Sexual Development & Differentiation
Sex and Gender
Sex
genetic sex - chromosomes
anatomical sex - internal and external genitalia
sexual identity - one’s identity as male or female
Gender
social meaning attached to being male or female
gender identity - sense of being male or female
gender role - expectations about how a male or female should behave
Androgyny/hermaphrodism
sex: possessing both male and female reproductive organs
gender: possessing both male and female qualities
Normal Prenatal Development: Genetics
Chromosomes
each human cell contains 46 chromosomes, occurring in pairs
23 pairs of chromosomes
22 autosomes (determines e.g., hair color)
23rd pair are the sex chromosomes
male: XY
female: XX
Normal Prenatal Development: Genetics
Normal Prenatal Development: Genetics
Germ cells:
male: sperm - contains “X” or “Y”
female: ovum - contains an “X”
“Y” chromosome contains less genetic material than “X” chromosome
Normal Prenatal Development: Genetics
Mother Father
XX XY
X X X Y
XX XY XX XY
female male female male
Normal Prenatal Development:
Internal & External Genitalia
Undifferentiated stage:
0-7 weeks gestation
male and female external genitals the same
urogenital fold
genital groove
genital tubercle
labioscrotal swelling
male and female internal genitalia the same - undifferentiated sex glands
Sexual differentiation: Gonadal development
8 weeks gestation
Y chromosome synthesis of H-Y antigen
Male: H-Y antigen causes undifferentiated sex glands to develop into
testes
Female: lack of H-Y antigen causes undifferentiated sex glands to develop
into ovaries
Sexual differentiation: Duct development
both sexes start out with two systems:
Mullerian ducts - will develop into fallopian tubes, uterus, inner vagina
Wolffian ducts - will develop into epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal
vesicles
Male (XY)
Testes secrete testosterone and Mullerian-inhibiting hormone
testosterone - Wolffian ducts begin to develop
Mullerian-inhibiting hormone - inhibits further development of Mullerian
ducts - they shrink and degenerate
Female (XX)
absense of Mullerian-inhibiting hormone - Mullerian ducts develop
absense of testosterone - Wolffian ducts degenerate
Sexual differentiation: Genital development
Male (XY): testosterone causes unisex genitalia to develop into penis and
scrotum
testosterone converted to dihydrotestosterone
dihydrotestosterone causes the external appearance of scrotum and penis
Female (XX): absence of testosterone causes unisex genitalia to develop into
clitoris, labia, vaginal opening, etc.
NOTE: The default is to develop as a female. Male hormones are needed to
promote differentiation into a male
Normal Prenatal Development: The Brain
Sexual differentiation:
Male:
Testosterone secreted into the blood reaches the brain
testosterone converted to estradiol and dihydrotestosterone in the brain
estradiol masculinizes the brain
Female:
alpha-fetoprotein binds to estradiol
prevents estradiol from entering the brain
protects female brains from being masculinized by estradiol
Prenatal hormone exposure fundamentally organizes the brain:
Sexual/Reproductive Behaviors:
development of the hypothalamus (sexual orientation)
Problem Solving
Aggression
Rough-and-tumble play
Hormone exposure seems to involve a critical period - exposure outside the
critical period does not have the same impact on brain organization
Brain Development:
Sex Differences
Given different selection or evolutionary pressures on men and women, how
would you expect men and women to differ with regard to intellectual skills? In
other words, in which areas would men demonstrate superior skill (on
average), and in which areas would women demonstrate superior skill (on
average).
Men:
spatial rotation tasks
mathematical reasoning tasks
navigation through a route
guiding or intercepting projectiles
Women:
perceptual speed - rapidly identifying matching items
mathematical calculation tasks
greater verbal fluency
recalling landmarks from a route
faster at precision manual tasks
How meaningful are these sex differences?
What is the effect size?
Does a large effect size indicate that you are unlikely to find a woman who is
better than a man at spatial rotation? A man that is more verbally fluent than a
women?
Do sex differences in skills arise from evolutionary pressures or cultural
pressures? In other words, are the data consistent with an evolutionary
interpretation or a cultural interpretation? Both? Neither?
Brain Development:
Sex Differences
Animal studies:
Observational studies regarding spatial learning indicate:
female rats use landmarks (pictures), male rats use geometric cues
(angles)
in the absence of landmarks, female rats use geometric cues
male rats almost exclusively used geometric cues
Brain Development:
Sex Differences
Lutchmaya et al. (2002)
Obtained amniotic fluid from 87 pregnancies
analyzed for fetal testosterone
40 girls, 47 boys followed up at 18 and 24 months after birth
Findings:
girls had significantly larger vocabulary
fetal testosterone inversely correlated with vocabulary size when both
sexes examined together
fetal testosterone not correlated with vocabulary size when sexes
examined separately
Shute et al. (1983)
91 male and female students
administered spatial test battery
measured androgen levels
Findings:
curvilinear relationship between androgen levels and spatial abilities
high androgen females better spatial abilities than low androgen females
low androgen males better spatial abilities than high androgen males
Gouchie & Kimura (1991)
46 females, 42 males, 18-31yrs
measured spatial ability, math ability, perceptual speed, verbal articulation,
and vocabulary
measured salivary testosterone
Finding:
men with lower T performed better on spatial and math tasks than higher
T males
women with high T performed better than low T females
Consider these findings from an evolutionary perspective. What might be the
adaptive benefit of having high or low testosterone for males and females?
What do these findings suggest about androgyny?
Brain Development:
Sex Differences
Menstrual cycle fluctuations
Hampson (1990)
45 19-39yr old females
tested cognitive skills across the menstrual cycle
Findings:
Estrogen levels high:
lower performance on spatial skills, abstract reasoning
higher performance on verbal articulation, fine motor skills
Estrogen levels low:
better performance on spatial skills, abstract reasoning tasks
Note: Effect sizes small
Seasonal fluctuations
Kimura & Hampson (1994)
men experience seasonal fluctuations in androgens such that T is lowest in
the spring
seasonal fluctuations in androgens correlated with performance on cognitive
tasks
T levels lower in the spring -> spatial ability improved in the spring
What might be the evolutionary significance of these findings? Why might it be
beneficial for men to have better spatial skills in the spring?
Hemisphere Differentiation
right hemisphere involved in spatial functions
left hemisphere involved in language
de Lacoste-Utamsing & Holloway (1982)
examined brains of 12 humans at autopsy
Findings:
female brains had larger corpus callosum
Davatzikos & Resnick (1998)
MRI study of 114 patients, aged 56-85yrs
Finding:
women have larger corpus callosum
size of corpus callosum positively correlated with cognitive skills in
women, but not men
de Lacoste et al. (1991)
examined 21 fetal brains in utero
Findings:
males showed greater asymmetry than females
right hemisphere thicker in males than females
McFadden (1998)
Sex differences in auditory system
females:
greater hearing sensitivity
greater susceptibility to noise exposure at high freq.
More spontaneous otoacoustic emissions
Males:
better sound localization
detecting binaural beats
detecting signals in complex masking taks
McFadden (1998)
Sex differences in auditory system
female differences less evident at first half of menstrual cycle
female differences less evident among female from oppisite-sex female
twin pairs
Abnormal Development
Intrauterine exposure to abnormal hormone levels:
Animal studies: Spatial learning tasks
Observational studies indicate:
female rats use landmarks (pictures), male rats use geometric cues
(angles)
in the absence of landmarks, female rats use geometric cues
male rats almost exclusively used geometric cues
Experimental studies indicate:
depriving newborn male rats of testosterone, and administering estrogen
to newborn female rats -> produces reversal of these sex typed
behaviors
Resnick et al. (1993)
422 twin pairs, of which 51 opposite-sex pairs, 15-70 yrs
completed Sensation-Seeking Scale
Speculated that intrauterine testosterone would affect females in opposite sex
pairs
Finding:
female opposite sex twin pairs more disinhibited, experience seeking,
greater overall sensation seeking
male opposite sex twins did not differ from male same sex twins
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
genetic defect leading to excessive production of androgens
girls exposed to excessive androgens prenatally
(taking synthetic steriods prenatally can produce similar condition to CAH)
Results:
masculinization of the genitals (which can be surgically corrected)
masculinization of the brain (based on interviews with subject, mother,
teachers):
more tomboyish than unaffected sisters
more aggressive than unaffected sisters
increased likelihood of masculinized gender identity
Berenbaum, Resnick, & Hines
Given a choice of toys CAH girls chose masculine type toys (e.g., cars)
CAH girls, compared to unaffected sisters, superior at:
spatial manipulation task
spatial rotation task
disembedding task
CAH girls did not differ from unaffected sisters on perceptual and verbal tasks
Intrauterine exposure to abnormal hormone levels:
Ehrhardt et al. (1984)
Participants:
13 males, 15 females exposed to synthetic progesterone prenatally
22 males, 15 females exposed to progesterone and estrogen prenatally
matched unexposed controls
underwent comprehensive psychological exam including sex dimorphic
behavior
Findings:
hormone exposed males did not differ from controls
hormone exposed females showed greater stereotyped feminine behavior
(e.g., more interest in doll play, feminine clothing, less interest in
physical play)
Turner Syndrome:
affects females only, 1:2500
“XO” instead of “XX”
Characteristics:
short stature (approx. 4’8”), short neck with webbed appearance, low hairline
at the back of the neck, low set ears
fail to develop breasts at puberty
incomplete ovary development: do not menstruate
internal reproductive organs do not develop normally
cognitive skills:
normal intelligence
difficulty with visual spatial tasks (mental rotation), mathematics
verbal skills normal
Triple X Syndrome:
affects females only, often asymptomatic
“XXX” instead of “XX”
Characteristics:
small head, tall stature
menstrual irregularities, delayed puberty, premature menopause, infertility
Cognitive skills:
rare: mental retardation, more “X”, more mental retardation
delayed development of speech and language skills
language related learning disabilities, e.g., dyslexia
Klinefelter Syndrome:
affects males only, 1:500 to 1:1000, often asymptomatic
“XXY” instead of “XY”
Characteristics:
small external genitalia, sterile
feminized appearance: enlarged breasts, slightly curved hips and waist, lack
of body or facial hair, but also taller and more overweight than unaffected
fathers and brothers
low or absent sex drive
may be passive and/or shy
Cognitive skills:
below average intelligence
delayed onset of speech
difficulty learning to read and write
life-long and pervasive difficulty with language
XYY syndrome:
affects males only, 1:1000
Characteristics:
tall, about 3 inches taller than normal on average
severe acne
normal fertility, normal sexual drive
Increased aggressiveness?
Increased aggressiveness?
famous serial murder case: Richard Speck, 1970s, murdered 8 women
subsequent studies indicate inconsistent findings
Cognitive skills:
intelligence within normal range
some learning and school related difficulties
True hermaphrodism:
possessing both male and female sexual anatomy
example: one ovary, one testis, vaginal opening and penis
Pseudohermaphrodism:
ovaries or testes, but not both
if ovaries, then male external sexual anatomy
if testes, then female external sexual anatomy
How should a child be raised if it (he/she) is born with ambiguous genitalia? In
other words, what criteria should be used to decide whether the child should
be raised as a boy or a girl?
Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome (AIS):
XY genetics, raised as girls
body unable to detect and respond normally to androgens
complete AIS:
normal external female appearance
feminized external genitalia, short, blind-ending vagina
absence of internal female genitalia - no fallopian tubes, uterus, or cervix
undescended testes
at puberty, normal female development (e.g., breasts)
female gender identity, heterosexual orientation
estradiol did not masculinize the brain!
Explanations: culture overrides biology? Both testosterone and estradiol
required to masculinize the brain?
incomplete AIS
5-alpha reductase syndrome: Guevedoces ("eggs-at-12")
XY genetics, raised as girls
unable to convert T to dihydrotestosterone
Complete:
feminized external genitalia, short, blind-ending vagina
uterus and fallopian tubes absent - normal secretion of Mullerian inhibiting
factor
testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles intact
often misdiagnosed as AIS at birth (if ambiguous genitalia)
at puberty: females begin to masculinize
penis enlargement
shoulders broaden, hips narrow
no breast development
facial hair growth
adams apple becomes more prominent
Gender identity
Imperato-McGinley et al. (1979)
examined 38 subjects with 5 alpha-reductase deficiency
all born with female genitalia, 18 raised unambiguously as girls
normal plasma testosterone levels for a male
Finding:
during or after puberty 17 of 18 changed to male gender
identity/gender role
suggests that exposure to normal male levels of T in utero and at
puberty contributes to male gender identity
suggests that exposure to normal male levels of T in utero and at
puberty overrides the sociocultural influence of being raised as girls
Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome:
XY
inability to synthesis Mullerian-inhibiting hormone
insensitivity to Mullerian-inhibiting hormone
presence of uterus and fallopian tubes
otherwise normal males
Ablatio penis:
John Money (1975)
reported case XY male
penis lost at 7months due to accident, raised female
had identical twin brother
at age 9 female gender identity disorder
Later follow-up:
psychological problems
gender identity confusion
male gait
For Further Reading:
Hampson, E. Sex differences in human brain and cognition: The influence of
sex steroids in early and adult life. Becker, Jill B. (Ed); Breedlove, S. Marc
(Ed); et al. (2002). Behavioral endocrinology (2nd ed.). (pp. 579-628).
Cambridge, MA, US: MIT Press, 776pp.
