruler. The Kingdom three border defence zones
in Edirne in 1568. By capturing Szigetvár and of Hungary thus remained a single legal entity,
Gyula, the Ottomans had eliminated the forts but its de facto division into three parts became
threatening their defensive system, completing permanent.
their military control of the centre of the coun- The four decades between 1526 and 1566
try. A sign of the successes of the Ottoman Em-
pire is that as King of Hungary, Maximilian I was
obliged to pay a tribute, a kind of tax in effect.
proved that the Ottoman Empire was not capable
of permanently occupying the Kingdom of Hun-
gary, but the Austrian Habsburgs were not cap-
T o prevent Ottoman expansion, a defensive
system was laid out on the Hungarian and
Croatian lands ruled by the Habsburg dynasty.
system in Spain and Italy, the coasts and islands
of Dalmatia and Greece, and the Venetian
fortresses up to the Podolian castles.
The relationship between the royal part of the able of defending it. To Hungary’s misfortune, It was some 1000 kilometres long, from the The border zones or confines forming the de-
country and Transylvania was settled in a treaty the buffer zone between the two empires ran Adriatic Sea to the borders of the Principality of fence against the Ottoman Empire were divided
(1570). John Sigismund renounced the throne through the centre of the kingdom, where both Transylvania, and 50-100 kilometres deep, divided into two Croatian and four Hungarian captain-
and recognised Emperor Maximilian as King of powers set up their own border defence zones. into stages. It was financed and garrisoned by the cy-generals (supremus capitaneus). The captain-
Austrian provinces, the Kingdom of Bohemia, generals of the border fortresses were appointed
and the principalities of the Holy Roman by the king and were directly accountable to the
ENEA SILVIO PICCOLOMINI (1405–1464), later Pope Pius II, wrote in a letter to Archbishop
Dénes Széchy of Esztergom (1440–1465) in 1444: Empire. The whole system was an integral part Aulic Military Council. There were also “district”
of a defensive zone running right across Europe captain-generals who operated on roughly the
The Hungarians have every right to reclaim the crown, from North Africa, through the coastal fort same areas as the border-fortress captain-gen-
because the Hungarian Kingdom is an archiregnum (high kingdom).

Temesvár (Timişoara)
was a vilayet (large provincial region)
of the Ottoman Empire.
The miniature is clearly the work of
Siege of Székesfehérvár an artist who knew Temesvár well.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 252 253 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Visegrád and Érsekújvár erals. The captain-general of a district coordi- [Nové Zámky], Győr, Kassa [Košice], Szatmár and Croatian, and the rest were German and Bo- (Caransebeş) and Lugos (Lugoj) forts. The north, Győr Castle (Iaverinum vulgo Rab),
(Owar, germanice Niev Hvisel et nated the noble militias of the counties and took [Satu Mare]), and military and administrative hemian mercenaries detached there. east and south borders of the Principality were 1594, from the six-volume Civitates
Vizzegrad germanice Plindeburg) in command of troops raised on a feudal basis, centres of the confines. In addition to the key The enormous costs of maintaining the de- surrounded by the Carpathians, where it was Orbis Terrarum (Cities of the
1595, from the six-volume Civitates World)
comprising nobles and bondmen of the coun- forts erected to designs by Italian military en- fensive zone of garrisons and fortresses were necessary to strengthen the forts near the moun-
Orbis Terrarum (Cities of the
World).
ties and the towns, and troops of his own force gineers, many forts were modernised. These met by contributions by the Austrian Hereditary tain passes, such as those of Fogaras (Fagaraş),
paid for out of war tax. In the second half of the included privately-owned forts (Ecsed, Eger, Lands and, to an even greater extent, the German Görgény (Gurghiu), Vöröstorony (Turnu Roşu)
16th century, the border-fortress captain-generals Gyula, Kanizsa, Kassa, Kisvárda, Szigetvár, principalities. The soldiers’ bounty, victuals, war and the town of Szeben (Sibiu).
were largely foreign, mostly Austrian aristocrats Tata) which the King took over from their own- material, military administration and fortification The Ottoman defensive zone comprised the
who knew the country well, and reliable barons ers in return for compensation or were improved works consumed some 2 million Rhine florins. occupied southern and central areas of the King-
of the King’s party, but the district captain-gen- with a financial contribution by the crown. The Like Royal Hungary, Transylvania set up its dom of Hungary. It initially consisted of the
erals were all Hungarians. system also made use of natural obstacles in the own border defences. Its geopolitical position, Buda vilayet (1541) and subsequently the Temes-
The Aulic Military Council was set up in 1556 confines, such as rivers, marshes and extensive subject to incursions from both the Habsburgs vár vilayet (1552), which essentially corresponded
to organise and oversee the defence against the surface water, and the final component com- and the Ottomans, required it to put up defences to the military and civilian administrative entities
Ottomans. This was followed by the establish- prised several dozen minor palisades and guard- almost all round. The Tiszántúl areas were de- of the Christian side. Buda and Temesvár had
ment of an apparatus for pay, supplies and equip- houses. The overall defensive system consisted fended by the fortresses of the Várad Captaincy- garrisons of several thousand and were the vi-
ment. The military infrastructure was built up on of a chain of 100-120 forts of various sizes, and General: Várad, Zsáka, Bajom, Sarkad, Adorján, layet centres of the conquered lands. The pashas
a much more orderly and professional basis after a dense fabric of palisades and guard towers. Székelyhíd (Săcueni, Romania), Belényes (Beiuş); in charge of them controlled a system of subsidi-
the Aulic Military Council started operation. The royal garrisons of Croatian, Hungarian the Szamos (Someşul) valley by the fortresses of ary fortresses.
Major fortresses of modern design were built and Slavonian confines reached 20-22,000 in the Bethlen and Szamosújvár (Gherla); the course A defensive system of 80-90 forts was set up
at the strategic points of the defensive zone, 1570s, of which some 16,000 soldiers served in of the River Maros (Mureş) by the Déva, Maros- on the territories of the Buda and Temesvár vi-
mainly along the Turkish marching routes. Most the four captaincy-generals in Hungary. More vécs (Brâncoveneşti) and Radnót (Iernut) forts; layets. Besides Buda, there were garrisons of
of them became fortress towns (Érsekújvár than two-thirds of these troops were Hungarian and the southern districts by the Karánsebes 2000 soldiers at Esztergom, which commanded
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 254 255 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

the Danube, and Székesfehérvár, which guarded In the half-century following the Battle of
the route for Ottoman forces marching on Vi- Mohács, the political map of the Kingdom of
enna. The fortresses guarding the river and land Hungary had been redrawn and a presence had
routes of local significance (Fülek, Hatvan, Jenő, been established of conquerors whose political
Lippa, Szigetvár) held 5-600 soldiers. This was regime, culture and mentality diverged from the
complemented by a chain of smaller forts rang- Christian world. The political chaos, the cynical,
ing from palisades with garrisons of 100-150 repeated changes of side, and personal selfish-
down to guard posts with a few dozen soldiers. ness which reigned in the country are regarded
The permanent garrisons of the forts totalled by most historians, and by popular tradition, as
some 18,000 men, to which the vilayets added the main cause of failure in the fight against the
about 7000 Spahis and their armed retinues. Not Ottomans. In fact, any feudal society in a similar
counting the irregular units, there were about situation would have experienced these phenom-
Făgăraş Castle today 25,000 soldiers stationed on the newly-con- ena as it sought a way out. The alternatives of
(Photo: Attila Barczi) quered areas. “submit or resist” when faced with the Turkish

Fülek Castle
in the 17th century

threat posed a difficult choice at a time when the he became Holy Roman Emperor in 1558, but
domestic and foreign political environment was permitted only the construction of a new border
so contradictory. fortress system.
In Europe, the empire of Charles V was the The newly laid-out “defensive wall” served as
only power which put up its military and eco- the shield of Christendom, but often consisted
nomic power against the expansion of the Otto- only of Hungary itself, whose inhabitants were
man Empire. The power struggle with Francis I armed and its towns and villages converted into
of France and the religious wars attempting to forts as a barrier to the Ottoman conquerors.
stem the Reformation divided the Habsburgs’ As such, however, the people of the conquered
military strength. Nonetheless, they confronted lands were never fully cut off from the King-
the Ottomans on three fronts. Viewed from dom. The administration and jurisdiction of the
Madrid, the Hungarian front was the most dis- estates lived on, and a kind of dual regime took
tant, and it was only with the troops left over for shape in these territories. The inhabitants had to
emergencies that Charles V went into battle in serve two masters, their taxes shared by their old
person to aid his younger brother in 1532, when lords and new Ottoman rulers.
Suleyman I again threatened Vienna. Through In consequence, Islam never put down roots
enormous efforts in finance and organisation, in the conquered lands, and most of the popula-
he put 80,000 well-equipped, combat-hardened tion retained their faith and identity.
soldiers into battle order. This formidable army
frightened off Suleyman, but did not undertake
the task of forcing the Ottomans out. Neither
did the military, logistic, financial or political
conditions in Europe at the time permit the
organisation, supply and command of an army
commensurate with that of the Ottomans. The
campaigns to recover Buda in 1541 and 1542 had
proved that they were incapable of adequately
supplying and mobilising armies of 30-40,000,
much smaller than Charles V’s. Ferdinand I’s
military and financial resources increased when
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 256 257 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

The Long War Sinan aimed to conquer all of Hungary and up in 1577. This included the proposal of winter
(1593–1606) capture Vienna, so that the northern part of operations following the departure of the main
Transdanubia became the main theatre of war. Turkish army.
Of the thirteen campaigns between 1593 and After Suleyman’s armies withdrew, the royal
1605, nine were directed at this area. The Ot- forces went on the offensive on two fronts. The
tomans revived their old recipe of gaining the army of Ferdinand Hardegg, Captain-General

T h e treaty of Edirne was made between

King Maximilian I of Hungary (Maximilian
II as Holy Roman Emperor) and Sultan Selim
new Grand Vizier, launched and unexpected
campaign in September. One Ottoman column
captured Sziszek, while the main army headed
submission of barons, offering Ferenc Dobó
“voivodeship of Kassa” and István Báthori of
Ecsed the “Kingdom of Bohemia”, but these
of Győr, laid siege to Székesfehérvár, and that
of Christoph Teuffenbach, Captain-General of
Upper Hungary, prepared to capture the most
II on 17 February 1568 at Edirne (Adrianople). for Vienna, taking Veszprém on 7 October and overtures fell on deaf ears. northern fort of the Buda vilayet, Fülek. The op-
In the treaty, Maximilian I acknowledged the Palota on the 11th, but with the approach of In Vienna, the Aulic Military Council took eration against Székesfehérvár did not succeed
Ottoman conquests between 1552 and 1566 Kasim, the day marking the end of the Ottoman out the strategic plan which by Johann Rueber, despite defeating a relief army sent by the Pa-
and made a promise to pay a tribute to the military year (26 October), they had to abandon Captain-General of Upper Hungary, had drawn sha of Buda (3 November). Teuffenbach’s army,
Sultan of 30,000 Hungarian golden florins. the siege of Tata.
The treaty prohibited either side from
further campaigns to gain territory, thus
mutually guaranteeing the borders as they
stood. The parties undertook not to attack
Transylvania, and Transylvania was not to
attack either the Habsburg Empire or the
Ottoman Empire.
In the meantime, there were major
changes going on in military affairs in
Western Europe. Handheld firearms were
starting to be used on a mass scale, requir-
ing changes in tactical procedures. The new
weapons and tactics were quickly adopted
in the Hungarian defensive borders, so
that Christian forces became increasingly
effective in clashes with the enemy. The
wars with Persia (1578–1590) reduced the
amount of money and supplies the Otto-
man Empire could assign to its garrisons
in the conquered territories, causing a de-
terioration in morale and discipline.
Following the Persian War, the local
Turkish military hoped for a new war to im-
Siege of Sziszek in 1593,
prove their situation. This prompted Telli
from Ortelius redivivus
Hassan, Beglerbey of Bosnia, to launch a
et continuatus by Ortelius and
regular border war on the Croatian frontier Martin Meyer. Legend:
in 1591. He captured the castle of Bihács A) Sziszek Castle.
(Bihać, Bosnia-Hercegovina), but when he B) Turkish camp and
attempted for the second time to besiege earthworks.
Sziszek (Sisak, Croatia), in 1593, the relief C) D) E) G) H) Christian
forces.
army of Croatian Ban Tamás Erdődy won
F) Colonel Auersperg sets
a victory over the Ottomans. Hassan Pasha to flight.
In reprisal, the highest body of the Ot- K) R. Kulpa L) R. Száva.
toman Empire, the Porte, declared war M) Janissaries’ cover.
on the “Viennese king”. Sinan Pasha, the N) Ruins of the old town.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 258 259 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Half-armour of Count Miklós

Pálffy (1552–1600),
“Hero of Győr”

however, which comprised mainly Hungarian who wrote of life in the border fortresses and
border fortress garrisons and field soldiers took had fought valiantly in the capture of the Nógrád the next year he was tried for “treason” and exe- Voivode of Wallachia, with the support of 2000 Turkish siege of Győr in 1594, from
Fülek and went on to take several smaller forts in castles the year before, was fatally wounded. cuted. Székely soldiers, occupied Turkish fortresses Ortelius redivivus et continuatus, by
Nógrád county. Grand Vizier Sinan’s army captured Tata Vienna itself was now a border fortress. Panic along the Lower Danube from Vidin to Brăila Ortelius and Martin Meyer. Engraving
was made by Ortelius’ brother-in-law
Exploiting the absence of the main Otto- on their way and started a siege of Győr, the spread throughout Europe, but the threat also in autumn 1594.
Johann Sibmacher, painter and engraver
man army, the Christian forces continued their last major fortress before Vienna. The well- revived the spirit of the Crusades. Several rulers, The entry into the fray of Transylvania, of Nuremberg.
operations in early 1594. In South Transdanu- constructed castle was defended by more than including the Prince of Tuscany and Ferrara, Moldova and Wallachia forced the Ottoman mili-
bia, Miklós Pálffy, Captain-General of the bor- 6000 soldiers. Archduke Matthias’ army re- joined the Holy League against the Turks; and tary leadership to divide their forces. In summer Legend: A) Castle .B) Outer city. C)
der fortresses protecting the mining towns, and treated to Szigetköz, but Sinan, having been the three Ottoman vassal states, Transylvania, 1595, Grand Vizier Sinan marched on Wallachia Island. D) Christian camp. E) Turkish
camp. F) Turkish earthworks. G) Turkish
György Zrínyi, Captain-General of Transdanu- joined by the Crimean Tartars, executed a very Moldova and Wallachia, also turned against Is- instead of Vienna, to recapture lands regarded as
cavalry crossing the Danube. H) Turkish
bia launched an operation which recaptured rapid action which destroyed Archduke Mat- tanbul, contributing to the swing in the balance the breadbasket of Istanbul. His success proved assault. I) R. Rábca. K) R. Danube. L)
the Turkish forts in front of Kanizsa: Babócsa, thias’ forces and hermetically sealed off the fort. The of power. transient, because when he took his army back to Ships carrying supplies. M) Christian
Berzence, Csurgó and Segesd. constant cannon fire, mine warfare and the Janis- Sigismund Báthori, Prince of Transylvania their winter quarters, the Transylvanian–Walla- earthworks
The capture of Nógrád castle in March drove saries’ charges over three weeks ground down (1588–1602), by imprisoning and executing the chian armies came out from their refuges and
another wedge into the defensive ring around the defenders’ strength. Since Ferdinand Hard- “Turkish party” barons who opposed alliance repossessed the forts he had taken. Adding to his
Buda. The main army of 15,000 Hungarian and egg could not expect to be relieved and could not with the Habsburgs, removed the obstacle to woes was an action by István (Stephen) Bocskai
20,000 imperial troops under Archduke Mat- hold on to the now-ruined fort with his depleted joining the Holy League. Although the formal and Wallachian Voivode Michael the Brave which
thias Habsburg set off to capture Esztergom, garrison, he capitulated on 29 September. treaty with Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor routed his rearguard as it was crossing the Dan-
the gateway to Buda. In contrast with the cam- With the loss of Győr, the border fortress sys- and King of Hungary, was only signed later, ube at Giurgiu.
paigns of previous decades, they completed the tem under the captain-generals collapsed. Pápa Transylvania, Moldova and Wallachia opened The core of the Transylvanian military com-
enclosure very early, at the beginning of May, but was taken by the Ottomans, as were the border a new channel of attack against the Ottoman prised the mercenaries of the border fortresses
two months of struggle with enormous losses forts of Csesznek, Tihany and Vázsony around rear in 1594. Next year, forces under György and the Prince, some 5-6000 troops, many of
proved insufficient to capture the castle. It was Lake Balaton. Győr became the centre of a vi- Borbély captured thirteen forts and palisades in which had gained combat experience in Poland
here, on 19 May, that one of the greatest poets layet, a springboard towards Vienna. The Prot- the south-west border country of Transylvania, during Stephen Báthori’s time as King of Poland.
of the Hungarian Renaissance, Bálint Balassi, estant Hardegg was held up as a scapegoat, and including Lippa and Jenő. Michael the Brave, The Székely army was the strongest numerically.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 260 261 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Fresco from a series by Hans Rudolf

Miller on the coved vault of Nádasdy
Castle in Sárvár

After relinquishing their privileges, the Székely Following the military failures of the previous imperial and Hungarian infantry broke through The Christian army’s accomplishments in Recapture of Kanizsa from the Turks
the centre of the Turkish front and broke into northern Transdanubia allowed the Porte to in 1601, from Ortelius redivivus et
sent some 23,000 soldiers to the camp of Sigis- year, the Sultan himself, Mehmed III, rode at the
continuatus by Ortelius and Martin
mund Báthori in autumn 1595. The main branch head of his armies in 1596, to restore Ottoman the Sultan’s camp. This set off what the Chris- concentrate its forces on recovering Transylva-
Meyer. Legend: A) Castle.
of the Transylvanian army, as of the Hungarian influence in Transylvania and the Romanian prin- tian generals had feared: the troops’ battle nia. After the abdication of Sigismund Báthori,
B) Old castle C) Round bastion.
army, was the light cavalry, although there was cipalities. In order to isolate the turncoat vassal order broke up, and instead of pursuing the the Transylvanian estates again took an oath to D) Gunpowder tower. E) Horsepond.
an increasing presence of light infantry, mostly principalities from their new allies, the Ottoman Turks started to loot the camp. Seeing the dis- Rudolf I as King of Hungary. Then Saturdji F) Moat. G) H) Bridges. I) Marsh.
Hajduk and Székely soldiers. To make up the military leadership set off to capture Eger, as persion of the Christian battle lines, the retreat- Mehmed, leading an army of 50,000, appeared K) Outer city, which burned down.
shortfall in number and standard of firearms they had in 1552. The 30,000-strong main army ing Turkish forces turned back and pulled off a in the western reaches of Transylvania. They re- L) Papal troops. M) Delphino
decisive counter-attack against their enemy. captured the palisade forts of Arad, Csanád and Flaminius. N) Archduke Ferdinand.
compared with the royal army, thousands of of Archduke Maximilian took Vác and Hatvan,
O) John Medici. P) Colonel Madrutz
modern firearms were delivered to the Principal- but then clashed with the Sultan’s army, more The military events of 1597 were inaugurated Nagylak, which had fallen in 1595, but Várad suc-
Gandentius. Q) Prince Mantua,
ity of Transylvania, along with an imperial auxil- than twice its strength. with Miklós Pálffy’s successful action against cessfully held out against the one-month siege. with Spanish troops. R) Earthworks
iary force, in 1596. With half-constructed ramparts and only 7 Tata. They captured the castle in a night raid The political chaos and wars arising from Si- abandoned by Turks. S) German
Exploiting the absence of the main Turkish cannon, Pál Nyáry had little chance of success, when they deployed a new military invention, the gismund Báthori’s successive resignations and cavalry. T) Hungarian cavalry.
forces, the armies of the Holy League this time but Eger nonetheless held out for three weeks. petard, to blow up the gate and allow them in. returns caused the collapse of the eastern wing V) Ferencz De Monte.
The main army’s operations started with the cap- of the Christian League, and so Transylvania, W) Earthworks guarding bridge.
successfully besieged Esztergom. After its capit- The relative strength of the armies was then bal-
X) Road to Graz. Y) Road to Sziget.
ulation, they went on to occupy Visegrád, but the anced out with the arrival of Captain-General ture of Pápa, but the siege of Győr was relieved together with Moldova and Wallachia was no
Z) Road to Székesfehérvár. R. Mura
depleted army, struck by disease, had no strength Teuffenbach of Upper Hungary and Prince Si- by Saturdji Mehmed Serdar (Second Vizier), who longer able to make a military contribution to
left to besiege Buda. gismund Báthori of Transylvania. The allied also recaptured Tata. the war against the Ottomans. The civil war in
Although Győr was still in Ottoman hands, army, swelled to a size of 55-60,000, set off to In spring 1598, Miklós Pálffy and Adolf Transylvania (1598–1602) not only prevented the
the Holy League had made substantial progress recapture Eger. Schwarzenberg use the petard-assault which had armed forces of the three principalities from tak-
in the third year of the war. The entry of Tran- The battle took place at Mezőkeresztes, the been proven at Tata to capture Győr, following ing part in the struggle, it also withdrew imper-
sylvania, Moldova and Wallachia was a major po- first time since 1526 that the main Christian and which they captured the forts of Tata, Gesztes, ial and Hungarian forces from the main theatre
litical and strategic success. The occupation of Ottoman armies had faced up to each other. The Palota, Veszprém and Vázsony. The series of of war. The protracted war had exhausted both
Esztergom and Visegrád was a worthy tactical Christian army’s firepower gave them the edge successes that spring set up the opportunity for sides, and peace talks were held in 1599. The sta-
accomplishment, opening the way to the recap- on the battlefield. They first overwhelmed the recapturing Buda, but the 32,000-strong army tus quo was regarded as unacceptable by both
ture of Buda, and isolating Győr. corps of Grand Vizier Ibrahim, and then the failed to prevail against the 6000 defending Turks. sides, and negotiations were broken off.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 262 263 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Right profile of Prince Sigismund

Báthory of Transylvania
(1572–1613), in oval frame. His hat
has a broad fur edging.

The military events of the turn of the cen- in its siege of Kanizsa, so that the seat of the
tury turned sour for the Christian allies. First new vilayet stayed in Ottoman hands.
the unpaid Wallonian mercenaries in Pápa Between 1602 and 1604, the imperial and
revolted, and then Grand Vizier Ibrahim put royal armies made no substantial headway.
Kanizsa, the gateway to Styria, under siege. In the Hungarian theatre of operations, they Siege of Buda and Pest in 1602, from Ortelius redivivus et continuatus by Ortelius and Martin Meyer.
Legend:
Georg Paradeiser, with hardly a thousand men, were gradually forced on to the defensive, and
A) Pest
held the fort with little food or ammunition neither was Transylvania held successfully.
B) Buda Castle
for a month and a half, but after a series of Following the power struggle between Sigis- C) Upper city
failed actions by the relief army, he eventually mund Báthori and Voivode Michael the Brave, D) Rear outer city
surrendered. Like Hardegg, he paid for his ac- Giorgo Basta put the country under military E) Víziváros (Zsidóváros)
tion with death. rule. F) Lower outer city
The counter-strike by the Christian allies G) Upper outer city
Holy League forces attempted the capture
H) Customs House
was not slow in coming. In 1601, they launched of Buda twice more (1602 and 1603), but only
I) Hot baths K) Gellért Hill
an offensive in three directions at once. The succeeded in taking Pest. The Christian forces L) Pontoon bridge
forces of Giorgo Basta scored several suc- were also unable to retain the positions they M) Christians’ camp
Mace of Sigismund Báthory cesses in Transylvania, and Prince Philip Mer- had gained in previous years. The Ottomans re-
(1572–1613), coeur’s army recaptured Székesfehérvár, but captured Székesfehérvár in 1602, Pest, Hatvan
Prince of Transylvania Archduke Ferdinand’s army was less fortunate and Vác in 1604, and Esztergom in 1605.
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 264 265 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

War within a war

– István Bocskai’s uprising against the Habsburgs

I n its scale and duration, what became

known to posterity as the “Long War” or
the “15 Years War” stood apart from what went
increasingly intolerable war levies. In addition, to
refill the empty treasury, aristocrats were tried for
treason, and Counter-Reformation measures in-
before. Instead of single campaigns sweeping creasingly involved force of arms. The political
through the narrow territory of Hungary (Sultan and social crisis was at its most severe in the east
Suleyman brought his main forces through six of the country, principally Tiszántúl and Upper
times, and the Second Vizier once, between 1520 Hungary.
and 1566), armed forces numbering several tens Standing up to championing the dissatisfac-
of thousands constantly battled on both sides for tion of the Upper Hungarian nobility and sol-
a decade and a half. The operations progressed diery, especially the Hajduks, was István Bocskai,
on several fronts at once, and a large part of both Sigismund Báthori’s former Habsburg-leaning
Hajduk officer (left) and
the Christian and Ottoman armies remained counsellor and Captain-General of Várad. The
Hajduk (right), after an
quartered in Hungary during the winter. uprising broke out at Álmosd in 1604, when engraving by Dutch artist
No corner of the country was spared the rav- the Hajduk army, in league with Bocskai, at- Caspar Luyken (1672–1708)
ages of war, and no section of society escaped the tacked an imperial column marching to confront (F. Stefan, 1829)

István Bocskai as főispán (Comes, Lord Lieutenant) of Bihar.

Engraving by Baltasar Caÿmox
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 266 267 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

This marked the end Owing to deficiencies in discipline, logistics of Komárom, Érsekújvár, Léva and Fülek.
of the major military op- and finance, during the war the Christian forces By the 1660s, this resulted in the emergence of
erations, because it was in were unable to take proper advantage of the a dualistic regime in which the estates had much
the interests of both sides increasing technical and tactical advantages af- more say in the governance of the Kingdom of
to bring the war to an end. forded by the spread of firearms. The imperial- Hungary and in local control of military affairs
The Habsburg and Otto- royal forces’ feudal-based system of recruiting, than they had had in previous decades.
man Empires were both logistics and finance was as inadequate as ever in The peace between the two great powers freed
exhausted by war. Boc- competition with the highly efficient supply and military resources on both sides for redeploy-
skai was unable to main- recruiting organisations of the autocratic Otto- ment elsewhere. In 1603, the Ottomans started
tain his army, now 60,000 man state. a three-decade-long struggle with the Persians at
strong, and the dark side Bocskai’s movement, and subsequently the the eastern frontiers of the Empire, and in 1645,
of the Ottoman alliance, uprising of Hajduk soldiers dissatisfied with the they fought the Republic of Venice for the is-
such as the Turkish oc- execution of the Treaty of Vienna (1607/1608), land of Crete. The Austrian Habsburgs had to
cupation of Esztergom, proved very useful to the Hungarian estates in deal with the internal crisis of the dynasty and
took collaboration further their manoeuvring to strengthen their traditional later a political crisis in the Austrian Hereditary
Allegorical clash of than he could tolerate. At privileges and protect religious freedom. Lands and the religiously-divided Holy Roman
Christians and Turks,
the beginning of the year, Supervision of military affairs stayed with the Empire. In 1618, opposition by the Bohemian
1684
Bocskai, already Prince of Aulic Military Council, but the captain-generals estates mounted into armed rebellion, launching
them. Within little more than a month, Bocskai’s Transylvania, urged the Porte to recognise him of the border fortresses were from that time the Thirty Years War in the Holy Roman Empire,
Hajduks took the greater part of Upper Hun- as Prince of Hungary by granting him a crown drawn from among Hungarian aristocrats, except which soon divided into the Protestant Union
gary into their control, persuading most of the (the Transylvanian princely insignia consisted for the Captain-General of Győr, who was re- and the Catholic League.
border fort and field soldiery to join them. They only of sceptre and flag), but when this actually sponsible for the defence of Vienna. After nearly The internal crisis of the Habsburg Empire,
achieved this despite defeats against the numeri- happened, he accepted the crown only as a gift. fifty years, the office of the highest dignitary after followed by the Thirty Years War, forced the
cally superior imperial-royal armies firstly at Os- Bocskai’s rebellion, launched to protect the the King, the Palatine, was again filled by a Hun- King to rely more and more on the armed and
gyán (Ožďany, Slovakia) and then at Edelény. rights of the estates and the Protestant faith, came garian. In the following decades, the Palatines financial power of the Hungarian estates in de-
Consisting mostly of Hajduks and border for- to an end with the Treaty of Vienna (23 June were to play a major part in resolving Ottoman fence against the Ottomans, even in the West-
tress units, Bocskai’s army carried out a series 1606). Protestants were granted freedom to prac- and Transylvanian conflicts and in command- ern theatres of operation. The first stage of this
of raids which, by spring 1605, had worn down tise their religion. By reviving the office of Pala- ing troops raised by the estates. The mercenary came in spring 1608, when the Hungarian forces
the resistance of the imperial-royal army. Bas- tine and calling the Diet, the conditions were set army, seen by the people of Hungary as embodi- supported Archduke Matthias in the dispute with
ta’s dwindling forces were confined to Eperjes for a new division of power between the King and ments of oppression, and generally regarded his brother Emperor and King Rudolf II, ultim-
(Presov) and its surroundings in the winter of the estates. The acknowledgement of Transylva- as German, were gradually withdrawn from ately electing him King of Hungary in autumn
1604/1605, and the Habsburgs’ empty war chest nia’s separate status meant recognition of Bocskai the country, except in the strategic fortresses 1608.
meant that they could not send a substantial force as Prince, and he had succeeded in preventing the
to assist them. The rebels, who from the start region from being returned to the king.
had enjoyed Ottoman support, had an enormous The war between the two great powers, with
numerical superiority. Transylvanian mediation, ended with the Treaty
After taking the fortress of Szatmár (January of Zsitvatorok (11 November 1606), based on
1605), the Hajduk troops led by László Gyulaffy the status quo. The final balance was in favour of
penetrated Transylvania. With the support of the the Ottomans. By capturing Eger and Kanizsa,
Székely (whose freedoms had been restored by they had expanded their conquests with another
Bocskai in February), they captured the greater two vilayets in Hungary and maintained their in-
part of the Principality. In spring 1606, Bocskai’s fluence over Transylvania. The Habsburgs, with
Hajduks overran Lower Hungary, The forces led some losses, had defended the parts of Hungary Hajduk lieutenant’s
by Gergely Némethy took control of the greater under their rule, but had not succeeded in retain- standard
part of Transdanubia, although the imperial-royal ing Transylvania, indeed were forced to recognise
forces ultimately pressed the rebels out of that its separate status and acknowledge its vassalage
region. to the Ottoman Empire.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 268 269 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

The wars of the Principality forces scored an obliterating victory over the return, he received the seven counties closest to
of Transylvania against the Habsburgs* army of the Protestant Bohemians and Mora- Transylvania until the end of his life. The treaty
vians at White Hill, near Prague (8 November particularly provided that soldiers may serve mu-
1620). Bethlen could not, and did not really tually in each others’ armies.
want to, effectively support his allies, now under In his last campaign in 1626, Bethlen entered
pressure from the Habsburgs. The Ottomans into an alliance with the Protestant states of the

D espite the peace treaty with the Ottomans,

the Principality of Transylvania remained
a source of internal and external political conflict
and György Rákóczi II (1648–1660) came out
the worse of this political struggle, but Gábor
Bethlen (1613–1629) and György Rákóczi I
had openly informed him that they would not
permit Transylvania and the royal lands of the
Kingdom to unite under his sovereignty. The
Hague Alliance (England, Denmark, Dutch Re-
public, Brandenburg). His army of nearly 20,000
Transylvanian and Upper-Hungarian soldiers had
in the first half of the 17th century. Although the (1630–1648) succeeded in consolidating their defeat of his allies also reduced his support in just entered the territory ruled by the King when
Habsburg dynasty did not want to provoke the power even in the face of the Ottomans. By Royal Hungary, and so his military ventures of he found himself up against the mercenaries of
Porte in the matter of Transylvania, it did all transferring Lippa Castle in 1616, Gábor Beth- the next year, including the siege of Pozsony, the most famous general of the time, Albrecht
it could to put a loyal prince on the throne. In len was first to pay the price of support. György were aimed only at reinforcing the outcome of Wallenstein and the royal soldiers of Palatine Flag awarded by Miklós Esterházy
league with the estates of Hungary, who opposed Rákóczi I, taking advantage of the chaos in the his own campaigns. Miklós Eszterházy. Although he had been joined in memory of the Battle
Transylvania’s separate status, and by supporting Sultan’s court, for a while successfully resisted Gábor Bethlen and Ferdinand II (King of by the 10,000 strong light cavalry of Murteza Pa- of Lakompa. Before the battle
the constant stream of pretenders to the throne, the demands of the Ottoman Empire, which Hungary 1618, Holy Roman Emperor 1619) sha of Buda, the Prince was aware that without began, Miklós Esterházy sided
with the Emperor during
the Habsburg monarch was always interfering in acknowledged the Prince’s campaign against the signed a peace treaty in Nikolsburg on 31 De- the infantry of the Protestant auxiliary army he
the uprising against the Kingdom
the political affairs of Transylvania. Poles in 1633, but received no armed or politi- cember 1621. In this, Bethlen renounced the title had no chance of victory, and avoided a confron- of Hungary led
The anti-Habsburg endeavours of the Tran- cal Ottoman support for his anti-Habsburg cam- of monarch and returned the Holy Crown. In tation. by Gábor Bethlen.
sylvanian princes generally found approval in Is- paign of 1644/1645.
tanbul, and any efforts aimed at uniting the two Prince of Transylvania Gábor Beth-
parts of the kingdom or at expanding the influ- len launched military campaigns against the
ence of the Principality to a greater-than-desired Habsburgs by taking advantage of the conditions
Wing signal of the army of the extent were blocked by blackmail and by verbal created by the Thirty Years War. In autumn 1619,
Transylvanian Principality or military threats. Gábor Báthori (1608–1613) with the Sultan’s permission, he set out, heading a
20,000-strong army, to aid the Bohe-
mian–Moravian Protestants against
the Habsburg regime. Defeating the
tiny resistance, he occupied Upper
and Lower Hungary and much of
Transdanubia, and then united with
the Bohemian–Moravian allies near
Pozsony. Although the imperial
military command feared an assault
on Vienna, the 32,000-strong allied
army, half of which were light cav-
alry, was not suited to a siege.
Following a brief truce, the Tran-
sylvanian army marched into the
western frontier lands of the Royal
Hungary in late September 1620.
It put Hainburg under siege and,
joined by aristocratic and border-
fortress troops, captured Trans-
danubia.
The fortunes of war quickly
turned round when Catholic League
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 270 271 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Prince Gábor Bethlen of Transylvania*

Gábor Bethlen became Prince of Transylvania in Several times, in the wake of military defeat,
1613, at the age of 33. He was the first modern he sought refuge in Ottoman-held lands. His
Hungarian ruler, whose subtle political intelligence primary objectives were to preserve freedom
rendered him capable of breaking through the of religion and to strengthen and ensure the
constraints of the feudal state and building up survival of Transylvania, wedged between
a modern political system. He is credited with the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires, but
establishing independent and centralised princely his ultimate dream was the reunification
authority, introducing an economic system of Hungary. Appreciating that Hungary’s
based on higher output, concentrated increase political unity had to start in Transylvania,
of treasury income and support for trade, and he identified an opportunity afforded by
embarking on victorious military campaigns the Thirty Years’ War which was raging in Victory of the Free Hajduks
and treaties whose concessions safeguarded Europe, and three times took up arms on over the Ottomans at Tolna
and consolidated Transylvania. His support for the anti-Habsburg side of this struggle. He on 22 June 1599. Engraving
scholarship and the arts and his religious tolerance considered the main purpose of his life the by Johann Sibmacher, painter
won the Principality wide respect. reunification of Hungary. and engraver of Nuremberg

Portrait of Prince Gábor Bethlen of Transylvania

from 1620. Engraving by Lucas Kilian (1579–1637)
of Augsburg
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 272 273 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Gábor Bethlen was a stalwart member of the unity, after the kingdom was split into three, could
Reformed Church, who stuck by his faith and his only be preserved through unity of language.
church, although he also respected and assisted Gábor Bethlen was one of the outstanding
people belonging to other denominations. He rulers of the age, the embodiment of the
supported the translation of the Bible by the Hungarian political ideal, and an example to
Catholic György Káldi. He maintained a splendid national leaders ever since.
court in Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia, Romania), Among his contemporaries were James VI
which especially after his marriage to Katalin of and I (1603–1625), who established the personal
Brandenburg became renowned far and wide. It union of Scotland and England, Tsar Michael I
was via this marriage that he became brother-in- (1613–1645), founder of the Romanov dynasty,
law to King Gustav Adolf II of Sweden, whose Gustav Adolf II (1611–1632), the great military
wife was Mary Eleonor. leader of Sweden, King Christian IV (1588–1648),
Although he spent two-thirds of his revenue who ruled Denmark for more than half a century,
on building the army in times of war, Bethlen was Louis XIII of France (1610–1643), Philip IV of
able to increase the Principality’s economic and Spain (1621–1665) and Ferdinand II Habsburg,
political power. He built schools, sent students to who ruled, after the death of Matthias II, from
Western universities, invited famous Hungarian 1619 to 1637.
craftsmen, and supported the cause of the
* Excerpt from Csaba Csörge and László Töll: Bethlen
Hungarian language. In doing so, he was fulfilling Gábor – Erdély aranya és Észak oroszlánja (Gábor Bethlen
a vital need at that time, because as Károly Kós – Treasure of Transylvania and Lion of the North. MTA,
Obverse of standard of Prince Gábor wrote in his book on Transylvania, Hungarian Budapest, 2004)
Bethlen (reconstruction)

Gábor Bethlen’s embroidered pelisse

Hungarian became the official language in the a sophisticated patron of the arts, and a judicious
Principality of Transylvania. Accordingly, Bethlen statesman. Adherents of the Reformed Church
founded a Hungarian-language Protestant regard him as a hero of their faith, whose ex-
college in Gyulafehérvár in 1620. Here, he gave emplary tolerance also won him the respect of
scholarships to talented but largely impecunious other denominations. Less well known is that the
youth, supported scholars, and refurbished great character whose memory lives among us
the princely seat. He also took an even-handed was formed by a life of adventure and ordeal.
approach to the four religions and three nations: His warrior life, lived in constant peril, fol-
the Székely, the Saxons and the Hungarian lowed a family tradition. The Bethlen family’s an-
nobles, and the special traditions, privileges and cestors can be traced to the mid-13th century, and
community development of Hajduks, Orthodox nearly all of them served their king and country
Wallachians, Jews and refugee Anabaptists. He as soldiers. One such was Gábor’s grandfather,
demanded from them soldiers, taxes, service and also Gábor, who fought on the field of Mohács;
loyalty, but granted them security, freedom of his father Farkas also drew his sword against the
conscience and religion, land, and protection for Ottoman conquerors. Although his valiant fa-
their identity and property. ther’s estates in Hungary fell to the Ottomans,
His political perspicuity brought him good his merits in the struggle against them were rec-
relations with great rulers, including a friend- ognised by István Báthori (1533–1586), Prince of
ship and ultimately family ties with King Gustav Transylvania and King of Poland in the form of
Adolf of Sweden. the border estate of Marosillye (Ilia, Romania).
Gábor Bethlen of Iktár is a name well known This became the new home of the family. Farkas
to every Hungarian, a man respected as the great- Bethlen’s wife Druzsina Lázár was the daughter
est Prince of Transylvania: a far-seeing politician, of a prominent Székely family, and her relatives
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 274 275 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

were also renowned as brave warriors. The fruit In reward for his loyalty and accomplished
of the marriage of these two nobles was the later service, Bethlen was returned his father’s estates
Prince Gábor and, in 1582, his brother István. in 1599, and was no longer an impecunious court
The two Bethlen boys spent their first ten years page.
of life in Marosillye, growing up among soldiers, Despite having promised the throne to the
in frontier territory. They were therefore born Habsburg ruler, Sigismund Báthori ultimately
into combat and the ideal of heroism, an ideal left it to his cousin András Báthori, prompting
embodied by their father. Farkas Bethlen passed Emperor Rudolf (1552–1612), suspecting treas-
from earthly life at the age of 60, in 1590, and ury, to make an armed intervention. His agents
the fickle Sigismund Báthori (1572–1613) took were Michael the Brave (1557–1601), Voivode
the estate away from the two boys, requiring of Wallachia and Giorgio Basta, imperial general.
them to move with their mother to Szárhegy Michael had led major campaigns against the
(Lăzarea, Romania) to their uncle András Lázár, Ottomans in the Long War, and since the new
királybíró (iudex regius, “royal judge”). Their host Prince was prepared to come to terms with the
was a member of the Reformed Church, and Ottomans, his power was under serious threat.
a soldier who was constantly in battle – indeed As Rudolf ’s agent, he dealt a serious defeat to
he ultimately fell in combat in 1597 – but paid András Báthori’s army at the Battle of Sellenberk
little attention to their education other than the (Şelimbăr) in October 1599, where Gábor Beth-
military arts. When Druzsina Lázár died, soon len also fought and was seriously wounded. He
after her husband, young Gábor wished for no had not abandoned his family’s patrons, the Bá-
more of his uncle’s hospitality and took his af- thoris. András Báthori was killed after the battle,
fairs into his own hands. At his request, his rela- and Michael the Brave ruled the country as royal
tive Stephen Bocskai (1557–1606) recommended governor for nearly a year. His actions earned him
him and his brother to be admitted as pages to the ire of the Transylvania nobility, who called
the court of Sigismund Báthori, where the world on the assistance of Giorgio Basta, the Captain
soon opened up for the two youths. This was a General of Upper Hungary. Basta was already
formative period for them, learning the basics of on bad terms with Michael, and seized the op-
diplomacy and the art of war, the rules of court portunity. In September 1600, he forced Michael
life, and the intricate rituals of etiquette. The into battle at Miriszló (Mirăslău, Romania) and
next ten years was one of Transylvania’s murki- destroyed his army. Transylvania was ravaged
est periods, the rule of a man of wayward habits, variously by Basta’s mercenaries, by roving bands
the eccentric tyrant Sigismund Báthori. Transyl- of Hajduks and by Turkish raiders, all commit-
vania entered the “Long War” (1591–1606) on ting terrible atrocities as they pillaged and looted
the Habsburg side after Báthori had effectively their way through the land. The power vacuum
exterminated the “Turkish Party”, i.e. the Tran- again aroused the interest of Sigismund Báthori,
sylvania magnates who favoured neutrality. The who made a return and took back the throne of Giorgo Basta (1550–1607)
young Bethlen was present in many battles of the Transylvania in February 1601. This immedi-
fifteen-year war, almost certainly in the Prince’s ately provoked a reaction from the Prague court.
guard. Basta reassembled his army and was sent to in Transylvania to be beyond conception. In this general, who immediately returned, but were de-
As the fortunes of war swayed one way and Transylvania together with Michael, who had re- mood of general despair, Sigismund Báthori’s feated at Tövis (Teiuş, Romania) on 2 July 1602.
the other, Báthori several times abdicated the gained the Emperor’s favour. In August, Báthori return at the head of an army of Turkish auxilia- The young Bethlen fought in this battle against
throne in favour of the Emperor, only to make lost the Battle of Goroszló and left the country. ries aroused some hope. Basta withdrew without Basta alongside Mózes Székely (1553–1603),
a sudden return, causing political chaos. Bethlen Two weeks later, Basta’s Walloon officers assas- a fight, but Sigismund’s Turks took over where one of the most experienced and distinguished
saw for himself the labyrinth of grand political sinated Michael the Brave. Transylvania was now the Walloons had left off. Seeing what he had set Transylvanian commanders, who had started his
affairs when he accompanied Bocskai to Prague firmly under imperial control. Contemporary off, the Prince broke down and departed Tran- career under István Báthori. These two men, des-
in 1597 to negotiate handing over Transylvania witnesses, hardened as they were to the horrors sylvania for the last time. The Transylvanians, left pite their difference in age, were joined by the
to the Emperor. of war, found the acts of the Emperor’s soldiers to themselves, sent an army to meet the imperial bonds of friendship and identity of political out-
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 276 277 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

alienated the people from their new ruler. The of mind, a Hungarian noble in constant and un- oppressive taxes and ruthlessly violating ancient
new Voivode of Wallachia, Radu Serban, was at flinching struggle. privileges. His private life was scandalous and
the time engaged in a struggle against the Otto- Transylvania’s vale of tears, the Long War, also provocative. He drank heavily, and regarded the
mans, and had no wish for an Ottoman-friendly ravaged Hungary. Its coffers drained by the wars, wives of his followers as legitimate prey. Within
Transylvania at his back. Taking advantage of the imperial court tried unorthodox ways of a few years he succeeded in making everybody
this opportunity, he led his army against Mózes getting money. It tried Hungarian magnates on hate him. His own men plotted against him, but
Székely, joined by large numbers of Székely sol- trumped-up charges of treason, executed them, the assassination attempt failed and was followed
diers. The new Prince was defeated in a battle and confiscated their property. István Bocskai by capricious and lawless tyranny. He had many
near Brassó (Braşov) on 17 July, and was him- was marked out as such a victim. Bethlen at- magnates executed without trial for their estates,
self killed. Bethlen once again stayed by the side tempted to win him over as leader of an uprising and enormous, profligate entertainments fol-
of his old friend, but through courage and good against the Habsburgs. Bocskai had long been lowed one after another. He plunged Transylva-
luck, escaped with his life. The times of terror suspicious in the eyes of the Captain-General of nia into turmoil.
returned, Basta invaded again, and Bethlen and Upper Hungary, Count Belgiojoso, and Bethlen All this was in stark contrast to Bethlen’s
his comrades again had to seek refuge in Otto- provided the evidence he needed. A raid by Bel- sober, honourable, judicious approach to states-
Mózes Székely man territory. That was when the young Bethlen giojoso’s men found documents left behind by manship. It became clear that this veteran of so
by sculptor Csaba Sánta (of Szováta). matured into a commander. Through his intel- the fleeing Bethlen, among them letters written many battles was unsuited to the role of courtier.
lectual capacity, negotiating skills, command of to Bocskai. Bocskai now had no choice, and un- The deeds and lifestyle of the Prince so much
languages, patience, prudence and political ver- dertook open rebellion. The history of the Bocs- alienated him from his former friend that to-
satility, he was already a seasoned leader, despite kai War of Independence is now part of Hun- wards the end of his reign Báthori made an open
his youth. When the Ottomans set as a condi- garian national mythology. It is Gábor Bethlen, attempt on Bethlen’s life. Once again, Gábor
look. Both were convinced that Turkish influence tion of their support that the émigrés choose a however, who deserves much of the credit for Bethlen was forced to seek refuge among the
was the lesser of two evils, because the already- prince from among themselves, they nominated the main incidents in the story – Bocskai’s recog- Turks. The Porte was considering the removal
tottering eastern conquerors hardly interfered Bethlen. There were some who opposed him, nition by the Ottomans and his election as Prince of the unreliable Báthori, and finally made up its
in Transylvania’s internal affairs. The Emperor’s however, and he withdrew in order to maintain of Hungary and Transylvania. Bocskai appointed mind upon learning that the Prince, now fearing
power and his attitude to Transylvania had been the unity of the émigrés. An unusually wise step his former poor relation as general and counsel- for his position, was in league with the Habsburg
made palpable by Basta’s Walloons. They could for someone with power in his grasp. His excel- lor, and showed his gratitude by the grant of monarch Matthias I (Matthias II of Hungary,
not defend the country against anyone, but could lent political sense told him that this was not his enormous estates. The Prince’s sudden death on 1557–1619), to whom he offered Transylvania
certainly ravage it. In the name of defending the time. He had to wait for his opponents to fall 29 December 1606 put his followers in a difficult itself. Báthori’s actions augured the return of the
Catholic faith, the Emperor’s general had acted off the political stage, and until then, he consid- corner. Although he had made a will nominating terror Transylvania had suffered at the hands of
so brutally that the Protestant Transylvanians, in- ered it more important to maintain the unity of Gábor Báthori (1589–1613) as his successor, the Giorgio Basta, and were seen by the Porte simply
cluding Bethlen, finally turned their backs on the the movement and to work towards an improve- Transylvanian estates elected Sigismund Rákóczi as treason, regarding the authority of the Prince
Emperor. It was these apocalyptic events which ment his country’s affairs, rather than to pursue (1544–1608) as Prince of Transylvania on 9 Feb- of Transylvania as subject to its approval. Dur-
explain Bethlen’s much-mentioned and misun- personal ambition into the quagmire of princely ruary 1607. Bethlen remained loyal to the young ing his stay in Ottoman lands, Bethlen made use
derstood “friendliness with the Turks”. Given power. Whence came the political wisdom of Báthori, and two years later succeeded in forcing of all of his contacts to remove Báthori. Since
these events, it is understandable why he sought this man of 23 years? From direct experience: the ageing and incapable Rákóczi to abdicate. he had many supporters and friends among the
refuge in Ottoman lands following the defeat. he had seen with his own eyes the chaotic writh- Bethlen’s support for the election of the Sultan’s state machinery, there was no doubt as to
It was naturally not in the interests of the Porte ings of a prince driven to the point of madness. young Báthori as Prince of Transylvania was whom the Turks would support. The aid offered
for Transylvania to espouse loyalty allegiance to Dispossessed and orphaned, he had had to take probably the biggest error of his life. Had loy- by the Sultan was more than symbolic. He put a
the Emperor, and so it supported the election of up service with others, and had joined in many alty to the family which had raised him up let large army at his protégé’s disposal, and ordered
Mózes Székely as Prince of Transylvania and his battles when still a child. His story was recorded him be deceived, or did he harbour real hope for two Romanian voivodes to lend their support.
struggle against Giorgio Basta. The nobles raised in the scars which covered his body. These were this charming young man? It is difficult now to The 80,000-strong army soon decided affairs in
their flag against the Emperor again in April 1603 perilous times, with friends and enemies falling find an explanation. Transylvania and Bethlen Transylvania. The commander-in-chief, Skander
under Mózes Székely and, reinforced by Turk- all around him, and in the internal strife he him- himself were to pay a high price for the govern- Pasha, called the Diet in Kolozsvár (Cluj-Na-
ish auxiliaries, set Basta’s mercenaries to flight. self had often been crossed by the shadow of ment of the new Prince. After his investiture on poca, Romania), and ordered it to depose Bá-
Székely took up the title of Prince of Transyl- death. For some he was a respected warrior, for 7 March 1608, Báthori started to become crazed thori and elect Gábor Bethlen as Prince of Tran-
vania on 8 May. That ray of hope, too, was soon others, a fugitive taking succour from pagans. with power, and his whole reign was marked by sylvania, which was done on 23 October 1613.
extinguished. The looting of the Turkish soldiers Through all this, Gábor Bethlen remained sound forcing through unrealistic political plans, levying Four days later, the fleeing Báthori was killed by
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 278 279 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Political division in 1629

hungary I. Kingdom of Hungary II. Transylvanian Principality
A. Transylvanian counties
C. Partium III. Ottoman territory

at Gábor Bethlen’s
death in 1629
DESIGNED
D. Székely Land
BY INDÁR ALBISI BARTHOS AND DR. GYÖRGY KURUCZ B. Royal counties annexed
to Transylvania

LEGEND:
E. King’s Land
Free royal town Village
Town Fortress
Market-town Castle
Kingdom of Hungary
Transylvanian Principality
Ottoman Empire

Hungary’s border in 1914

for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 280 281 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Hajduks. A new era had begun in Transylvania. which he spared no expense. Gábor Bethlen elected Bethlen Prince of Hungary on 8 January
Bethlen’s election was not, as the legends have clearly saw that a united and free Hungary was 1620. Bethlen adroitly made an alliance with Fre-
it, purely the result of Turkish armed force. The crucial to Transylvania’s independence. He also derick of Phalz, signed a truce with Ferdinand
land which had suffered so much had need of a knew that this “independence” could only be re- II Habsburg (1578–1637) and retreated to Kassa
level-headed statesman with good connections, alised by acceptance of Turkish supremacy, and (Košice, Slovakia). Such was Bethlen’s standing
and the estates also saw him as a good choice. He maintaining and respecting relations with the by this time that the Diet of Besztercebánya
chose his methods purely on the need to achieve Porte was an essential condition for preserving (Banská Bistrica, Slovakia) elected him king on
a result, and put the utmost effort into preparing Transylvania. He had a vision of a united Hun- 25 August 1620. It was his greatest dream, but
the way to get there. gary, and his foreign exploits were all aimed at at- he declined nonetheless; the conditions of the
The start of his reign put an end to a quar- taining this. The primary instrument in all of this coronation diploma made very clear it would
ter of a century of bloodshed, during which was the army. He drew his main military strength have been a merely nominal office. In the mean-
more than a third of the Transylvanian nobility from the Székely, the Hajduks and mercenaries time, the scales tipped towards the Habsburgs in
had met violent deaths. Under his stewardship, experienced in Western warfare. the Bohemian battleground when the Emperor
Portrait of Prince György
Transylvania lived through its golden age in every The Thirty Years’ War (1618–1648) provided dealt a decisive blow against the Bohemian es- Rákóczi of Transylvania
respect. His power rested above all on the re- the opportunity for Transylvania and Bethlen tates at the Battle of Fehérhegy (‘White Hill’, Bílá (1621–1660)
sources available to him. He secured these partly to enter the international political arena. This Hora, now part of Prague) on 8 November 1620.
through confiscation from traitors and partly by bloody religious war also forged a bond between There followed dreadful reprisals, and waves of
establishing a princely monopoly on the export Bethlen and King Gustav Adolf II. One cause fleeing Bohemian Protestants came to Bethlen The disputes over the throne following Bethlen’s
of many commodities, which the treasury then of the Thirty Years’ War was the Catholic-Prot- seeking refuge. Ferdinand II entered into peace death in 1629 led to György Rákóczi I, the greatest
sold abroad at an enormous profit. He passed estant conflict dividing the whole of Europe, talks with Bethlen, and the two rulers ultimately landowner in Upper Hungary and the comrade-in-
laws and decrees to regulate and collect taxes the other was resistance to the hegemony of the signed the Treaty of Nikolsburg on 6 January arms of the deceased prince, becoming the next
and, in line with the mercantilist philosophy of Habsburg Empire. Interwoven with these were 1622, by which Ferdinand II recognised Tran- Prince of Transylvania. He pursued a much more
the time, favoured trade that provided cash rev- a thousand other state, dynastic or personal in- sylvania’s independence. In 1623, Bethlen again cautious foreign policy than his predecessor, and
enue. His great wealth permitted him to support terests, and nearly every European country was took up arms against the Emperor, but achieved only yielded to the encouragement of the Swedes,
the arts and learning. He invited famous scholars drawn into the fray. The Prince of Transylvania no real success, and in May 1624 signed the Sec- now the leaders of the Protestant alliance, when
to Transylvania, and provided financial support also recognised that the time had come to break ond Treaty of Vienna, reinforcing the terms of Swedish forces penetrated Moravia in 1642 and
for book publishing and scholars’ peregrination. the strength of what he considered his main the Treaty of Nikolsburg. On 13 May 1622, he occupied Olomouc Castle. Sweden and France
Through his contacts, he attempted to have King enemy, the Habsburgs. His hopes were boosted lost his wife and support Zsuzsanna Károlyi. offered Rákóczi 3000 infantry and 150,000 thalers
Matthias’ Corvinas – the books from the famous by an offer by the Bohemians to make him their Seeing the balance of power, Bethlen made the in annual aid in return for his alliance (1643).
library – brought back from Istanbul. Although king if he was elected king of Hungary. This was unexpected move of requesting the hand of Fer- In February 1644, György Rákóczi I set out
he had never been taught, he had learned widely a distant goal, and when the Bohemian estates dinand II’s daughter Cecilia Renata in 1624, hop- from Transylvania with an army of 20,000, occu-
by his own efforts, and had an excellent know- chose Elector Frederick V of Phalz as their king, ing for an alliance against the Ottomans. When pied Upper Hungary and, in early April, reached
ledge of Latin and Turkish. It says much of him Bethlen acknowledged the fact with some bitter- he was refused, he sent his proxy suitors to the the valley of the Vág at Galgóc (Hlohovec, Slo-
that he took his library everywhere, even on ness. He overcame his disappointment, however, Lutheran Elector of Brandenburg, George Wil- vakia). Here he encountered, instead of Swedish
campaign. He founded two schools, in Kolozs- and on 26 August 1619 set off with 30,000 sol- liam. He asked the hand of the Elector’s younger units, imperial-royal troops, because his allies had
vár (Cluj-Napoca, Romania) and Gyulafehérvár diers to aid Bohemia. On his way, he captured daughter Catherine of Brandenburg (1604– hurried home to defend their own country against
(Alba Iulia, Romania). As a devoted (but not big- a large proportion of the towns in Upper Hun- 1649), whose elder sister Mary Eleanor married an attack by the Danes. The 15,000 imperial-royal
oted) Protestant, he did much for his church and gary, taking care to present himself as a defender another monarch. That monarch was Gustav troops of Field Marshal Johann Götz and Palatine
its pastors, in exchange for which he demanded of the Protestant faith and liberator rather than Adolf II of Sweden. The wedding, celebrated in Miklós Esterházy chased the Transylvanian army
pure, exemplary life, observance of the law, and a conqueror. On 14 October, he captured Po- pomp and splendour in Kassa on 2 March 1626, all the way to Kassa (Košice, Slovakia). They could
loyalty. An interesting insight on his character is zsony (Bratislava) and he and his allies surround- made the two men brothers-in-law, and the mili- not contend with the well-fortified city, and the
his esteem for the educational methods of the ed Vienna. Unfortunately, an attack from Poland tary and political developments of the time made Prince’s relief army, together with the local peas-
Jesuits, so that he allowed them to run schools threatening to cut him off from Transylvania them allies. antry, routed the besiegers.
in his own capital city, despite their role in the forced him to withdraw. Although it turned out Collaboration with Swedish forces did take
vanguard of the Counter-Reformation. to pose him no danger, Vienna was relieved, and place the next year when, close to the scene of
* Excerpt from Csaba Csörge and László Töll: Bethlen Gábor –
Another cause close to his heart was the or- the Bohemians were left to themselves. The Hun- Erdély aranya és Észak oroszlánja (Gábor Bethlen – Treasure of the previous year’s defeat they combined with the
ganisation and maintenance of the army, on garian Diet had by that time sat in Pozsony, and Transylvania and Lion of the North. MTA, Budapest, 2004) cavalry of Lennar Torstenson near Nagyszombat.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 282 283 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

György Rákóczi I marched to the Moravian border György Rákóczi I had intended his campaigns the scene, and one month later, the Cos-
and detached some of his soldiers to the siege of against the Habsburgs in 1644 and 1645 to expand sack forces also abandoned their allies. The
Brünn and raids into Austria. Since peace talks had the power and territory of Transylvania, as his new Habsburg monarch, Leopold I, sent
already started with Ferdinand III (1637–1657), predecessor had done, although he also had in forces to the aid of King John Casimir of
King of Hungary and Holy Roman Emperor, mind the reinforcing of the Rákóczi family’s rule Poland. In his straitened position, Rákóczi
these ventures were actually aimed at boosting his in Upper Hungary. The peace treaty signed in was forced to make peace on humiliating
bargaining position, indeed he had already received Linz in 1645 returned to the Principality the seven terms, and the greater part of his army,
a command from the Sultan not to pursue any fur- counties held by Bethlen, and the family received making its way home, was surrounded and
ther military campaigns. an enormous grant of land. taken prisoner by Tartars incited by the
Ottomans.
György Rákóczi II had made a poor as-
sessment of power relations in North Eur-
ope, and failed to get the Porte’s approval
for the campaign. The Ottoman court also
took a dim view of their vassal principal-
ity expanding its power into the other vas- Portrait of Prince György Rákóczi
War against the Ottomans sal states of Moldova and Wallachia, the of Transylvania (1621–1660)
in Transylvania and the Kingdom of Hungary very territory that Istanbul regarded as its
breadbasket. in Hungary, Vienna intervened in the Tran-
The Porte severely punished Transylvania for sylvanian civil war. In summer 1661, the Aulic
its prince’s disobedience. It sent Tartar forces Military Council sent one of the finest generals

G yörgy Rákóczi II (1648–1660)

made energetic attempts to
expand the power of his principality
into the Principality and had the estates elect a
new ruler, Ferenc Rhédey. Istanbul thought it
had wrapped things up, but Rákóczi regained
of the time, Field Marshal Raimondo Montecuc-
coli with an army of only 15,000. Although the
imperial-royal forces invaded the north-west of
as soon as he was elected Prince the princely power in early 1658. He defeated an Transylvania, they could not prevent the Otto-
of Transylvania. Unlike his father, army sent by Seydi Ahmed, but could not with- mans from installing Mihály Apafi as Prince of
however, he turned his eye not on stand the onslaught of the 50,000-strong army Tranyslvania instead of the Habsburgs’ choice,
the parts of Upper Hungary held by János Kemény.
of Grand Vizier Koprolu Mehmed. As the Tar-
the King, but towards the east. He
tar forces were pillaging their way through the The Transylvanian campaign of the Habsburg
launched a campaign against Moldova
interior of Transylvania, the main Turkish army army served as a good pretext for the ambitious
in 1653 and one against Wallachia in
captured many of the south-western border fort- Grand Vizier Koprulu Ahmed to launch a cam-
1655. Then he forged an alliance with
resses. The Grand Vizier then gave Ákos Barcsay paign against Hungary. From his successes in
Bogdan Khmelnytsky, Cossack hetman
in 1656. As an ally of King Charles X of the princely power. Transylvania, he was convinced of the Habsburg
Sweden, he entered the war for control Transylvania might have avoided further
of Baltic trade in the hope of acquiring bloodshed, but György Rákóczi II seized power
the Polish crown. again in September 1659, even turning to
In January 1657, as an ally of the Emperor-King Leopold I for assistance. He re-
Swedes, Rákóczi invaded Poland with mained without support, however, and suffered
23,000 Transylvanian, Moldavian and a defeat at Szászfenes (Floreşti), near Kolozsvár
Wallachian troops and a Cossack army (Cluj-Napoca) at the hands of an Ottoman army
of 20,000. After invading Krakow, he with several-fold numerical supremacy. He died a
joined the Swedes and took Przemyśl few days later, of wounds incurred in the battle.
before entering Warsaw. Then there was
The Turkish army then besieged the key to Tran-
a fundamental turnaround in the strate-
sylvania, Várad, whose garrison of no more than
gic situation.
900 soldiers held out for 45 days.
György Rákóczi II’s mace (up) and Another Danish attack caused King 50-ducat coin
Since the capture of Várad by the Ottomans of Prince Mihály Apafi of
mail shirt (right) Charles X of Sweden to withdraw from
upset the balance of political and military power Transylvania (1632–1690).
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 284 285 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Empire’s military weakness and took the risk of Grand Vizier Koprulu decided to take ternational aid was too late in coming – forces the Hungarian political and military leaders, and
a war on two fronts. In 1663, instead of making Érsekújvár, instead of the well-reinforced and from the League of the Rhine and imperial auxil- evoked outrage among the Hungarians and the
the decisive conquest of Venetian-held Crete, he equipped Győr. The 5000-strong garrison of the iaries were, at best, still on their way to the Hun- political rivals of the Habsburgs. Some of the
set out for Hungary. The Grand Vizier had calcu- fort withstood the artillery bombardment and as- garian theatre of operations. leaders of the Hungarian estates, somewhat op-
lated well, because his hundred thousand-strong saults for 39 days, but in the hopeless situation The panic aroused by the fall of Érsekújvár timistically, believed that the moment had come
army was twice the size of what his enemy could were ultimately forced to surrender. There could relaxed somewhat in winter 1664 on hearing of to drive the Ottomans out, and considered the
muster. be no question of relieving the fort, because the major campaign launched by a royal army un- compromise shameful.
Aggravating the situation of the Habsburg Field Marshal Montecuccoli’s ten thousand men der Miklós Zrínyi and troops of the League of In Vienna, the prevailing view was that the
forces was the failure of an attempt by Captain- were sufficient only to repulse the raiding Tar- the Rhine in the south of Transdanubia. After international situation and the available eco-
General Ádám Forgách of Érsekújvár to disrupt tars. Miklós Zrínyi, Ban of Croatia, had the task taking several minor Turkish forts, the Chris- nomic and military resources did not permit a
Várad (Varadinum; now Oradea,
Romania) in the six-volume Civitates Orbis the Ottoman army as they crossed the Danube at of tying down the local Turkish forces in Trans- tian forces burned the bridge of Eszék (Osijek, protracted war against the Ottomans. The ex-
Terrarum (Cities of the World). Párkány (Šturovo, Slovakia) opposite Esztergom. danubia with his 15,000-strong feudal army. In- Croatia), an essential link on the Ottoman sup- periences of the preceding months had revealed
ply route. The moral effect of Zrínyi’s action that the imperial-royal army’s system of supply
was perhaps more significant than the military and mobilisation did not stand up in the compe-
achievement, because he proved that the Turks tition with its enemy’s. The Christian forces had
could be beaten. The Christian forces were un- in fact won only a modest and partial victory at
able, however, to take advantage of the confu- Szentgotthárd, and Montecuccoli’s army, shrunk
sion among the Ottoman army and delayed in to 20,000 men, had neither the strength nor the
besieging strategically-important Kanizsa. Ko- equipment for operations. The outcome of the
prulu Ahmed arrived with his army, relieved the war was therefore a definite military and political
castle, and marched in the direction of Vienna gain for the Ottomans. New vilayets were organ-
up to the River Rába. ised centred on Várad and Érsekújvár, and the View of Érsekújvár (Nové
The main Ottoman and Christian armies territorially reduced Transylvania was left in an Zámky, Slovakia) at the time
eventually clashed at Szentgotthárd on 1 Au- even deeper state of vassalage. of the Turkish siege
of 1663, on an engraving
gust 1664. Forces led by Montecuccoli attacked
by Dutch engraver Gerard
the Ottoman units at a bend in the River Rába, Bouttats
just as they were crossing. It initially seemed that (c. 1630–?).
the Janissaries would repel
the attack, but a charge at
their flanks by forces of the
League of the Rhine and the
French auxiliaries disrupted
their battle order. Seeing
the losses and the frustrated
crossing, the Grand Vizier
abandoned any further ad-
vances and took his army,
with its twofold numeri-
cal superiority, on a slow
march north to Érsekújvár.
Satisfied with the achieve-
ments of the campaign, he
declined to besiege Vienna
and accepted the peace of-
fers of the Habsburg court.
The treaty was signed in
Vasvár without consulting
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 286 287 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Lagging or advancing A detachment of a few soldiers, the “lure” was

– military transformation in Hungary in the 16th and 17th centuries sent close in, to draw the enemy towards the
ambush, where most of the raiding party were
waiting. This was usually where the Hajduk light
infantry, transported there in wagons, were pos-

T
itioned, raining the enemy with musket fire and
he medieval Hungarian military organisa- the Ottomans did not of course mean complete
then, if necessary, engaging them in hand-to-
tion was going through changes even at cessation of hostilities, but periods of lesser at-
hand combat. There were some larger raiding
the time of Mohács, but the process speeded tacks and skirmishes. Neither great power could
parties which had sufficient strength to set up Portrait
up with the construction of the new border- completely supply the forces stationed in the of Ádám Batthyány
an ambush in several places, so as to mislead
fortress system against the Ottomans, when confines, and were obliged to turn a blind eye to
the Hungarian military had to adapt to its their soldiers’ pillaging ventures and slave trade.
border defence tasks and the composition of In addition, part of the remuneration of their
its enemy’s army. In consequence, the heavy officers consisted of estates on the enemy’s ter-
cavalry had disappeared from the Hungarian ritory, and income from these could be gath-
military by mid-century, to be replaced by semi- ered only by mounting raids. These rapid sur-
heavy cavalry and light cavalry. They wore light prise actions, known as “minor skirmishes” or
armour – only mail shirt, breastplate and helmet “field work”, constituted almost the sole tactic
– and their principal weapons remained the of Hungarian soldiers, who mostly comprised
lance, shield and sword, although firearms were light cavalry.
becoming increasingly common – the pistol and The raids were not considered by the other
the version of the musket used by horsemen side as violations of the peace unless they in-
(archebusier). volved cannon. In the 16th century, the soldiers
The weak point of the Hungarian military of both sides regarded these “field jobs” as
remained the infantry. Even before this period, manly tests of strength, and often called each
most of the heavily-armoured infantry was re- other out to single combat, where the best
cruited abroad. This “division of labour” re- swordsmen or lancemen tried out their strength
mained, because if necessary, infantry trained and skill. Such duels were rarer in the follow-
in heavy-armour tactics were detached to Hun- ing century, but in autumn 1703, János Bottyán,
gary from other parts of the Habsburg Empire. still an imperial colonel, and the young Kuruc
There did emerge, however, a free mercenary officer László Ocskay challenged each other to
class called the Hajduks, who provided the a pistol duel.
lightly-armed infantry. The size of raiding units usually matched
The Hungarian military also adopted the the operational objective, and if necessary, they
changes to warfare which had taken place in the brought infantry with them on wagons. Some-
western half of Europe and are looked back on times the formation only had a few dozen,
as revolutionary. Firearms were excellently suit- sometimes a few hundred soldiers, although
ed for use by horsemen and infantry in border Ádám Batthyány, Captain-General of the bor-
defence, so that by the second half of the 17th der fortresses facing Kanizsa mobilised 2-3000
century the lance had completely disappeared troops for raids against the Turks in the 1630
from the arsenal of Hungarian soldiers. and 1640s.
The strategic forts of the border fortress sys- Actions were often undertaken under the
tem made use of the most advanced fortifica- cover of the night, making use of an advance
tion principles from the beginning, and other guard, flank and rearguard to cover the col-
elements of the defensive system (palisades and umn, and reconnoitring scouts or trackers with
Raimondo Montecuccoli (1608–1680),
guard posts) were adapted to the border defence local knowledge. One of the most frequently- after an etching by Jacob von Sandrart (1630–1708)
tasks and enemy tactics. The peace treaties with employed military procedures was the ambush.
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 288 289 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

the enemy and in the end lure them into one of problem, which was addressed by settling them
them. Other times, smaller detachments harried and putting them into service. István Bocskai
the usually slowly-moving regular army infantry carried out mass settlements in 1605/1606 with
units, by constant attacks and capture of their large groups of Hajduks, soldiers and peasants
supplies. This was the basic tactic employed on a spider’s web of lands across a wide band
by György Rákóczi I in his 1644/45 campaign, of the Hungarian defensive zones, giving them
when he caused serious losses to the imperial- various privileges in exchange for military ser-
royal troops and forced them to retreat. vice.
After foreign troops were withdrawn from In the first half of the 17th century, most
the country in the first half of the 17th century, men under arms, some 30,000, were settled in
and most of the armed forces of the Habsburg the east of the country with the consent of
Empire were tied down in the theatres of op- the Transylvanian princes and the King. The
eration of the Thirty Years War, the number of Hajduk settlements in Szabolcs County served
border fortress soldiers paid by the monarch in the king under the command of the Captain-
the anti-Turkish confines decreased by a quar- General of Upper Hungary, and those in Bihar
ter. The gap was filled by the armed forces of County the princes of Transylvania.
the Hungarian estates and the aristocrats. The In other parts of the country, it was magnate
chain of border fortresses was already supple- clans who recruited and granted privileges to
mented by 60-70 forts, palisades and residential men of arms. In the western part of Transda-
castles on the land of ecclesiastical and tem- nubia, the Batthyánys and the Nádasdys, and in
poral landowners, some of which (Körmend, Muraköz the Zrínyis, set up Hajduk and soldier-
Kisvárda, Ónod and Tokaj) had royal garrisons, peasant settlements.
either permanently or on an occasional basis. In Royal Hungary, with a population of
The magnates of the kingdom kept substan- about three million, there were about a hundred
tial private armies to defend their estates and thousand men who professionally or occasion-
forts. The largest armed force, some 3000 men, ally served as soldiers of some rank and status.
belonged to the Rákóczi family in Upper Hun- The most highly trained were the professional
gary, although the Zrínyis had similar armies in soldiers of the royal army, and field soldiers
the Kingdom of Croatia and Muraköz, as did who had seen action on the battlegrounds of
the Batthyány and Nádasdy families in Trans- the Thirty Years War. The backbone of the mili-
danubia. Besides the armies of the magnates tarised classes was the Hajduks and free mer-
there were other militias, such as troops of the cenaries.
noble levée and the county troops also made The defensive zone against the Ottomans in
considerable contributions to the garrisons of the 17th century basically lived up to its function.
royal forts. The forces on each side were closely balanced:
The constant state of readiness demanded some 25-30,000 troops, of similar composition,
for border defence, the skirmishes with Turkish were stationed in both the Christian and the
forces, the domestic civil wars and the increas- Ottoman defensive zones. In the Kingdom of
ing requirement to raise troops speeded the Hungary, nearly half of these were formations
country on the way to militarisation. The Long of royal troops and the standing army, and the
War at the turn of the century gave particular rest were militias of the magnates and the coun-
impetus to this process, when the free merce- ties.
nary class, generally called Hajduk, swelled to The war against the Ottomans in 1663/1664
several tens of thousands and the number of proved that the military organisation based
armed peasants also rose. on the estates was inadequate for the military
Miklós Zrínyi in the 1660s, When the war came to an end, these armed demands of the time. It was difficult to mobi-
after an etching by Jacob von Sandrart (1630–1708).
groups became a serious social and political lise and its weapons and tactics were outdated.
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 290 291 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Map with the borders of the Kingdom

of Hungary on it from 1664, the year of the
Peace of Vasvár. The map is dedicated to Judge
of the Royal Court Ferenc Nádasdy (1625–1671),
who himself supported the expulsion
of the Turks.
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 292 293 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

There was a need to reorganise the military Miklós Zrínyi (1620–1664) gained his mili- taken up by Ferenc Rákóczi II and his govern- more modern tactical units, did come into ef-
into a regularly-paid standing army. The propo- tary experience in border skirmishes and on the ment in the modernisation of his army. His fect, resulting in the foundation of three regular
nent of military reform in Hungary was Miklós battlefields of the Thirty Years War, and so was book, Az török áfium ellen való orvosság (The True cavalry regiments.
Zrínyi, Ban of Croatia, but unlike the Aulic Mili- well aware of affairs at home and abroad. His Remedy against the Turkish Poison) appeared The integration of Hungarian troops into
tary Council, he envisaged this not as a merger military and political abilities were recognised in print in 1705. His literary work also stirred up a standing army was accomplished during the
with the standing army, but a Hungarian army in Vienna. He was one of the most influential support for the struggle with the Ottomans. His Great Turkish War between 1683 and 1699. The
which would stay under the control and lead- members of the Hungarian military and politi- most famous poem, the epic Szigeti veszedelem imperial-royal military leadership organised the
ership of the estates. Field Marshal Raimondo cal elite, Ban of Croatia, imperial-royal cham- (The Peril of Sziget) commemorated the deeds majority of the field and border-fortress troops
Montecuccoli represented the opinion of the berlain and member of the Privy Council. His of his great grandfather, who died heroically in into regiments and provided centralised supplies
Military Council that the royal army had to be writing on military affairs and his speeches to the defence of Szigetvár castle. of weapons, ammunition and victuals. These
modernised as a single standing army without the Diet urged the modernisation of the armed Montecuccoli, as Chairman of the Aulic Mili- forces were called the Hungarian “national mi-
the involvement of the estates. forces in Hungary. Zrínyi’s military ideas were tary Council in the 1670s, made attempts to in- liz”, distinguishing them from the hussar and
tegrate the border-fortress and field troops into infantry regiments serving in the imperial stand-
the standing army. The military laws passed to- ing army. In the final decade of the century,
gether with tax reforms for finance of the army troops from the Kingdom of Hungary formed The Battle of Párkány
ran into popular resistance, and in the east of the a substantial proportion of the overall military (Treffen bey Barcan; now Šturovo,
Slovakia) on 9 October 1683.
country, where a civil war was in progress, could strength of the Habsburg Empire – almost
After contemporary engraving,
not be imposed at all. Some military reforms, one third, if the 6-7000 deployed on the bat- from the work of Boethius Kriegeshelm
such as the organisation of garrison troops into tlegrounds of the Rhine and Italy are included. (Nuremberg, 1636)

Péter Zrínyi translated the epic

“The Peril of Sziget” into Croatian.
 295 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Freeing the Kingdom

of Hungary of Turkish occupation

I n spring 1683, there was a mood in Istanbul

that the time had come to capture the seat
of the “Viennese king”. The Habsburg monarch
Republic of Venice and the Kingdom of Poland
formed an alliance against Ottomans.
They soon launched offensives on three
controlled only the western part of the Kingdom fronts: Moldavia, the south of the Peloponnese,
of Hungary, the rest being in possession of Imre and the Kingdom of Hungary. A total of 60,000
Thököly and Mihály Apafi I in Transylvania. The Habsburg and German imperial troops advanced
army of the Grand Vizier, Mustafa Kara, had in three columns on the Hungarian theatre of
Portrait of Grand Vizier Kara Mustapha Portrait of Pál Esterházy (1635–1713), more than 80,000 men, and was supported by operations. The main army was directed to-
(1634/35–1683) Palatine of Hungary from 1681 30,000 soldiers maintained by the magnates of wards Buda, the second army set out to tie down
Transylvania, Upper Hungary and Romania. local Turkish forces in the south along the River
His enemy could not raise even half this Drava, and the third attempted to force back the
strength. Under Palatine Pál Eszterházy, the rebel Kuruc army of Imre Thököly in the north.
Hungarians mobilised some 12,000 troops, and Although the main army soon occupied the city
the imperial government less than 30,000. A tal- of Buda (19 July), the assaults on the castle were
ented general, Duke Charles of Lorraine, was put unsuccessful. Three and a half months later,
at the head of the army. The rapid advance of after the death of 23,000 soldiers, the imperial
the Ottoman army prompted Lorraine to con- commanders abandoned the siege.
centrate his forces on the defence of Vienna, so This serious failure made clear that Buda could
that the royal lands, apart from a few fortresses, only be taken after the capture of the surround-
surrendered to the Turkish-friendly Kuruc lead- ing forts of Érsekújvár, Székesfehérvár and Eger.
er, Prince Imre Thököly. In 1685, they cleared the strategic approaches to
The military and political situation took a dif-
ferent course than in 1663. Financial, economic
and military reforms in the Habsburg Empire
in the years since then had rendered it capable
of waging a protracted war, and it could also
count on substantial military assistance. The Ot-
toman army made little of its siege of Vienna,
and Polish, Bavarian, Saxon and Swabian contin-
gents swelled the Christian army to 70,000. On
12 September, this force defeated the Ottoman
invaders on the hill of Kahlenberg in a battle that
lasted for twelve hours.
Taking advantage of this victory, the forces of
King John Sobieski of Poland and Duke Charles
of Lorraine advanced along the Danube and ef-
fected another strike against the Ottoman army,
followed by the capture of Esztergom Castle af-
Kuruc leader Imre Thököly (1657–
ter a brief siege.
1705), Prince of Upper Hungary
The Christian armies defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Kahlenberg in 1683. In spring 1684, through the mediation of between 1682 and 1685, and Prince
In the foreground, King John Sobieski of Poland draws his sword in combat with the Turks
Pope Innocent XI, the Habsburg Empire, the of Transylvania from 1690
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 296 297 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Buda, took Érsekújvár (29 September) and de- soldiers in the north pressed into the castle at
having fled to the houses opposite,
feated the main Ottoman army besieging Esz- the Esztergom Rondella, the Bavarian forces in
under the castle, but most to the
tergom (16 August). In autumn, Imre Thököly’s the south entered at Stephen’s Tower, and after
castle precincts. Few escaped with
principality collapsed and most of his soldiers, a brief battle occupied the former seat of the their lives. Armed and unarmed alike
some 17,000 men, went into royal service. Hungarian kings. According to tradition, Major were cut down without distinction in
Next summer, more than 80,000 soldiers, in- János Fiáth of the Győr border-fortress Hajduks the soldiers’ unrestrainable rage. The
cluding 20,000 Hungarians and several thousand first planted the royal flag on the Esztergom streets became rivers of barbarian
English, French, Dutch, Italian, Swedish, Scot- Rondella, and Bavarian Captain Martin Pech- blood, the once-flourishing town
defaced by dreadful butchery.
tish and Spanish volunteers started the siege of mann set the Elector’s flag on the ruins of King
Charles of Lorraine was
Buda. The castle was defended by some 10,000 Matthias’ palace on the south side.
observing all this from the corner
men under the experienced Albanian-born sol- After taking Buda, the allied command de- turret, and sent Prince Commercy
dier Abdurrahman Pasha. cided that instead of taking the Turkish forts in to the Emperor as the bearer of
During the seventy-eight days of the siege, the the interior of the country, they would set out to good news. He ordered Souches to
Holy League forces mounted three general as- take Belgrade, the gateway to the Balkans, pos- restrain the troops from slaughter
saults on the castle. The bloodiest was the second, session of which would cut off relief and sup- and looting, and to line them up in
battle order within the town. Croy
on 27 July, when the Hungarian infantry under plies for the occupied forts, which would even-
took control of the market and the
Vice-Captain-General of Győr, János Esterházy tually surrender. In preparation for this, in the
main points. As the orders were
mounted a diversionary attack on the east of the 1687 campaign, they dealt another defeat to Ot- being given, a troop of desperate
castle to permit the Christian forces on the north toman forces at Nagyharsány and took the castle janissaries assembled in Zsidó utca Charles of Lorraine
and south sides to approach the castle walls. of Eszék. In the Ottoman Empire, these defeats (Jews’ street) and, spurred on by (1643–1690), commander
The final assault took place on 2 Septem- set off a wave of revolts that paralysed its war the captain, went back into action, of the armies which liberated
ber. The imperial, Brandenburg and Hungarian machine. a clash that proved hard rather than Hungary from the Ottomans
long for their opponents: after firing
In the meantime, at the other side, Ötting their balls and thrusting with their lances,
was climbing the slope, investing the ruins they ran towards the palace to avoid being
among the determined fire of the Turks, encircled. Only the captain stood his ground,
giving Spinola breathing space, with a decisive cursing his subordinates’ pusillanimous
breakthrough reaching the houses near to conduct, and, bleeding from many wounds,
the walls. The janissaries, firing everything the brave leader died faithful to his calling.
into the air, as if sensing the end, dragged After this band had been dispersed, the
every weapon they could to that spot. One victors, advancing along streets broken
side for their lives, the other for victory, both up with trenches and ramparts, came up
engaged in a ferocious struggle to the end of against new dangers. They had to fight for
their strengths. Those who had been holding every cobblestone of Buda. They broke the
The recapture of Buda
up Spinola now rushed to where the more Fehérvár gate and a mass of servants flooded
and the expulsion of the Turks immediate threat lay. Spinola now joined in. They hounded their prey in all directions.
forces with Ötting, packing together the ranks The Turks broke out of the palace. Some
and forcing the Turks backward, step by step, were killed, the rest forced to flee, their
From Mátyás Bél’s writings* and commencing a new advance. The fallen battle order breaking up, the generals having
own fervour, and mowing down the attacking
troops were replaced by fresh waves, the fire incautiously loosened up the ranks, giving
lines with well-aimed volleys. Among the first
The recapture of Buda not letting up for a moment. It was pressure way to the fleeing mob.
to fall was Baron d’Asti with the finest of
that the Turks could not withstand, a vision This action was the Turks’ last effort. By
“They charged the ruins from both sides, with the volunteers, but this could not deter the
of impending destruction. Confusion spread this time every wall, fortification and street
astonishing contempt for the death as it awaited Germans, who surged forward over the corpses
among them, they fell on the open ground. had been taken. The Turks, fiercely defending
them at every point. The greatest danger and of their comrades, through the thick hail of
Taking new courage from this, the attackers the palace, came under attack from behind
endeavour fell to Spinola. The captain of the musket balls. The losses only further aroused
tore down the stakes, the spiked beams and led by Prince Croy. This was to the aid of
castle himself, with the finest of his remaining their fervour. The Turks bitterly resisted, and
all the other obstacles, and burst on to the the Bavarians, who had still not finished the
guard, was defending the rubble of the gaping it seemed that such equally matched bravery
main square. The reserves followed close intensive siege. They launched their assault
wall, imploring Mohamed with their usual would long keep the fortunes of war equal on
behind, and soldiers invested every place. Too somewhat later than the imperial forces,
shouts to aid them from above, inciting their each side.
late, the Turks raised the white flags, some and lost 150 men at the first advance, which
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 298 299 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

halted them for a while. Then they resumed to the victory was the Vizier, who, as was his Europe which did not consider the taking of
their fight, and across innumerable obstacles, custom, had led the army to the heights and Buda to be as much to its own benefit as to
pressed the enemy into the square enclosure quickly retreated after seeing the disaster with Leopold’s. Prayers were offered in many places,
of the gardens. The contest ended only when his own eyes. After seeing that all was in order, feasts and other ceremonies of congratulation,
(seeing Croy and the fires of the already- both generals, covered in the dust of glory, and gifts were distributed among the people.
taken town), all of the Turks were huddled returned to camp. The butchery and looting In Buda, the generals marched in triumphal Portrait of Abdurrahman, last
into a square surrounded by a double wall continued through the night, although fires procession into the city, and after St Stephen’s Pasha of Buda, in Boethius’s
and, throwing down their weapons, pleaded broke out in many places, preventing much church had been cleared of barbarian filth, book Ruhmbelorberter Triumph,
for their lives. The Bavarian general asked of the booty from falling victim to soldierly they sang the hymn of St Ambrose. After published in 1688. The Pasha
the commander what should be done with greed.” giving their pious thanks to God, the author bravely defended the castle of Buda
the barbarians. Lorraine entrusted the matter of the victory, they held a review of the against the Christian armies during
to the Elector. Strattman persuaded them Here indeed was the most sorrowful tragedy arsenal, which the besieged Turks had carefully the siege of 1686. Abdurrahman
to accept the surrender, saying it would be to befall the Turks! protected from fire. They found 200 guns of fell with a sword in his hand in the
inglorious for Christians to be unmerciful assorted calibre, vast quantities of matériel and decisive assault on the castle in early
against soldiers who had fulfilled their offices victuals for several months. September. His determined courage
courageously to the last. Serényi laid down the Buda in Christian hands again and persistence aroused respect even
The generals would have tarried longer
conditions of surrender. from his enemies. The place of his
there, had not the stink and fumes of the dead
death in Buda Castle is marked
Four imperial and a few Brandenburg The siege of this great city, dominating broad men and smoking houses been overpowering.
by a monument
battalions were stationed in the town, the Serau lands, had come to a sad end for the Turkish They placed the 4000 soldiers under Thüngen
regiment held the ruins, and a robust guard Empire, and a fortunate one for Christendom, as temporary guard in the city. The Turks who
was mounted around the town to block any although at the price of much endeavour and had given themselves up were ordered to burn The prisoners displayed an awful savagery.
Engraving of the recapture means of escape. The same precautions were prayer. When news of the victory spread, there the corpses, and the workmen were engaged Despite being treated more mildly than they
of Buda in 1686 taken with the palace. Among the witnesses was neither nation nor church throughout to start rebuilding the fortifications. The city might have expected, they rather preferred
had been cast into a state of dreadful and death to life and cursed their misfortune in
almost unimaginable filth. Several thousand not falling together with their beautiful Buda.
dead bodies lay on the streets, a sight made Others would not let food pass their lips, or
all the sadder from there being not only men, cried and sobbed (not daring to lament), until
but women and children lying dead from their they were distributed among the victors, when
many wounds, a sight pitiable even to those they gradually came to themselves and calmed
who had killed them. There was not a house down. A more fortunate survivor of this
which was not shot with holes, torn apart or disaster was the castle captain’s deputy, Csonka
burnt down. Bey, Aga of the janissaries. Wagner writes
Above all they were pained to see the thus: This had a decent bearing, and a moral
palace, which they remembered in its former stature that merited his becoming Christian; in
glory, or knew of it from history. Of this holy baptism, he received the name Leopold
dazzling royal seat, built to display royal from his patron the Emperor, was conferred
grandeur, there remained nothing but holed the rank of knight, and from then on fought
and tottering walls; collapsed vaults, palaces nobly as a Hungarian colonel on the Rhine.
and council halls; horribly crushed banqueting His son still lives, and has followed in his
halls; stunted towers; broken promenades; and father’s footsteps. Csonka Bey, of whom we
gaping cellars from whose depths all kinds speak, said that there were 10,000 janissaries
of pestilential vapours wafted out. Once the in the city guard, and apart from the cavalry
domain of royal pomp (however modest its and other forces there were about 6000 who
dimensions), much of the area was almost came to the city when the siege began.
impassable from piles of rubble and heaps of
unburied corpses. The rest could not so much
as be approached for several days, less because Sorrow of the Turks,
of the danger of ambush (in which every joy of the Christians
barbarian is skilled), as for the ruins sticky
with blood and heaped with rank corpses; a No mind can grasp, and no fine words express
sight as dreadful as the threat of infection for the depth of sorrow which took hold of
anyone reckless enough to come close. the Turks after the capture of the city. Over
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 300 301 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

more than a hundred and fifty years, they In a plea that such stormy times should not hear the prayers of the afflicted people. It was other, and finally, in late October, marched
had so greatly come to love the hospitality of rage further, they ordered prayers in all parts not just the common people who were moved triumphantly into Vienna.
this city, which commanded such extensive so that Mohamed’s heart be moved by prayer by this spirit: the Sultan himself sought the
lands (most of Hungary being ruled from for the people whom fate had dealt so unjust blame not in fortune or the cowardice of the *Excerpts from Mátyás Bél’s book (originally written in Latin)
here), had such a pleasant situation, and was a blow. The barbarian preachers scolded the Vizier, but in his own and his people’s sins – on the recapture of Buda (Zrínyi Kiadó, Budapest, 1986)
bountifully endowed with all that was needed people for their sins, in punishment of which either because he indeed felt so, or because
for a comfortable life. It afforded a broad God had sent a plague on the then flourishing by feigned good advice he would reassure
view to the deep and wide plain, the air was empire. The preachers, by word, tears, the vizier, who feared for his life. The latter Charles of Lorraine’s war diary
wonderfully healthy, the city was suited to lamentations and even loud cries, beat home presented the Sultan with the enormous lie on the reoccupation of Buda, 1686*
construction of the warm baths so favoured to them that they must raise their morals even that he had faced 160,000 spirited Christians,
by the Turks, and the Danube, flowing in the higher, and urged them to be generous in alms and so could not have helped Buda. The Hardly had all this taken its course when the
Fight for the liberation of Buda. narrows between the city and Pest, presented to the poor, even if they be Christians or Jews, prisoners sent to Constantinople were obliged, Hungarian hussars sent as advance guard
An engraving from Charles of such a spectacle that everyone’s heart ached and by these pious acts plead to the god of under oath, to confirm this lie. That was how reported to the Prince that the whole Turkish
Lorraine’s war diary upon recollection of lost Buda. Mohamed, to persuade the one great God to affairs were among the Turks. army had appeared at a line level with Érd,
The imperial generals together with the same place where, two years previously,
Strattmann held a council of war, examining Charles, Duke of Lorraine had won a
in great detail what could be done with the memorable victory over the relief army of
intimidated enemy in what remained of the that time. The memory of this victory spurred
autumn. Some of the officers thought that the generals to go on to the attack against
the troops, reduced in number and weighed the Grand Vizier, and seek a decisive battle
down by fatigue, should be rested. Lorraine with the relief army. Charles of Lorraine,
might have entertained a similar opinion, however, took the view that they should not
had not been seized with a vision of the next engage in such a venture before the arrival of
year’s campaign; he thought it better to force Scherffenberg’s Transylvanian army, and until
the terrorised enemy as far from the limits of such time if possible maintain a defensive
Buda as possible and to take under his control action. Apart from the Hungarian guard, the
the neighbouring castles, by surrender or by entire besieging army consisted of no more
force. than 40,000 combat-ready men, against a
Under Beck’s command, a 6000-strong guard relief army which, when taken together
was left in Buda, and after striking the tents and with the Tartars, was reputed to have a total
levelling the ramparts, the whole army together numerical strength of twice this number. His
with Scherffenberg, the commander of the argument was accepted by the War Council,
Slavonian contingent, marched towards Ercsi. which decided not to take the initiative
With scant pasture and water, they proceeded against the Grand Vizier until the arrival of
only slowly, and reached the village of Pentele Scherffenberg, and not to pursue them even if
on the right bank of the Danube. Upon learning forced into an engagement. They also decided
there that the Vizier had marched to Belgrade, that 2000 of the 18,000 German cavalry and
Baden and Scherffenberg were commanded to 1000 of the 3000 Hungarian hussars should
take the forces assigned to them – there were remain in service around the castle; 4500
13 regiments other than the Scherffenberg of the 15,000 German infantry, and 1500
contingent – to march on Pécs without delay of the 4000 Hungarian Hajduks, were to
and lay siege. Caraffa took the remaining troops guard the trenches. This meant that 16,000
across the Danube towards Szeged, and then German cavalry, 10,500 German infantry,
had to find winter quarters in Upper Hungary. 2000 Hungarian hussars and 2500 Hungarian
There is no space here to relate all of the Hajduks – a total of 31,000 troops – would
deeds which merit eternal memory and high repel the Grand Vizier’s relief action.
laurels in the capture of Buda and other To get an impression of the mood
events that autumn. Charles of Lorraine prevailing in the besiegers’ camp in these
stopped for a while at Kalocsa to observe the days, it is interesting to read a letter written by
enemy’s attempts and his own troops’ military cavalry officer Grimani on 21 August: “As for
fortune, and then crossed the Danube so that the siege, all I can say is that everything will be
the hitherto divided armies could assist each even more uncertain that it has been, and that
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 302 303 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

thinking to gaine them, and see to fall on Our not stiming from the Foot of their Hills Wee
Right Wing in Flank and Reere, in order to continued in our afore said Order, Galling
the Putting succour into the Towne, but the them as much as possibly wee could with our
Duke of Lorraine Perceiving their Designe Feild pieces, at which time a Party of Turkes
order’d Seaven Regiments of Horse and some Attaqued very briskly the Left of our Right
Hungarians under the command of Generall Wing where a Partie of Hungarians were Posted
Dunewalt, Taffe and Palfie to march up the who soone gave way, and had not Gen : Taffe
Hills and Possesse the Topp of them Faceing with Two or Three Squadrons of Draggoons
the Enemy; wee were noe sooner up, but come up to sustaine them (the enemy haveing
imediately the Turkes appear’d on our Left already forced our Line) tis beleiv’d they would
who still made towards Us, there being a deepe have Endanger’d the Putting succour in to the
Valley between; Presently appear’d others on Towne, shortly after a Party was seen to Detach
Our Right where the Valley ended; Their Body from their Left towards the Right Flanke of
not being come up they Kept skirmishing for our Right Wing, which Generall Taffe by a
the space of one hour with some Hungarians, great presence of mind perceiving, immediately
when of a suddaine the Hills were Cover’d commanded abaut Fowre Squadrons of Light
with the Enemy, who immediately gave us horse to putt themselves at the Foot of those
a Discharge of Eight pieces of Canon and Hills, which the Turkes seem’d to presse for,
with terrible cryes fell most furiously on the and by that meanes to have gott into the Towne.
Hungarians, who immediately gave way, where This Order of Count Taffs was performed with
upon Count Taffe etc. advanced, Mr Fitz- soe much Expedition that not above 20 or 30
James, and the English Voluntiers being in Turkes gain’d the Hill, which were cutt to Peices.
the First Ranke. This Charge was performed Our Generall now seemed under some
with that Gallantry that the Enemy could not uncertainly weather to Attaque the Enemy
endure it, but immediately fled as fast as they on the Hills, and push for an intire Victory,
Came on; Wee Pursued them abaut a League, or returne to our Lines and Prosecute the
the way being soe very bad for the Foot, that Seige, But the Turkes seeming to Retire, and
Gyula Benczúr (1844–1920): the battle [the clash with the Grand Vizier] will town,” the Turks made no more than a show most of the Janizaries were cutt off the rest considering how difficult the Ascent was,
Recapture of Buda decide everything unless the enemy dispatches of strength, a march accompanied by minor of the fled into the Plaines through Buda and and how uneasy to horse (already soe much
a detachment and brings succour to the city.” skirmishes. Larger engagements occurred only Deep Hollowes which lead into the Valley, harass’d) how week his Wing was and how
On this and the following day it did indeed on 14 August, recorded by two eye witnesses, were they had a great Reserve, which made us Liable to be forced by an Enemy that charged
seem that the Grand Vizier was about to a Brandenburgian surgeon, Johann Dietz, and halt till the rest of the Party were come up, with so much Fury, who had a Towne in their
attack the besiegers. Jacob Richards. who had made a great circuit in pursuing those View, and would be Content to sacrifice their
On 12 August, they advanced along the Johann Dietz wrote, “Around 1 o’clock on who Bed into the Plaines that lay between our whole Army to its Preservation; It was there
Danube between Tétény and Promontor, at the third day, the Turkish right wing started Campe, From hence Wee observed the rest fore thought most adviseable to Returne into
which Lorraine, in line with the agreement, an attack, and the battle commenced with a of the Turkes Army Scatter’d like Flocks of our Lines and Presse on the Seige.”
withdrew from the circumvallation to go to terrible clamour. It developed into a bitter Sheepe. In subsequent Hungarian military historio-
the aid of the Bavarians and to frustrate any combat on both sides. Nothing could be seen As soone as the Seaven Regiments had graphy, the 14 August battle was usually
attempt by the Grand Vizier to wheel with his or heard but thunder, flashes, trumpeting, beaten the Turkes on the Gills, his Highnesse described as a Turkish attack with a select
left wing and capture Sváb Hill. But upon their drumming and wailing. The cannon gave advanc’d his Right Wing from the Heights detachment of 8-9000, which pressed back
departure, news was received that the Grand powerful volleys of canister whenever the towards the Plaine, the Brandenburgers and Petneházy’s hussars, and then drove off
Vizier’s men were laying fires on the hillside enemy attacked, flinging them hither and Auxiliaries quitting their Lines and Marching Lodron’s Croatians. Subsequently, General
which the imperial troops intended to take. An thither. After five quarter-hours of struggle, in good order towards the Enemy before the Mercy, at Lt.-Gen. Dünnewald’s command,
English military engineer officer attached to the enemy withdrew. The dead, dying and Bavarians (who were the Left Wing) had gott attacked the Turks together with the three
the army, Jacob Richards, wrote that at that wounded lay all over.” halfe over the Plaine. regiments which had come to their aid – two
point “we were ordered back to our tents.” Jacob Richards’ report is much more The Turkes Right Wing Retires to the Topp German regiments and Bercsényi’s hussars.
Next morning, the Grand Vizier’s army detailed and professional: “About 5 in the of their Hills, which were very difficult of They pressed back the front line in the face
marched to the plateau between Törökbálint Morning wee perceiv’d the Enemy Marching Accesse, and there left a Party, and sends the of fire by the Janissaries. Then Petneházy
and Promontor with the purpose of attacking down againe into the Plaine, with 3. or 4. rest to the Left wing, which now is very hard also went on to the attack and Dünnewald,
the besiegers, but upon seeing that their camp great Detachments on their Left Wing, which pressed by Generall Taffe et Dunewalt. Which following the regiments sent by Lorraine,
“was reinforced by a siege wall of sheaves of separated and March’d along the Valley to with the Duke of Lorraines motion on the same charged at the Turks with his entire strength.
brushwood, as well screened off as a fortified gett behind the Hills which were on our Right side gave the Turkes some Apprehencons the Charles wrote in his Diary: our men “left no
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 304 305 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

time for the enemy to reload their cannon, Lorraine concentrated his energies on the said Two Towers which much incommoded die sword in hand, and many things may be
and attacked them.” The fleeing Spahis “left siege. On 16 August, he put on public display us.” The Bavarians followed this on the 22nd ascribed to a dead man. If he did remain
their cannon, of which we carried off eight, the Turkish military banners which had been with a successful action in which, at a cost of alive, he would have his head knocked off for
and abandoned their infantry, who were shot captured in the clash of two days before, to insignificant casualties, they took a position in “dissuading” him from providing aid. “That at
to pieces, lying in the little bushes like snipe, dent the resistance of Buda’s defenders. Next the castle. Lorraine wrote, “For the period of least was how they talked in the Porte before
although 7 or 8 of them drew their sabres day, the besiegers attempted to capture an this attack, we raised a false alarm on our own the report of the fall of Buda reached them,”
against us.” outwork closer to the Turks, but this ended side, which in all probability was a great success, reported the French ambassador.
Although the Grand Vizier’s relief army did in failure. Although the inactive Grand Vizier because the enemy ran hither and thither [in On 30 August, a council of war was held in
not suffer a decisive defeat (in fact got away made no great interference in the siege, the the castle] and our bombs, stones and cannon the besiegers’ camp about subsequent action.
with relatively minor casualties), the tactical rainy, inclement weather was a considerable bombarded them without respite.” Richards wrote, “it was debated, whether wee
failure of 14 August finally dampened the dampener. The ongoing failures of the sappers The defenders still resisted stoutly, but should advance towards the Enemy, Leaving
Ottomans’ inclination to take on the besiegers were another setback. Siege operations were Abdurrahman Pasha knew that his forces a sufficient number to Defend our Trenches,
of Buda in open battle. The deserters resumed on 19 August, but made very little could not hold out for much longer. He or Attend them in our Lines and continue the
reported that the soldiers of the relief army progress. Then Charles of Lorraine received therefore sent one courier after another asking Seige; The latter was at length Resolv’d…”The
were pervaded by “the greatest confusion and intelligence that the entire Turkish relief for aid from the Grand Vizier, who promised council of war also decided on the tactics for
depression.” Grimani saw the main reason army was “standing in battle order” and was 40 florins to everyone who got into the castle. the assault. The forces around the Vienna
for this being that the Turkish soldiers in the holding back from attacking the besiegers only According to intelligence obtained from the Gate were to carry on a decoy assault; there
relief army “although young and of fine build, because captured imperial soldiers had told Turkish side, some four thousand volunteered were to be three main assaults: on the right at
are neither combat-hardened nor brave.” This the Grand Vizier that the “Germans” already for the task. The Grand Vizier attempted a gap in the curtain wall facing the Vérmező
view is supported by the French ambassador, knew of their plans. to get them into Buda on 29 August, but at district; in the centre at the corner rondella;
Silver coin minted to commemorate the and there were other reports on this by the The Turkish attack did not come, and it was most 4-5 of the volunteers actually reached and on the left on the filled-in trench not far
recapture of Buda, with portrait one Dutch and four Polish men who came to with great surprise that the besiegers awoke their aim. The rest were mown down by the from the corner rondella. A total of 6000
of Leopold I and view of the castle Charles of Lorraine from the Turkish camp. at dawn on 20 August to find the Turks, now besiegers, who then – according to the camp men were assigned form the main army for
under siege. By G. F. Nürnberger According to reports by other deserters, the thought to be utterly paralysed, bearing down surgeon Dietz – “flayed them, melted out the the operation. 3000 Bavarian soldiers from
commanding officer of the 8000-strong on them. grease, cut off the membra virilis (penis) and the imperial army would separately assault the
Turkish detachment which fought in the battle Everybody in the camp felt safe, the put them, desiccated, into great sacks. From castle palace. To dampen the vigilance of the
reported to the Grand Vizier that although generals were sleeping in their tents, and some this they made the most perfect mummies [i.e. defenders, the rumour was spread through the
he had attacked the Germans like a lion, he of the officers had casually left their posts medicine]. They cut up most of the corpses, camp that on 2 September they would move
had “met with devilish resistance, and his along St. Paul’s Valley. Suddenly the air was looking through their internal organs in case beyond the circumvallation lines and attack
horsemen against his command turned back rent by cries of alarm from Lipótmező. The they found gold.” In the great heat, the cut- the Grand Vizier’s army at Érd. As Duke
and abandoned the infantry, which he could weapons of the advance guard crackled, and by up human and animal remains gave off such a Charles of Lorraine wrote in his war diary,
not account for.” At which the Grand Vizier the time the Brandenburgers rose from their stench as to be almost unbearable. Hungarian the commander-in-chief insisted that those
spat into the beard of the bearer of the news, slumber, some 1000-1200 Turkish horsemen peasants and foot-soldiers were detailed to wounded in battle should be taken within the
and had him strangled. were galloping by their tents, followed by bury the corpses in enormous graves. shortest possible time to a place where the
The reprisals made little impact. On 16 another two thousand cavalry flying through The besieging army, depleted by death, sight of them would not have a detrimental
August, the Turks who appeared before the the gap left in the circumvallation. The injury and disease, were uplifted in spirit by effect on the morale of the attackers. In his
Bavarian positions withdrew without a fight, Brandenburgers succeeded in halting this the arrival of Scherffenberg’s Transylvanian orders of 1 September, he specified that one
and the Grand Vizier was again forced to second wave, but those ahead, not heeding army in the last days of August. “The Turk subaltern and 20 armoured soldiers in the
conclude that if he attacked the besieging the musket fire bearing upon them, continued may do as he please, we have no more cause front ranks should be detailed to bring out the
army with this army, he could be sure of on their way. Having now been roused, the to fear him,” wrote cavalry officer Grimani on wounded.
resounding defeat. Indeed he was able besiegers engaged them vigorously, but some 29 August. The Grand Vizier took a similar The day that was to be decisive to the
to remain so close to Buda only because 300 mounted Janissaries penetrated the castle view, and was now sure that Buda would soon future destiny of Buda, began with a feat of
Emperor Leopold commanded Lorraine not by the Fehérvár Gate, and were received by and irredeemably fall. His prime concern combat by the indomitable Abdi Pasha. The
to enter the attack against the Grand Vizier’s Abdurrahman Pasha with volley of salute. now was how he could save himself from the last Beylerbey of Buda early in the morning
army. Since the Grand Vizier had no hope of Unperturbed by this partial Turkish success, silken cord. He tried to use Abdurrahman as detonated the shaft dug under the bridging of
success in battle, all he could do was attempt, Lorraine further stiffened his siege efforts. On his shield. He reported to the Porte that he the Esztergom Rondella. This did little damage
by roundabout means, to deliver relief troops 21 August his cannon fired on the castle with had been called on by the commander of to the besiegers, in fact the explosion made
to Buda sufficient to maintain the defence until redoubled strength: “This day likewise our Buda not to risk the Ottoman army because access to the Turkish ramparts even easier.
the onset of winter, when military operations Battery of Eight 24 Pounders began to Play on he was well supplied with everything and Morning passed in relative quiet. Lorraine
usually drew to a close. the Round Tower looking into St. Paul’s Valley, could withstand the besiegers for a long time planned the time of the general assault to
Perceiving that he need not fear an attack against which the Turkes rais’d an other of 7 yet. The Grand Vizier reasoned that when the point at which it could be ascertained
by the Turkish relief army, Charles of heavey Canon upon the Courtine betwixt the Buda fell, Abdurrahman would undoubtedly whether the Grand Vizier would attempt
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 306 307 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

any action against the defenders that day. To launched their assault from the new, forward advancing along Jews’ Street, gathered together the many horrors he must have seen in his life.
mislead the enemy, Charles of Lorraine in covered positions had the shortest and most by the gallant commander Abdi Pasha, to “The dead lay piled in places to a height of
fact sent some cavalry detachments through convenient route, and so they were the first make one last stand against the victors. Croy two yards, and maternal love could not save
the circumvallation towards Budaörs. In the on the palisades. They were there almost advanced against this mass, and at once set off the children, all were the sons of death. With
meantime, the soldiers assigned to the assault, before the defenders themselves… At the squadrons into School Square from left and my own eyes I saw women lying dead, grasping
who had taken their starting places in the very beginning, Lt.-Col. d’Asti was seriously right and even from the streets at the back so a pistol or drawn sword in their hand.” And he
trenches before dawn, waited in silence until, wounded by gunfire and fell to the ground. His as to completely enclose the Pasha. The Turks closes his melancholy report with the words
men on the inner side of the palisade, where noticed this movement and took flight. Only of woe, “Wild beasts are more merciful to
they encountered some hostile resistance, a little group remained on School Square, in a each other than men!”
held themselves for a while until the soldiers scene worthy of the brush of the world’s finest Eye witnesses were divided in their
coming up from two sides advanced there. painter. The most loyal and constant Turkish judgement of the victors’ conduct, but
Those who pushed up at the new breach officers, comrades in so much glory and so took a unanimous view of the Grand Vizier
came behind the palisades into the enemy’s much suffering, knelt there around the grey- Suleyman, who had left the defenders of Buda
rear, who were therefore unable to remain bearded man… and beseeched him, pleading to their fate. The sharpest condemnation of
on the parapet constructed in the breach. before the living statue: ‘come with us, flee, the Grand Vizier’s conduct was by Freschot,
The first attackers, who had advanced from save your precious life among the ruins, for court priest and scribe to the Duke of Lorraine:
the new covered positions, not only occupied the key to Constantinople and Jerusalem, “The cowardly and thousandfold contemptible
the palisades, they went beyond them. Others humbled Buda, is forever lost!’ Vizier, before whose eyes the glorious
advanced along the wall, so that the enemy But the old man waved dismissively, and said, capture of Buda Castle took place, instead of
(who… retreated behind their makeshift ‘If I could not keep for my lord the castle put endeavouring to prevent the consequences by
rampart) could not hold out there. At that under my charge, it is meet that I should die!’ attacking the army or the lines, looked on in
time, everyone who had passed through And pulling himself out of the little ring a stupid and mindless state as the Christian
the breach jumped down from all sides and of supplicators, sweeping above his head the army charged and took possession of the
pursued the enemy through the abandoned broad-curved sword so used to victory, he fortress, and made no move. Indeed, upon
streets all the way to the palace. Our soldiers squared himself and rushed at the approaching being informed of its total capture, that same
Standard of the county around 3 pm, the cannons gave the signal to encountered little resistance on these streets enemy. And as this fallen god of the lost battle evening he most ignominiously took flight, a
noble levée of Nyitra, charge. – except from the right on Jews’ Street [now crumpled under the death-dealing blows of shameful deed for the commander of a great
1660 (reconstruction). By tradition, the Jacob Richards’ wrote his account of the Táncsis Mihály utca] and the Vienna Gate the triumph-drunk Christian weapons, the army.” Richards also considered that, “Tis
original of this standard was present at assault in his war diary: “It began abaut three (where the Vizier of Buda was placed with setting sun wove out of its last rays a martyr’s Remarkable, that this glorious Successe of the
the liberation of Buda Castle in 1686 Christian Armes was attended with a singular
in the Afternoone under the Direction of the many other dignitaries) – all the way to the wreath around the head of this noble figure,
Duke of Croy and Theneck the Brandenbugh palace.” Izsák Shulhof of Buda considered the fallen Abdurrahman, and then, stunned by circumstance of Divine Providence, Namely,
Generall, the Soldger goeing on with great that the quick success was down to the small the sight of this magnificent scene, dropped That while Our Army Marched with doubtfull
Courage and in good Order soon Reach’d the number of soldiers who were guarding the behind St John’s Hill.” Successe to the Assault of the most Important
Palisadoes and tooke a Post on the Flanke of walls, “because most of the soldiers who The soldier contemporaries who had seen Frontiere Post of the Ottoman Empire the
the Enemy which Rak’d the Inside of them and would have been capable of standing their much blood, horror and heroic death were Grand Vizier should with a Greater Body of
chased the Turkes from thence, where finding ground, being tired and dejected, had gone to naturally somewhat more laconic in their Men Stand a Tame Spectator of the Issue of
noe Retrenchments as was expected, Pursued rest and lain down in the cellars to get some memories of the gallant death of the last this Accion and then Retire, which they did
their advantage makeing great Slaughter as peace, having been obliged to stand guard for pasha of Buda. Jacob Richards wrote only, with great Precipitation.”
they went. Such as Excaped fled to the Castle, so many nights.” When the besiegers burst “The Vizier or Principall Governor died Charles of Lorraine, after appointing
where they put out a White Flagg. This is the into the town, many of the resting Turks gallantly upon the breach.” He went to say that General Beck as commander of Buda, set
Account on our successe on this side. But the did not immediately come out of the cellars the Aga of the Janissaries also fought bravely off in pursuit of the Grand Vizier on 6
Bavarians who some what later began their because they thought the clamour they heard on the Lorraine side of the attack. A total of September. That same year, he took Pécs,
Attaque, mett with different Fortune, for they was just the confused din of another feigned 4-5000 prisoners were taken, and “killed about Siklós, Kaposvár and Szeged, successes which
were Repuls’d with Losse; Nor was it indeed attack. Most came out only when all was lost. 3000”. As regards this deed, he added, “The followed almost as a matter of course from
possible to have Enter’d that way, however The final desperate undertaking by slaughter was less than expected, for though the strategic advantage gained by the capture
the Duke of Lorraine would not permitt the Abdurrahman Pasha, and the heroic death both women and children were killed in the of Buda.
Duke of Croy to Treat with those who fled of the old soldier was described with poetic heat, yet there was more quarter than usual
into the castle, leaving them to his Electoral elegance – based on contemporary sources – from the severity of the Germans, especially
Highnesses [Maximilian Emanuel] Disposall by Árpád Károlyi: “Hardly had the Duke of in places taken by storm.” *Excerpt from Lotharingiai Károly hadinaplója Buda
(it being his Attaque) who gave them Quarter.” Croy taken his place at the head of the troops The Brandenburg surgeon Johann Dietz was visszafoglalásáról – 1686 (Charles of Lorraine’s war diary
The Duke of Lorraine wrote a similarly in the little square before the Vienna Gate somewhat more shaken than Richards by the on the recapture of Buda – 1686,
terse account of the event: “Those who when he saw a great mass of Turkish soldiers sight of the captured Buda, notwithstanding Zrínyi Kiadó, Budapest, 1986)
for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 308 309 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

the French, the Ottomans were ex-

hausted from the wars in Hungary,
and with Russia’s entry into the war in
1686, they were fighting the Christian
coalition on four fronts.
The last great battle of the “Sec-
ond Fifteen Years’ War” (the Long
War being the first) took place on the
lower course of the Tisza, at Zenta.
On 11 September 1697, the new
commander-in-chief, Prince Eugene
of Savoy, attacked the army stationed
on the right bank as the Ottoman
forces were making their river cross-
ing. The imperial forces surrounded
the troops stuck on the bridgehead,
and the artillery destroyed the pon-
toon bridge, cutting off their retreat.
In a battle which lasted about two
◄
hours, the enemy was utterly routed.
Eugene de Savie
The Battle of Zenta was one of the most significant of the wars of liberation. The allied Christian armies, under the leadership of Eugene Twenty thousand Ottoman soldiers,
(Painting)
of Savoy, defeated the Ottoman armies. This etching by Amsterdam artist Jan Huchtenburg (1647–1733) appeared in the monumental three- including the Grand Vizier, Elmas
volume work Histoire militaire du prince Eugène de Savoye (the Hague, 1729), on page 11 of volume I. In the foreground to the left, Eugene Mohamed, were killed. Prince Imre Thököly,
of Savoy is depicted on horseback.
Charles of Lorraine and his successors Elec- fighting on the Ottoman side, feigned death on
tor Maximilian Emmanuel of Bavaria and Mar- the battlefield and swam across the river when
grave Louis of Baden took effective advantage evening fell. His flight symbolised the end of the
of their enemy’s paralysis. After taking Transyl- Turkish presence in Hungary.
vania, they captured Belgrade in 1688 and took After its defeat at Zenta, the Ottoman Em-
possession of most of Serbia the next year. In pire started peace talks with representatives of
the meantime, the fortresses in Hungary remain- the countries of the Holy League, through the
ing under Ottoman control – Eger, Székesfe- mediation of England and the Netherlands, and
hérvár, Szigetvár and Kanizsa – surrendered one on 26 January 1699, signed the Peace Treaty of
after the other. Karlóca which brought the war to an end. Te-
Their run of success came to an end in 1690, mesköz and Belgrade, freed from Turkish rule,
when Louis XIV of France, jealous of his com- were attached to the Kingdom of Hungary. Ve-
petitor Leopold I’s swelling power, launched an nice recovered the Peloponnese, Poland Podolia,
attack along the Rhine. The Habsburgs were and Russia the port of Azov.
forced to fight a war on two fronts, and directed At Karlóca, it was modern Europe which
40,000 troops, including two Hungarian hussar made peace with the Ottomans. The borders of
regiments, to defend the Rhine lands. the two empires were drawn on the map and
Exploiting this weakening of the Christian marked out on the land, and the treaty specified
forces, the new Grand Vizier, Koprulu Fazil the number of border fortresses and set strict
Mustafa, recaptured the Serbian lands in summer sanctions for violation of the peace and border
1690, and then Belgrade castle. He also sent a incursions. Thus the raids which had gone on for
smaller army to Transylvania under Imre Thökö- centuries came to an end, and true peace reigned
ly, but that was quickly repelled. The Turkish on the borders.
Memorial medal of the Battles of
advance was ultimately halted just north of Bel-
Nissa, Szalánkemén and Zenta.
grade in 1691, in the very bloody Battle of Slanka- On the reverse are the trophies
men. For a few years, neither side launched a of the defeated Ottoman army.
Engraving by Rieder Lőrintz of the 1697 Battle of Zenta major campaign. The Habsburgs were fighting By P. H. Müller
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 310 311 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

HUNGARY Political division

I.Kingdom of Hungary c. King’s Land or
Saxons’ Land

AT THE TIME OF THE PEACE OF

KARLOWITZ. 1699
DESIGNED BY II. Partium

INDÁR ALBISI BARTHOS AND DR. GYÖRGY KURUCZ

LEGEND: III. Transylvanian Principality

a. Hungarians’ land Trans-Drava area
Free royal fortified town a. New Slavonia

Town Market-town
Fortress Settlement

Kingdom of Hungary b. Old Slavonia

Transylvanian Principality
Partium
b. Székely Land IV. Ottoman area
German Empire
Poland
Ottoman Empire
Republic of Venice
Hungary’s border in 1914
The border of the Kingdom of Hungary in 1699
The border of Partium
The border of the Transylvanian Principality
The border of the Ottoman Empire
County border
The route of driving off the Ottomans 1683–1699)
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 312 313 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

“The people of the land are ready. All they need is a leader.”
– Hungary after the expulsion of the Turks*

W i th the hundred and fifty year Turkish

occupation at an end, the country
recovered its unity, but at a very high price. The
the country as free hunting grounds. The entire
population of some areas had fled from them
into the forests and marshes: the wealthy city of
Ottoman yoke gave way to Habsburg oppression. Debrecen had been reduced almost to beggary, Execution of Ferenc Nádasdy,
King-Emperor Leopold I and his govern- so completely had it been looted. To suppress 30 April 1671. After contemporary
etching by Cornelis Meyssens.
ment thought that the time had come to dis- the national dissatisfaction and get even more
In front of the altar stands Father
solve Hungary’s separation and turn it into one money, General Caraffa, with approval from the Rafael, opposite him the blindfolded
of the hereditary provinces. The Diet had been highest quarters, hauled many nobles and citizens Nádasdy, and behind him the
forced into considerable political concessions before military courts at Eperjes. On trumped- executioner Mihály Langmann,
in the year following the recapture of Buda: the up charges, these people were sentenced to for- making his preparations.
1687 Diet renounced its right to elect the king feiture of property, or to death. Other witnesses are Ferenc Győrfy
(Nádasdy’s page), the city judge and
and repealed the resistance clause of the Golden The Vienna court treated Hungary as con-
the jury.
Bull. Habsburg rule was made hereditary, and the quered territory. Imperial generals and military
nobility lost its right to act against a king who suppliers were granted county-sized tracts of
violated the law. land, but the Hungarian nobles only recovered area was mortgaged to the Teutonic Knights, Germans in abandoned parts of the Great Plain
The decades-long war had been very expen- their estates if they proved their titles by charter making serfs out of its free peasants. At the same and Transdanubia. While the Greek Orthodox
sive, and most of the price was recovered from and paid the indemnity imposed by the Neoaquis- time, the Serbs, who had under the leadership of Serbs were granted full religious freedom, the
the Hungarian peasantry. At the same time, tica Commissio. This was all part of Leopold I’s Arzen Cernovic, Patriarch of Ipek, moved out of Protestant Hungarian villages were prohibited
the country which had been the theatre of war attempt to strengthen his absolute rule, in line Turkish-controlled Serbia to Hungary and settled from practising their religion, and enforced con-
had been almost completely destroyed. The 60- with the view that it was only possible to tame the in the south of the country and along the Danube, version began. Monks of diverse orders flooded
80,000 strong imperial army and its horses had to “hot-blooded Hungarians, apt to revolution and were given broad powers of self-government. into the country, and a folk song of the time talks
be fed, and the generals and soldiers looked on discontent” by oppression. The Jász-Kunság (This set off the development of Szentend- of “priest rule”.
re, the town north of Buda which became the Bled white and burned out, the people put up
centre of Serbian culture in Hungary in the 18th with this in a state of apathy. Here and there, the
century.) The court also began to settle Catholic peasants rose up against the foreign mercenary

Execution of Péter Zrínyi, 30 April

1671. The trial and the judgements
attracted enormous interest.
This is clear from the many
publications the same year in various
forms. It was printed in Vienna,
Prince Imre Thököly’s flag.
Prague, Nuremberg and Ingolstadt,
(reconstruction)
and translated into Italian, French
and Dutch.
 for the homeland unto death – 1100 years 314 315 THE MILITARY HISTORY OF HUNGARY: 1526–1697

Tokaj (Tokay) Castle in the 17th

(Comes) of Ung, and
century. Etching by Justus van den
Nypoort (c. 1625 – c.1692) from a the realisation that eve-
book on geometry by A. E. Burckhard ryone looked to him,
Birckenstein. the largest landowner in
the country and son of
Birckenstein was in Hungary during
the greatest family, for
his service as a high-ranking military
engineer, and published his geometry protection, brought him
textbook in Vienna in 1686, dedicating back to the path of his
it to the heir to the throne, Joseph I. The forebears. Together with
very popular book contained illustrations other aristocrats, he con-
representing 110 Hungarian towns and ceived a plot against the
castles, some of which are considered
Habsburgs and turned
genuine. The artist, the Dutchman
Justus van der Nypoort, according to his
for support to Louis XIV
signature, had travelled in Hungary. of France. His letter fell
hordes, but were easily and bloodily put down. into the hands of the court, and in spring 1701
In 1697, embittered peasants and soldiers from he was arrested in his castle at Sáros. He was
unfed defensive garrisons made a successful sur- taken to Wiener Neustadt and locked up in the
prise assault on Tokaj Castle and Sárospatak, but prison where his maternal grandfather had been
with no support, they soon fell to the army. The executed. He would have shared the same fate
embittered people had only one person to look had he not managed to escape and flee to Poland,
to: the young Ferenc Rákóczi II. where he attempted to win over the support of
Born into the dynasty of Transylvanian princ- France and the other anti-Habsburg powers to
es, son of Wesselényi plotter Ferenc Rákóczi I, start a war against Vienna. He received rejections
who died in 1676, and of Ilona, daughter of the from every quarter, and as a lone refugee without
executed Ban of Croatia Péter Zrínyi, Ferenc was means, no government would trust him.
only 12 years old when he was separated from It was in the castle of Brezan on the remote
his mother after the surrender of Munkács Cas- estate of a Polish friend that he was found by
tle in 1688. The Vienna court sent him to Bo- peasant emissaries led by Tamás Esze in early
hemia to be raised by Jesuits and made into an 1703. Their message was, “The people of the
aristocrat loyal to the court; he continued his land are ready. All they need is a leader.” The
studies at Prague University and in Italy, after young prince who had not found common cause
which he lived the dissolute life of a young Vien- with the peasants in 1697 and who had never
nese aristocrat. In 1694, he got married (a daugh- entertained the idea of marching against Vienna
ter of the German princely family of Hessen- with a band of peasants, accepted Tamás Esze’s
Rheinfels, connecting him with the French royal call. After checking the truth of the emissaries’
family) and moved to his estates in Hungary. He words, he sent flags in May 1703 to the country
wore German clothes, associated with imperial with the inscription, Cum Deo pro Patria et Liber-
officers, and displayed utter loyalty to the court. tate, and a manifesto calling on “every true Hungar-
When the rebellious peasants tried to win him ian with or without rank.” In June 1703, he himself
over to their cause in 1697, he fled to Vienna to set out to lead his armies and begin the War of
escape them. Independence.
Learning of the plight of the country, *Excerpt from Péter Hanák (ed.) Egy ezredév
his friendship with Miklós Bercsényi, főispán (One Millenium, Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 1986)

►► Count CHARLES MAURICE TALLEYRAND-PÉRIGORD (1754–1838)

Statue to Imre Thököly (1657–1705 French statesman and diplomat said to Napoleon:
in Heroes’ Square, Budapest,
part of the Millennium Memorial. By Your Majesty! It is an old custom of the Hungarians to look up to their great men and be proud
György Zala. of their past. Take from this people their past, and you may do with them as you wish.
(Photo: Veronika Dévényi)
 HE RÁKÓCZI WAR
OF INDEPENDENCE

Kuruc troops resting

and revelling

Portrait of Ferenc
Rákóczi II.