Introduction

 Science: the human attempt to understand the natural world, with or without concern for practical uses
of that knowledge.
 Science tries to discover facts and relationships and then tries to create theories that make sense of these
facts and relationships.
 any system of knowledge that is concerned with the physical world and its phenomena and that entails
unbiased observations and systematic experimentation.
 involves a pursuit of knowledge covering general truths or the operations of fundamental laws.
 is based on the premise that our senses, and extensions of those senses through the use of instruments,
can give us accurate information about the Universe.
 follows very specific "rules" and its results are always subject to testing and, if necessary, revision.
 Even with such constraint’s science does not exclude, and often benefits from, creativity and
imagination.
 Science may be defined as the system of knowledge of the natural world gained through the scientific
method.

Scientific Method
• The scientific method has five basic steps, plus one feedback step:
1.Make an observation.
2.Ask a question.
3.Form a hypothesis, or testable explanation.
4.Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
5.Test the prediction.
6.Iterate: use the results to make new hypotheses or predictions

Scientific Inquiry
• is a thoughtful and coordinated attempt to search out, describe, explain and predict natural phenomena.
• progresses through a continuous process of questioning, data collection, analysis and interpretation.
• requires the sharing of findings and ideas for critical review by colleagues and other scientists.

Division of Sciences
• The natural taxonomy of the empirical sciences would break the sciences down into three basic groups:
• the physical sciences (physics, astronomy, chemistry, geology, metallurgy),
• the biological sciences (zoology, botany, genetics, paleontology, molecular biology, physiology), and
• the psychological sciences (psychology, sociology, anthropology, maybe economics).
• The scale of the Universe mapped to branches of science and showing how one system is built atop the next
through the hierarchy of the Sciences

 Technology: the human attempt to change the world . . . By creating products that can help people.
 Greek word meaning ‘art or craft’ and ‘subject or interest’
 practical applications of what we know about nature’
 Products- of imagination, of thought processes, redesigning
 Purpose- quality of life

Examples of Technology:
❖Machines
❖Flash drives
❖Pencil Sharpener
❖Electronics

Technology involves:
 Tools
Techniques and
Procedures for putting the findings of science to use.

Interconnections between Science and Technology

 Science explores for the purpose of knowing, while technology explores for the purpose of
making something useful from that knowledge
 Science drives technology by making new technology possible through scientific breakthroughs.
 Engineers focus on using science to develop products.
 Without technology, some science experiments would not be possible.
 Without science, technology could not proceed.
 The very questions that scientists ask are shaped by the available technology.

HISTORICAL ANTECEDENTS IN THE COURSE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Sumerian Civilization
Concerns during the Ancient Times
 Transportation
• Navigation
• Communication
• Record keeping
• Mass production
• Security and protection
• Health
• Aesthetics
• Architecture

In the ancient times, people were concerned with transportation and navigation, communication and
record keeping, mass production, security and protection, as well as health, aesthetics and architecture.
Transportation was significant during that time because people were trying to go places and discover
new horizons. They travelled to search for food and find better locations for their settlements. They also
travelled to trade their surplus goods in exchange for things that they lacked. Navigation assisted them in their
journeys unfamiliar and strange areas in the world. It allowed them to return home after they discovered new
places or completed an important trade with another group of people.
Communication was also essential in their endeavors to discover and occupy new places. They needed
a way to communicate with the natives of the areas they visited so as to facilitate trade and prevent possible
conflicts. Record-keeping was also important since they needed to remember the places, they had been to add
document the trades they made with each other. It was also vital to keep records of their history and culture so
they could establish their identities as they tried to relate with other cultures and civilizations.
The increase in size and number of nations connoted increased demand for food and other basic
necessities. This condition also implied that people must be able to produce foods at a given time and space
since resources were getting scarcer as more people struggled to share the basic necessities. The people thus
needed a form of technology that would enable them to increase food supplies and other survival needs without
them travelling more or working harder.
Weapons and armors were important as well in the discovery of new places or the establishment of new
alliances with other tribes. At that time, there was always a risk of conflict when people met others with
different culture and orientations. Conflicts were common especially if different groups struggled to control
vital resources. Stronger nations tended to invade weaker ones so they could take much needed resources. As
such, the development of weapons and armors for security and protection was considered a major achievement
A primary challenge they faced was the conservation of life. The early people might have been
successful in harnessing the rich resources that the world could provide, but their survival posed a great
problem. Different illnesses and diseases, both natural and man-made, hampered the full potential of a human
being. Given this predicament, science and technology played a major role in the discovery of cures to, if not
the prevention of, illnesses.
Moreover, in order to integrate their needs—for better transportation, establishment of structures for
protection from human attacks and natural disasters, and construction of bigger and stronger infrastructures-
people ventured into what is now known as the field of engineering. The development in this field allowed
humans to build structures that would address their specific needs and wants. Some of the structures built
during the ancient times still exist today and continually awe people.
The development in engineering also ushered in the introduction of architecture. Others might see
architecture as a mere style, but during the ancient times, elaborate architectural designs were signs of
technological advancement of a particular civilization. In the generations to come, architecture would be
considered a status symbol among nations of how advanced their technology is. It may also establish the
identity of a nation.
The people were not contented on beautifying only their infrastructures and surroundings. Being able to
prolong life with the mass production of food and advancement of medical technology, as well as raise the
quality of life by making complicated and difficult tasks easier, humans later on developed the technology to
improve how they look. They discovered that people looked more visually presentable and appealing by adding
some features and decorations in their body.
With all these in mind, one can conclude that the developments in science and technology, aside from
affecting the lives of the people, were the results of many prior antecedents. Out of necessity, people in ancient
times were able to discover and invent things that would impact the lives of the modern people.
The following discussions will tackle the different major technological advancements during the ancient
times, which include some of the achievements of the early civilizations such as the Sumerians, Babylonians,
and Egyptians. It will continue to describe the gradual application of knowledge up to the contemporary time.

Sumerians and Mesopotamia

 The heartland of Sumer lay between the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, in what the Greeks later called
Mesopotamia.
 The ancient Sumerians, the "black-headed ones," lived in the southern part of what is now Iraq.

Sumerian Civilization
 The Sumerians were characteristically inventive, and are likely to have been responsible for the
development of the first writing.
 Well before 3000 B.C.E. Sumerians were recording their language using simple pictures. They wrote on
tablets of clay, later evolving the script that to us is known as cuneiform, or "wedge-shaped."
 Book-keeping and very detailed records on clay tablets of offerings, rations, taxes and agricultural work
were features of Sumerian life
 They were energetic farmers, traders and sailors.
 Their religion recognized many gods, rituals as well as parties were enlivened by skillful harpists and
singers, and Sumerian musical instruments have even been excavated by modern archaeologists.

Sumeria is located on the southernmost tip of ancient Mesopotamia. Sumerians are known for their high
degree of cooperation with one another and their desire for great things. They are not contented with the basic
things that life can offer. This desire pushed them to develop many things connected with science and
technology.

Cuneiform
One of the major contributions of the Sumerians is the development of the first writing system known as
cuneiform. It is a system that utilizes word pictures and triangular symbols which are carved on clay using
wedge instruments and then left to dry. Cuneiform allowed the Sumerians to keep records of things with great
historical value or their everyday life
Uruk City
 Uruk was the first major city in Sumer built in the 5th century BC,
 is considered one of the largest Sumerian settlements and most important religious centers in
Mesopotamia.
 It was continuously inhabited from about 5000 BC up to the 5th century AD.

Another important contribution of the Sumerians is the City of Uruk. It is a great wonder not only
because it is considered to be the first true city in the world but also for the way it was erected. There were no
building stones in the location of this city and lumber was limited, making the construction a big challenge. The
Sumerians were able to build the city using only mud or clay from the river, which they mixed with reeds,
producing sun-baked bricks-a true engineering feat. They used the bricks to make houses that protected them
from the harsh weather and to build a wall around the city that prevented wild animals and neighboring raiders
from entering.

The great ziggurat of Ur

 Ziggurat or mountain of god
 Constructed using the sunbaked bricks
 Sacred place, only their priests were allowed to enter
 The temple showcases the
– the elaborate and intricate Sumerian architecture
– remarkable technology used to build it

Another engineering and architectural feat of the Sumerians is the Great Ziggurat of Ur. The ziggurat,
also called the mountain of god, was built in the same manner that they constructed the City of Uruk. Without
much building materials, the structure was constructed using sun- baked bricks. The ziggurat served as the
sacred place of their chief god, where only their priests were allowed to enter. The temple showcases not only
the elaborate and intricate Sumerian architecture but also the remarkable technology used to build it. As such,
even until today, people still enjoy and marvel at the preserved Great Ziggurat of Ur.

Irrigation and Dikes

 Built to bring water to farmlands
 To control flooding of rivers
 Considered as one of the world’s most beneficial engineering works
 Year-long farming and increased food production

As population increased, so did the demand for food. The Sumerians were challenged to mass produce
food items but the elements in the environment seemed uncooperative. It was difficult to get water from the
rivers; thus, they could not maintain farmlands. Some groups had scarce water supply, while others had
problems with flooding caused by the river. As a solution to this dilemma, the Sumerians created dikes and
irrigation canals to bring water to farmlands and at the same time control the flooding of the rivers. This
method was considered as one of the world's most beneficial engineering works. Through the dikes and canals,
the Sumerians were able to enjoy year-long farming and harvesting, which increased their food production.

Sailboats
 Main mode of transportation was through waterways
 Used to carry large quantities of products (for trading)
 To cover large distances (foster culture, information, and technology

Another challenge to the Sumerians was transportation. At that time, the wheel was not yet invented; the
main mode of transportation was through waterways such as rivers and seas. Boats were used to carry large
quantities of products and were able to cover large distances. However, they wanted to discover faraway lands
to settle since the population was getting larger, and boats were not enough to accommodate more people and
products. They needed a mode of transportation that did not require much human resource. Some sources
attribute to the Sumerians the invention of sailboats to address their increasing demands. Sailboats were
essential in transportation and trading as well as in fostering culture, information, and technology.

Wheel and plow

 For farm works and food processes (for mass production)
 To dig the earth in a faster pace, so as to plant the seeds

Wheel
In the latter part of their history, the Sumerians were able to invent the wheel since the specialized tools
needed to create it were already available. The first wheels were not made for transportation but for farm work
and food processes. With the use of the wheel and axle, mass production was made easier. Farmers were able
to mill grains with less effort in less time.

The Plow
Another farm technology invented by the Mesopotamians is the plow. Humans evolved from being food
gatherers to farm cultivators. However, farmers needed a technology which would enable them to dig the
ground where seeds would be planted. The plow was invented to the earth in a faster pace. As the plow breaks
the ground, the farmer would just drop the seeds and farm work would already be done. With this tool, farmers
could cultivate larger parcels of land faster, enabling them to mass produce food without taking so much effort
and time

Roads
 To travel faster and easier
 Made of sunbaked bricks laid on the ground, used bitumen, a black sticky substance similar to asphalt

In order to facilitate faster and easier travel, the Sumeriang developed the first roads. With this work,
the flow of traffic became faster and more organized. They made the roads with the same technology they used
in making the sun-baked bricks that they laid down on the ground. They later poured bitumen, a black sticky
substance similar to asphalt, to smoothen the roads. The invention of roads was very useful especially during
the rainy season when traveling in soft and muddy roads proved to be too difficult.

Other inventions
 Cylinder seal is a small round cylinder with figurative scenes or written characters or both etched on
them.
 Invented around 3500 BC in southern Mesopotamia, they were used as an administrative tool, a form of
signature, jewelry and as magical amulets.

Copper fabrication
 Sumerians were known to be the first users of copper – the earliest non-precious metals. The
archeological evidence states that they harnessed the skill of extracting and working with copper around
5000-6000 years ago.
 Sumerians used copper in making heads of arrows, razors, harpoons and many other small objects.
 they also began making vessels, chisels, and jugs from copper, which reveal excellent craftsmanship of
the Sumerians.

Time
 The world was definitely aware of the day and night system but, yet again, Sumerians were the first ones
to divide the passage of time. They introduced passage of weeks, months and years to the world.
 The Sumerians did the astronomical calculation in the base 60 system. Their work was appreciated and
accepted throughout Eurasia.
Lunar calendar
 It is believed that the Sumerians were possibly the first to develop the lunar calendar.
 entirely based on the recurrence of lunar phases which means, the phases of the moons were used to
count the 12 months.
 The Sumerians observed two seasons – summer and winter and the sacred marriage rites were
performed on New Year. They used the phases of the moon to count 12 lunar months as a year.

Numeral system
 Another significant invention by Sumerians
 Known as Sexagesimal,
 The reason behind this invention was out of an urgent need of keeping the records for their traded
harvests. Gradually, they started using a small clay cones to denote the number one.
 Similarly, a ball denoted the number ten and a large clay cone denoted sixty.

Medicine
 Record of Sumerian achievement in science and technology as presented by Kramer (1948) and
Brinkman (1990) are amazing and far-reaching, particularly in mathematics, engineering, architecture,
agriculture, transportation, and medicine.
 Sumerian doctors made use of assorted botanical, zoological, and mineralogical ingredients as materia
medica in their prescriptions. The Sumerian civilization was gradually absorbed by the Semitic people
who migrated to Mesopotamia from Arabia during the 2300 BCE and founded the great empires of
Babylonia, Assyria, and Persia. [materia medica: the body of remedial substances used in the practice of
medicine.]