PYC4805/102/0/2021
Tutorial letter 102/0/2021
Developmental Psychology
PYC4805
Year module
Department of Psychology
IMPORTANT INFORMATION:
This tutorial letter contains important Information
about your module.
CONTENTS
Page
1 INTRODUCTION AND WELCOME .............................................................................................. 3
2 THE EXAMINATION PAPER........................................................................................................ 4
3 TOPICS TO STUDY BASED ON THE INFORMATION IN YOUR PRESCRIBED BOOK............. 5
• CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................. 5
• ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING ...................................................................................... 13
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1 INTRODUCTION AND WELCOME
Dear Student,
The syllabus for the Honours module in Developmental Pschology is covered by the topics in
this tutorial letter based on the information in Belsky (2018) Experiencing Childhood and
Adolescence and Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2019) Adulthood and Aging,8th ed. –
depending on which section you chose to study. You, therefore, do not need to consult any
sources other than your prescribed books when you prepare these topics. In preparation for
the examination you can use these topics to guide you.
As the topics in this tutorial letter cover the syllabus for the module in Developmental
Psychology, we cannot cut down on the number of topics you have to prepare for the
examination. Therefore, we suggest that you immediately start working through these topics so
that when you do your exam preparation you know exactly what you need to prepare for exam
purposes. We will gladly assist you with any academic problems you might experience but
please note that we will not be able to review the topics you prepare for examination purposes.
We believe that the guidelines we provide are sufficient to guide you through the topics and to
indicate what is regarded as relevant information. Please use the name and subject index at
the back of the prescribed books to assist you in finding the relevant information you need to
study the topics.
You are welcome to contact us if you experience any academic problems regarding the
assignments in Tutorial Letter 101/2021 and the topics in this tutorial letter (102/2021). See
Tutorial Letter 101/2021 for our telephone numbers and e-mail addresses.
We wish you a pleasant and successful year of study.
Your Developmental Psychology Lecturers:
Ms Errolyn Gordon (
[email protected])
Mr Mbongiseni Mdakane (
[email protected])
Mrs Vhuhwavho Nekhavhambe (
[email protected])
Ms Nonhlanhla Khumalo (
[email protected])
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2 THE EXAMINATION PAPER
As you already know, you are examined according to your choice on one of the
following sections:
Child and Adolescent Development
OR
Adult Development and Aging
2.1 Format of the examination paper
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING
DEVELOPMENT
Section A: Four questions for 20 marks, each Section A: Four questions for 20 marks, each
selected from the topics in Tutorial Letter selected from the topics in Tutorial Letter
102/2021 on child and adolescent development; 102/2021 on adult development and aging; you
you have to answer three questions in this have to answer three questions in this section.
section.
Section B: Two questions for 15 marks, each Section B: Two questions for 15 marks, each
selected from the topics in Tutorial Letter selected from the topics in Tutorial Letter
102/2021 on child and adolescent development; 102/2021 on adult development and aging; you
you have to answer one question in this section. have to answer one question in this section.
Kindly note that topics as set out in this tutorial letter may be combined in the exam
questions. Therefore, ensure that you have good insight and understanding of the topics and
how different aspects of human development relate to one another.
2.2 Length of answers and time allocation
We cannot specify the length of your examination answers, but we suggest that you spend
approximately 45-50 minutes per 20-mark question and 30-35 minutes per 15-mark
question.
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3 TOPICS TO STUDY BASED ON THE INFORMATION IN YOUR
PRESCRIBED BOOK
• CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
Basic guidelines
Topics are based on the information in your prescribed book:
Belsky, J. (2018). Experiencing Childhood and Adolescence. New York: Worth
Publishers.
Start as soon as possible after you have received this tutorial letter to attend to the
study topics. Do not wait to start working on your preparation.
Read all relevant information on the topic in your prescribed book. Use our
guidelines provided for each topic and the subject and author indexes in the prescribed
book.
Select only relevant information. Make sure that you do not deviate from the topic by
means of general (popular) knowledge. Base your discussion of the topic on the
information in your prescribed book.
Use an effective study technique (e.g. summaries, diagrams or mind maps) to
memorise the information relevant to each topic. Use a study technique that you are
comfortable with and make sure that you have selected all the relevant information.
Discussions in essay format are, in most cases, not a very effective study technique.
Take time to reflect on your discussion of the topics and change them as your
knowledge and insight increase.
Highlight central aspects or important information.
General guidelines for addressing the topics:
• We provide some guidelines for each topic to point you in the right direction. It is, however,
important that you read each chapter before you discuss a specific topic. You might miss
important background information if you only read the pages in the prescribed book that
we refer to in the guidelines. You will also find the topics easier to address if you have a
broader overview and understanding of the issues involved.
• The topics are often based on your understanding of various issues in the prescribed
book, and it is important that you integrate all the relevant aspects of your discussions.
• Analyse the topic before you discuss it. Students often loose valuable marks in the
exams because they only discuss part of a topic – and this is often due to carelessness
rather than a lack of knowledge.
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• Make use of headings when you discuss the topics – also when you answer the
questions in the exams. Headings structure or organise your thoughts, and it helps you to
give only information that is relevant to discuss the topic.
• Define or briefly explain concepts that are included in a specific topic.
Topics to be studied:
CHAPTER ONE
Theme 1
➢ Critical comparison of Erikson and Piaget’s views on child development
Guidelines
For this topic, you need to pay attention to three aspects:
(i) The basic assumptions of the two theories must be compared. Study both theories
carefully, noting similarities and differences.
(ii) The factors that influence or provoke further development according to the two theories
must be compared.
(iii) Considering both theories, you must form a holistic idea in your own mind of how
cognitive development takes place and come to a conclusion about the controversy
between Erikson and Piaget’s views about child development.
Hint: The comparison between the theories could be done in table format. Since you are
required to give a detailed comparison of the theories, you should be careful not to give too
much attention to certain aspects at the expense of others.
Theme 2
➢ Research designs used in developmental studies
Guidelines
The research designs that have to be discussed are cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
Hint: In your discussion, you should indicate the acceptable aspects as well as the limitations
of each perspective and then come to a conclusion (i.e. you need to attend to the topic in a
critical discussion).
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CHAPTER TWO
Theme 1
➢ Influences on the emotional quality of pregnancy
Guidelines
Pay attention to the research findings related to this topic and ensure that you cover aspects
related to the three trimesters, the role of work, relationship issues and the pregnancy partner.
Hint: You need to give a critical discussion of the relevant aspects and not just a straight
forward presentation of the facts.
Theme 2
➢ Evaluation of threats during a sensitive period and the possibility of learning
impairments
Guidelines
In your discussion of the topic, you should refer to the sensitive period concept, the effects of
outside and inside threats on early brain growth and how they may cause learning
impairments.
Hint: When you analyse this topic, you will see that you need to pay attention to:
• a brief explanation of what a sensitive period is;
• distinguish between threats from outside and within;
• be careful not to give too much attention to certain aspects at the expense of others
• focus on threats that can result in learning impairments; and
• where applicable, cite research findings.
CHAPTER THREE
Theme 1
➢ Competency of newborns and infants
Guidelines
The information relevant to this topic can be found in Chapter 3 in Belsky (2018). Any aspect in
this chapter which is indicative of the skilled, capable nature of newborns and infants can be
discussed, for example, reflex actions, motor development, perceptual development, sensory
capacities and infant states.
Hint: When you are asked to discuss this topic in the exams, it is important that you should
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• discuss the nature of infants’ capabilities
• relate the characteristics of newborns and infants to their skilled and capable nature
• indicate how these capacities may contribute to the forming of social relationships with
parents, caregivers, siblings and adults.
Theme 2
➢ Evaluation of the sensorimotor stage of Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory
Guidelines
Study Piaget’s description of the sensorimotor stage of development and what critics of Piaget’s
view of the sensorimotor stage of development have to say.
Hint: In your evaluation of the validity of Piaget’s description of this specific developmental stage,
you will be required to refer to the characteristics of the sensorimotor stage.
CHAPTER FOUR
Theme 1
➢ Development of attachment in infancy and toddlerhood
Guidelines
Study the importance and development of attachment in the infant and toddlerhood stages.
Hint: Make sure to gain a clear understanding of Bowlby’s views, attachment milestones and
styles, and the significance of the so-called attachment dance. Take note of research findings
regarding the universality of attachment. Based on relevant research findings, come to a
conclusion regarding the influence infant attachment may have on later relationships and mental
health.
Theme 2
➢ Evaluation of toddlerhood as a stage of autonomy and shame and doubt
Guidelines
In your discussion of this topic, you should refer to Erikson’s second psychosocial task, namely
autonomy versus shame and doubt, and the importance of socialisation in the toddlerhood stage.
Hint: Your discussion should be substantiated by reference to research findings.
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CHAPTER FIVE
Theme 1
➢ Evaluation of early childhood as the age of exploration and preoperational
thinking
Guidelines
In your discussion of this topic, you should refer to Erikson’s third psychosocial task, namely
initiative versus guilt. Furthermore, Piaget’s stage of preoperational thinking and Vygotsky’s views
of learning and language development during early childhood need to be studied.
Hint: Your discussion should be substantiated by reference to research findings.
Theme 2
➢ Emotional and social development in early childhood
Guidelines
For this theme, you must pay attention to:
• The importance of autobiographical memories;
• The importance of and variations in the theory of mind;
• Play as the work of early childhood;
• How and why boys and girls play differently.
Hint: You must take note of the way emotional and social development in early childhood are
linked.
CHAPTER SIX
Theme 1
➢ Evaluation of middle childhood as the age of the first grasp of ‘the adult world’
Guidelines
For this topic, you should study Erikson’s fourth psychosocial task, namely industry versus
inferiority and Piaget’s stage of concrete operational thinking in cognitive development.
Furthermore, the information-processing theory will help you to understand cognitive growth in
middle childhood.
Hint: Your discussion should be substantiated by reference to research findings.
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Theme 2
➢ Evaluation of emotional development in middle childhood
Guidelines
Aspects that you must study include the following:
• Emotional regulation;
• Changes in self-awareness and self-esteem;
• Morality and prosocial behaviour.
Hint: Take note of how emotional development in middle childhood relates to cognitive and social
development.
Theme 3
➢ Social development in middle childhood
Guidelines
Pay attention to the important role played by friendships and popularity in middle childhood as
well as why and how bullying is pertinent in this developmental stage.
CHAPTER SEVEN
Theme 1
➢ The role of parenting styles in adolescents’ social development
Guidelines
In your discussion of the topic, you should address the role of various child-rearing styles and
the way child-rearing takes place during adolescence; how the dance of autonomy unfolds; how
parents’ use of the chosen style will promote autonomy in their children without breaking the
parent-child bond in middle childhood and adolescence. Also, discuss cultural differences.
Hint: You need to give a critical discussion of the relevant aspects and not just a
straightforward presentation of the facts.
Theme 2
➢ Influences on intelligence in middle childhood
Guidelines
The aspects that must be discussed are intelligence tests taken by children, the meaning of such
tests, an evaluation of Sternberg’s successful intelligence and Gardner’s multiple intelligences, the
role of home influences and the role of schools.
Hint: You are required to attend to the topic in a critical discussion and to reach a conclusion
about influences on intelligence in childhood.
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CHAPTER EIGHT
Theme 1
➢ Maturational/pubertal timing of adolescent development
Guidelines
Discuss research findings regarding gender-related differences in maturational timing. Also, pay
attention to possible short- and long-term consequences which early maturation may have for the
psychological adjustment of adolescent boys and girls.
CHAPTER NINE
Theme 1
➢ Cognitive and emotional development in adolescence
Guidelines
Pay attention to Piaget’s, Kohlberg’s and Elkind’s perspectives on adolescence. Address the
issues related to different teenage pathways.
Theme 2
➢ Kohlberg’s theory of moral development
Guidelines
When discussing this topic, you must remember to substantiate your discussion of Kohlberg’s
theory on moral development by referring to relevant research findings.
Pay attention to the levels of moral reasoning and the differences between these levels.
When you study this topic, you should also take note of criticism against Kohlberg’s theory of
moral development in terms of whether his theory represents morality in all cultures or not and
whether his theory underestimates the moral maturity of females or not.
Theme 3
➢ Social development in adolescence: separating from parents and connecting with
peers
Guidelines
Pay attention to the way adolescents separate from their parents. Discuss how peer groups, and
the values and norms of these groups are formed. While discussing cliques and crowds, refer to
their functioning, values/standards and the role of family experiences. Also, pay attention to peer
pressure and conformity when addressing this topic.
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CHAPTER 10
Theme 1
➢ Evaluation of emerging adulthood
Guidelines
Pay attention to the following aspects:
• Erikson’s views on constructing an identity;
• Marcia’s identity statuses;
• Identity statuses in action;
• Ethnic identity;
• Erikson’s first psychosocial adult task, namely intimacy versus isolation;
• Adult attachment styles
TOPICS FOR ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING
FOLLOW ON THE NEXT PAGE
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• ADULT DEVELOPMENT AND AGING
Basic guidelines
Topics are based on the information in your prescribed book:
Cavanaugh, J. C., & Blanchard-Fields, F. (2019). Adult development and aging (8th
ed.). London: Wadsworth.
Start as soon as possible after you have received this tutorial letter to attend to the
study topics. Do not wait to start working on your preparation.
Read all relevant information on the topic in your prescribed book. Use our
guidelines provided for each topic,the subject and author indexes in the prescribed book.
Select only relevant information. Make sure that you do not deviate from the topic by
means of general (popular) knowledge. Base your discussion of the topic on the
information in your prescribed book.
Use an effective study technique (e.g. summaries, diagrams or mind maps) to
memorise the information relevant to each topic. Use a study technique that you are
comfortable with and make sure that you have selected all the relevant information.
Discussions in essay format are, in most cases, not a very effective study technique.
Take time to reflect on your discussion of the topics and change them as your
knowledge and insight increase.
Highlight central aspects or important information.
General guidelines for addressing the topics:
• We provide some guidelines for addressing each topic to point you in the right direction.
It is, however, important that you read each chapter before you discuss a specific topic.
• The topics are often based on your understanding of various issues in the
prescribed book, and it is important that you integrate all the relevant aspects of your
discussions.
• Analyse the topic before you discuss it. Students often lose valuable marks in the exams
because they only discuss part of a topic – and this is often due to carelessness rather
than a lack of knowledge.
• Make use of headings when you discuss a topic – also when you answer the
questions in the exams. Headings structure or organise your thoughts, and it helps you to
give only information that is relevant to discuss the topic.
• Define or briefly explain concepts that are included in a specific topic.
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Topics to be studied:
CHAPTER ONE
Theme 1
Forces that determine the nature of development during adulthood
Guidelines
• Pay attention to how the interaction of biological, psychological, sociocultural and life-cycle
forces shape a person’s development and, therefore, could explain individual differences in
development during adulthood.
• Explain how normative and non-normative influences determine the degree to which the
combination of biological, psychological, sociocultural and lifecycle forces will be common or
unique, according to Baltes.
Hint: Remember to define or explain the meaning of the various concepts in your discussion. Use
relevant examples to illustrate your answer.
Theme 2
➢ Characteristics of adult development
Guidelines
Explain and discuss the core issues in development, namely nature-nurture, stability-change,
continuity-discontinuity, and universal versus context-specific development, by using examples
from the characteristics of adult development. Do not use the examples given in your prescribed
book.
Hint: You need to focus on two aspects per core issue of development:
(a) An explanation and discussion of each core issue (for example, nature-nurture); and
(b) An example to explain or illustrate the concept.
When you are asked to illustrate or explain a concept at the hand of an example, you need to
give an appropriate and comprehensive example - to explain what a concept means and
illustrate the unique interaction between the factors. Your example should integrate theory with
real life.
Theme 3
➢ Research on adult development and aging
Guidelines
Study the effects of age, cohort and time-of-measurement in research on adult development and
aging. Because the cross-sectional design dominates research in gerontology and the importance
of longitudinal studies is increasingly recognised, you must study these research designs. Also,
read about the value of sequential designs.
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CHAPTER TWO
➢ Neural plasticity and the effect of environmental enrichment on adult development
Guidelines
Study neural plasticity and the aging brain. Explain the relevant concepts (for example,
plasticity). Also, concentrate on the effect of environmental enrichment on neural plasticity.
The ‘Social Policy Implications’ block will guide you regarding the implications for health
care policies.
CHAPTER THREE
➢ Biological theories of ageing and how it explains biological and physiological aging
Guidelines
You must discuss the biological theories of ageing and also give the reasons why these theories do
not explain aging fully. Also, consider how aging is determined by the dynamic interaction
between psychological, sociocultural, lifecycle and biological forces.
Hint: Give examples from research that has been done to illustrate each one of the theories. It may
be a good idea to discuss the dynamic interaction between psychological, sociocultural, lifecycle
and biological forces at the hand of examples.
CHAPTER FOUR
➢ Longevity and the influences of genetic and environmental differences
Guidelines
Pay attention to the concept of longevity (e.g. what it is, average and maximum longevity, life
expectancy, how longevity is measured) and the factors which influence longevity. Explain the
interaction between the factors which influence longevity by means of a relevant example.
Hint: Always give an example when asked to do so.
CHAPTER FIVE
Theme 1
➢ Interaction between the person and the environment as explained by Kurt Lewin’s
equation [B=fP,E)]
Guidelines
Explain Lewin’s equation and what P and E in this equation (respectively) will represent the
competence and environmental press theory. Briefly refer to the 5 domains of competence and the 3
types of press; Lawton and Nahemow distinguish in their theory and explain how the combination of
competence and the environmental press will affect a person’s level of adaptation.
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Theme 2
➢ Stress and coping in adulthood according to Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman’s
paradigm
Guidelines
The term “paradigm” means model or pattern, a basic way of thinking or a set of assumptions.
To address this topic, read the following sections in the prescribed book and select relevant
information:
• the role of stress;
• stress and coping framework;
• also, give attention to the research of Schooler and relate his findings to individual
differences.
•
Hint: In the discussion of Lazarus and Folkman’s stress and coping paradigm, Cavanaugh and
Blanchard-Fields (2019) refer to the influence of biological, psychological, sociocultural and lifecycle
forces on the experience and handling of stress. Before discussing this topic, you should study the
explanation of these forces and how the interaction between the forces determines the adult’s
development.
CHAPTER SIX
Theme 1
➢ Relationship between normative brain aging and information-processing, memory
and intellectual functioning in adulthood
Guidelines
Address age related changes in the brain, as discussed in Cavanaugh and Blanchard-Fields (2019).
Give a brief discussion of these changes and then discuss the relationship between these changes
in the brain and
• information-processing
• memory and intellectual functioning
Hint: This topic requires you to consult chapters 2 (age related changes in the brain), 6 (information
processing/speed of processing/processing resources/inhibitory loss/attention resources) and 7
(memory processes/fluid and crystallised intelligence) in your prescribed book. : If you come across
other relevant information when you read through the prescribed book, you could also include it in
your discussion. Although we highlighted only some sections of Chapter 6 (attention and memory), it
is a good to read the whole chapter to provide you with a comprehensive background to answer this
question.
Theme 2
➢ Memory decline in adulthood
Guidelines
You need to explain what the different types of memory mean (implicit, sensory, working and long-
term). But, definitions are not enough. What happens to these types of memory with increasing age?
Hint: Use research findings to substantiate your discussion of the topic and to come to a conclusion
about memory decline with increasing adult age.
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CHAPTER SEVEN
➢ Cognitive development in adulthood beyond formal operations
Guidelines
This is one of the most exciting discoveries about the cognitive development of adults. It refutes the
stereotypical idea that no further cognitive development takes place during the adult years and that a
peak of development is reached in young adulthood. In addressing this topic, this is the point you will
want to bring home. Piaget’s view that the formal operational level of cognitive development reached
in adolescence is the final stage of development must be challenged. The various research findings
on postformal thought must be considered, and the features of postformal thought highlighted.
Reference must also be made to the factors that contribute to functioning on a postformal level, such
as decision making and problem solving. The price of optimal cognitive development in adulthood,
namely, the achievement of a level of functioning characterised by expertise and wisdom, can round
off your discussion of this interesting topic.
Hint: Begin your discussion of the topic by briefly highlighting the relevant aspects of Piaget’s formal
operational period or formal operational thought. Then discuss the theory and research findings of
post-formal thought to illustrate the idea of movement from formal to post-formal thought. Remember
to mention the work of researchers such as King and Kitchener and others. What comes to mind
here is reflective judgement, the three styles of thinking, the integration of emotion and logic. Do not
forget to include decision making, problem solving, expertise and wisdom in your discussion.
CHAPTER 8
➢ The importance of personal control in the lives of aging adults
Guidelines
This topic draws on your insight and understanding related to the needs of the developing adult and
how aging adults can be assisted in achieving an optimal state of being, despite the many changes
they are faced with and must adapt to. A thorough study of personal control in late adulthood is firstly
called for.
Hint: Points to focus on will be research relating to the locus of control, the multidimensionality of
personal control, and control strategies. The focus will be on what the older adult can do to retain
feelings of self-esteem. Make use of other relevant sections in the book to enhance your discussion.
CHAPTER NINE
Theme 1
➢ Personality development across the life span
Guidelines
Your critical discussion of this topic must include the following:
• The case for stability: Costa and McCrae proposed the five-factor model (a detailed discussion
of the five factors is unnecessary). Discuss research proving stability and critique on this. Come
to a conclusion about the stability of personality.
• Personality change or development: Discuss theories describing change or development during
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adulthood (e.g. Jung, Erikson, life narratives). A detailed discussion of these theories is
unnecessary. Come to a conclusion about the possibility of change and development during
adulthood.
Hint: Come to your own conclusion about the issue of whether personality development continues
across the life span.
Theme 2
➢ Psychosocial and identity development in adulthood
Guidelines
You must explain (in the first place) as well as compare (in the second place) the theoretical views
of:
• Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development;
• Logan (specifically Logan’s interpretation of Erikson’s theory);
• McAdam’s life-story model; and
• Whitbourne’s identity theory.
Hint: A good place to start is to give a definition of identity. You must be able to not only explain the
theorists’ viewpoints but also compare their views.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
➢ Relationships in adulthood
Guidelines
Consider the three broad themes that underlie adult friendships and explain how they characterise
both traditional (face-to-face) and new forms (e.g. online) of friendship. Also, discuss the nature and
importance of friendships during the various stages of adulthood as well as the differences in men’s
and women’s friendships. Also, give attention to cross-sex friendships.
CHAPTER TWELVE
➢ Preparation for and adjustment to retirement
Guidelines
Start your discussion of this topic with a definition and discussion of the concept of retirement. Then,
discuss the processes of preparation for and adjustment to retirement as well as the influences of
retirement on a person’s self-concept, social cognition and his/her relationships with family, friends
and the community.
Hint: Use other relevant sections in the book to discuss the influence of retirement on self-concept
and social cognition.
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CHAPTER THIRTEEN
Theme 1
➢ Kübler-Ross’s theory and the contextual approach to dying
Guidelines
• Give a very brief description of Kübler-Ross’s theory and then evaluate it as an example of a
stage theory of dying, keeping the following in mind:
- Does she take individual differences into account?
- How does she view the sequence of stages?
• Discuss the contextual approach’s critique of the stage approach. Is this critique valid? Also,
indicate why the contextual approach is seen as a more holistic approach to dying.
Hint: The emphasis should be on the contextual approach and why it is critical of the stage theories
of dying. You should, therefore, not focus only or mainly on Kübler-Ross’s theory.
Theme 2
➢ Grief is an active process
Guidelines
Pay attention to the views of grief as an active process and grief as a process of “grief work”. Also,
pay attention to the Four-Component Model for coping with grief. Also, take note of the factors that
influence the grieving process.
• Hint: The factors influencing the grieving process are not discussed as such in your prescribed
book, and you must identify the factors while studying grief in the prescribed book. Discuss each
factor briefly, explaining how it could influence the grieving process.
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
➢ Healthy aging: “Aging today and in the future is not what it was even a few years ago.
Technological advances have and will continue to make commonplace what is only
science fiction today” (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2019, p. 402).
Guidelines
• Define the concept of ‘healthy aging’ and indicate how a life-span perspective can contribute to
creating a formal model for healthy aging. What are the basic premises of healthy aging?
• Address the key issues in health promotion and quality of life by referring to the self-efficacy
model and the self-regulation model. Also, indicate trends in health promotion programs for older
adults.
• Attend to the role of technology and how it can be used to maintain and enhance the competence
of older adults.
• Consider the primary strategies for maximising successful aging in designing programs for health
promotion and disease prevention.
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