Module on

CPE 198
RESEARCH
METHOD

Prepared by:
Arlene C. Dolotallas, Ph.D.
Learner’s Guide
The key to success fully finish this module lies in your hands. This module was prepared for
you to learn diligently, intelligently, and independently. Aside from meeting the content and
performance standards of this course in accomplishing the given activities, you will be able to
learn other invaluable learning skills which you will be very proud of as a responsible learner.
The following guides and the house rules will help you further to be on tract and to say at the
end of the module. “ I did well”
1. Schedule and manage your time to read and understand every part of the module. Read it
over and over until you understand the point.
2. Study how you can manage to do the activities of this module in consideration of your
other courses. Be very conscious with the study schedule. Post it on a conspicuous place so
that you can always see. Do not ask about questions that are already answered in the guide.
3. If you did not understand the readings and other tasks, re-read. Focus, if this will not work,
engage all possible resources.

Grading System

Activities -30%
Class Attendance /Participation -20%
Punctuality (module) -10% -
Output (Thesis Proposal) -40%
100%

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Content Discussion

Module 1: The Basic and Fundamental Concepts of Research

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. define research and enumerate the different kinds of research

2. analyse the factors to consider in the selection of a research problem;
3. define hypothesis and the different kinds of hypotheses; and
4. use parts of a research report as a guide for the study of different research
topic

Engage

I. Identify the following:

____________ 1. Temporary solution or a tentative guess to a problem.

____________ 2. It comes from to words describing an activity done before.

____________ 3. A type of research where the outputs are immediately applied.

____________ 4. A research accomplished without empirical data.

____________ 5. Ho: P =

____________ 6. It serves as a frame of reference.

____________ 7. Takes things for granted.

____________ 8. These are given within the context of the study.

____________ 9. It is the first statistical hypothesis.

____________ 10. This asserts no significant differences or relationship.

Explore

II. Express the following in the null form:

1. There is significant difference between the effects of Drug A and B.

2. The girls performed better than boys in English.
3. The effects of the chemicals on ropes A, B, and C were significant.
4. There is significant relationship between habits and academic performance.
5. Group B performed lesser in the Capacity Building Program than Group A.

Explain

Definition of Research

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We started defining research, probably in a crude yet simple manner that the layman may see
and immediately understand.

But some have defined it as a systematic way of looking at a problem with all the
potential tools used to arrive at the most valid conclusions and generalizations usually from
empirical data.

Research must give new knowledge for what is known in the past, may not be
applicable to situation that are current at the times or what is contemporary. But past
researches do not become passé or lost importance. They become part of a view of related
literature, and therefore, still hold an important function and a place in a research activity.

Different Kinds of Research

Definitions are not enough to imagine what a research is, but defining the different
kinds of research may contribute to the picture of what it is.

Basic, Applied, and Empirical Researches

1. Basic Researches- are those that deal with the process of objects and things, or information
about different topics with no concern for a direct pay-off. Among these are studies on
relationship, comparative analyses, trends, and projections.

Examples:

a. Relationship between emotional quotient and leadership skills

b. Relationship between GPA and science grades of Grades 6 pupils
c. The intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors of students to enroll in Information
Technology courses
d. The Interaction of age and gender on the Thurstone Mental Ability Test
e. Cost benefit analysis of contractual workers in manufacturing cars

2. Applied Researches- are those that probe into the unknown using directly the results to a
current problem.

Example

 Studies on rice substitutes

 Modern methods for gall bladder operation
 Different contraceptives of birth control
 Modern techniques of tooth treatment
 Use native plants to serve as gasoline

3. Empirical Researches- are more specific than basic researches, but imply their nature from
the use of data, whether quantitative or qualitative. Basically, they have the following
important characteristics:

 Based upon observation and experiences;

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  Derived from direct data;
 Deal with population samples; and
 Generally use estimations and hypothesis testing.

Problem that involve differences and relationships of behavior or measurable

characteristic are generally empirical researches.

Pure Researches

These are researches which do not use empirical or direct data, but are researches
where the laboratory is the human mind and are geared towards the resolution or a
simplification of a problem or derivation of a concept or a theory or even a formula.

Example:

Thesis and dissertation of students for a Master of Science degree in Mathematics,

Statistic, or Physics.

Source of Problems

One of the most common complaints students in research is that they have no
problem. But actually, there are so many problems around us. Some problems are easy to
solve, but problems in research need more time and intensive effort.

Subjects in Classroom

Some research problems spring from the different problems in class discussion, which
one may find in the different interactions with classmates.

Examples:

a. Achievement of a certain subject and the factors that influence or affect it

b. The interaction of age and gender on the Process Method of Science Teaching
c. The effects of teacher enthusiasm on the learning of academic subjects
d. Study habit and motivation of third year high school students on academic
achievement
e. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation factors of students to take computer courses
f. Intelligence theories and academic performance
g. Predictive factors of teacher success in teaching

Work Experiences

Example:

a. Interpersonal relations with co-workers

b. Communication flow in the three processes
c. Instructional leadership skills of principals and their relationship with organizational
effectiveness

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 d. An empirical investigation of Holland’s Theory on the work environment of
personnel in a certain company
e. The relationship between management styles of school managers and faculty
empowerment
f. The implementation of TQM as an OD intervention for Organizational Effectiveness
g. Causes of faculty mobility in a certain university
h. Structure of loci decision-making of managers and effects on work performance of
personnel
i. Relationship between academic preparation and nursing licensure examination
j. Attitudes of people towards AIDS, fraudulent elections, Cha-Cha

Theories which need Empirical Support

Example:

a. Motivation-Hygiene theory with job satisfaction

b. Intelligence theories on learning and teaching
c. Cost-benefit of hiring contractual workers
d. Holland’s theory with occupational preference

Technological and Science Researches

Example:

a. Quality of life among people living on the riverbanks of a certain region

b. Drug addiction
c. Issues on pollution, global warming, tsunami, tornadoes, earthquakes, and others
d. Use of computers for aids in navigations
e. Quality health care

Off-shoots of other Researches (recommendations from other researches)

Questions on values, opinions, and policies of different organizations found in

recommendation may also be continued in another research.

Suggestion from friends or Administrations

Suggestion regarding feasible topics for research may also be solicited.

Specializations

a. This concerns specialized areas of psychology, special education, quality health care
and services, management, anthropology, logic, and philosophy, among others.
b. One may go into the use of psychological incapacity for annulment of marriage, and
the issue of battered wives.
c. Questions that affect quality of production in business companies, using quality
statistical methods.

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 d. Feasibility studies in agribusiness, meat processing, fruits preservation, and fattening
animals.

Programs

One can gain insights on topics about medicine, psychology, teaching, management,
economics, and other fields that are published in official organs of government or private
institutions.

Instructional Programs Pursued

Some graduate schools issue a list of researchable topics that are feasible or tenable in
different areas of knowledge. Some schools which have research units provide a research
agenda which the students can pursue and select a topic from. Research agendas are generally
comprehensive, and have plenty of topics to choose from.

Management Practices of Organizations

There are many practices in different organizations, which need assessment and
improvement. Some rules and regulations in government corporations may be assessed for
the purpose of helping legislators pass better laws, such as those that are related to a bank
scam, overseas employment, technical smuggling in the Bureau of Customs and on tax
collection, among others. The controversial issue of government contract with the SGS
(Societe Generalle de Surveillance), a foreign company for taking over the work of the
Bureau of Customs, may likewise be studied. The current issue on the change of the
legislative chamber should arouse the interest of political researches.

As a last resort, a researcher may visit organization relevant to his field of interest,
and inquire what possible areas can be researched relevant to the operations of the said
organization

Characteristics of a Good Problem

The characteristics of a good problem are the following:

1. Firstly, it should be of interest to the researcher himself; one can be eloquent on a

subject matter which one knows and is interested in.
2. It should have practical value to the researcher, the school, and the community.
3. It is a current and novel issue.
4. More importantly, it can be finished within the allotted time, depending on the
subject, which is a requirement.
5. It should not carry moral or legal impediment, nor should it be controversial.
6. The data are available.
7. The variables are clear, separable, and updated.
8. It shall incur expenses affordable to the researcher.

The Factors that Influence the Selection of the Problem

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 A research paper usually has numerous constraints and there are factors that limit the
successful performance of the project. The researcher should be aware of these things which
are:

1. Availability of Data. This is the most important consideration that a researcher

should be concerned of. One can never do an empirical research without data.
2. Funds. It is also one of the constraints. A research activity is an investment and
therefore, needs funds. One needs funds for questionnaires, data analysis, for papers,
other materials, and for the typing of the manuscript.
3. Capability of the Writer. One should not write a topic on theory on numbers when
one has not taken the course. One should write on topics which he believes he is
capable of doing.
4. Attitude and Interest of the Researcher. One will be motivated to do the research if
one has the proper attitude and interest in what one is doing.
5. Interest of the Sponsor or the Benefactor Should be Considered. This, however,
should not conflict of the researcher.
6. Importance of the Issues Involved. Topics that are already saturated with findings
should be avoided. It should be a topic that is current and likewise popular.
7. Regency of the Issues. It is an event or issue that is contemporary and of interest to
many.
8. Cooperation of Other People. One should be assured of others who will play an
important part in the research report.
9. Facilities and Instruments are Available. Facilities and instruments needed is an
experiment should be available, especially laboratory equipment and chemicals.

The Title of the Research Report or the Investigations

After the selection of the theme or the topic to write on, the researcher considers the
title of the research and what criterion measures exist for presenting a good one. Among the
different considerations for this action are the following:

1. It should not be long and should not be more than 20 words.

2. It should include the variables (independent and dependent) and the method of
analysis.
3. It should give insight virtually on what the research is all about.
4. It should serve as a reference for the whole research report which others can use.
5. It should enable one to claim the paper as his own, and helps other researchers to refer
to one’s work as they survey some theories themselves.
6. The following words should not be a part of the title since all the researches are
studies, an analysis of variable and an investigation, like: “A Study of,” “An Analysis
of,” or “An Investigation of”.
7. It is not important to include the date and location of the investigation as these can be
placed in the Scope and Delimitation of the Study.

Below are the illustrations of worthwhile titles:

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a. The Relationship Between the Vocational Interest and Occupational Preferences of
First Year High School Students

1. Independent Variable- Vocational Interest

2. Dependent Variable –Occupational Preference
3. Method of Analysis- Finding relationship and correlational analysis; Holland’s
theory with occupational preference

b. The Predictive Efficacy of Academic Preparation of Nurses on Board Examination

1. Independent Variable- Academic Preparation

2. Dependent Variables- Licensure Board Examination
3. Method of Analysis- simple and step-wise multiple linear regressions

c. The Relationship Between Emotional Quotient and Leadership Skills of Managers

of a Manufacturing Firm

1. Independent Variable- Emotional Quotient

2. Depend Variable – Leadership Skills
3. Method of Analysis-Correlational analysis may proceed to simple and
multiple linear regression

d. The interaction of Age and Gender on the Science Performance of Grade 6

Pupils

1. Independent Variable- Age and Gender

2. Dependent Variable – Science Performance
3. Method of Analysis – Analysis of Variance: Two way classification

e. Gender Inequality in Mathematics Performance of Grade 6 Pupils

1. Independent Variable-Gender
2. Depend Variable – Mathematics Performance
3. Method of Analysis-Comparative: t-test for two independent samples

f. total Quality Management as an Organizational Development Intervention on

Faculty Empowerment

1. Independent Variable- Total Quality Management

2. Dependent Variable- Faculty Empowerment
3. Method of Analysis- Pre and Post-result, use dependent t-test

g. Effect of chemicals on Strength of Ropes

1. Independent Variable- Chemicals

2. Dependent Variable- Strength of ropes
3. Method of Analysis- Analysis of Variance: One way classification

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 h. The influence of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Factors on the GPA of First
Year Communication Arts Students

1. Independent Variable- Motivation

2. Dependent Variable- GPA
3. Method of Analysis- Correlational and simple linear regression analysis

i. The Predictive Efficacy of Mark-off Analysis on Market Shares of Different Brands

of Soap in Four Corporations

1. Independent Variable- Mark-off Analysis

2. Dependent Variable- Market Shares
3. Method of Analysis- Projection Techniques

j. Major Sources of Stress and Performance of Managers of Top Corporations in

Makati

1. Independent Variable- Sources of Stress

2. Dependent Variable- Performance
3. Method of Analysis- Correlation analysis and proceed to linear regression
analysis

k. Cost-Benefit Analysis in Hiring Contractual Workers in Fast Food Restaurant in

Manila

1. Independent Variable- Contractual Workers

2. Dependent Variable- Cost-Benefit
3. Method of Analysis- Cost-Benefit Analysis

l. The Interaction Effects of Soil Cultivation and Volume of Water on the Number of
Orange Fruit in a Carmona Farm

1. Independent Variable- Soil cultivation and volume of water

2. Dependent Variable- Number of orange fruit
3. Method of Analysis- Two-Way Analysis of Variance

m. The Role of Strategic Planning on the Organizational Effectiveness of a

Manufacturing Firm

1. Independent Variable- Strategic Planning

2. Dependent Variable- Organizational Effectiveness
3. Method of Analysis- Simple linear regression

Parts of a Research Report

There are two kinds of research formats:

1. The format of a thesis and dissertation; and

2. A format for a scientific research journal

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1. Thesis and Dissertation Format

For thesis and dissertation papers, we have the following parts; however, there are
schools which have different formats and it is the privilege of schools to have their own.

Examples:

Chapter title

1. The Problem and Its Background

2. Review of Related Literature and Studies
3. Methods of Research and Procedure
4. Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
5. Summary of Findings, Conclusion, and Recommendations Variation for the titles 1
and 3 are allowable, but Chapters 2, 4, and 5 are generally observed. Sometimes,
Chapters 1 and 2 are put together resulting in four chapters.

The number of chapters may change. Another chapter may be added when necessary and
upon the suggestion of the adviser or panel.

2. For scientific reports, the following are usually the parts:

a. Abstract
b. Key concepts
c. Objectives
d. Methodology
e. Results and Discussions
f. Conclusion and Recommendation

Component of Chapter 1

A research report generally has three major parts which are the following:

1. Before the Main Body

a. Blank Page
b. Title Page
c. Recommendation for Oral Examination
d. Approval Sheet
e. Acknowledgement
f. Dedication

2. The Main Body. It has five Chapters and these are:

a. Chapter 1- The Problem and Its Background

b. Chapter 2- Review of Related Literature and Studies
c. Chapter 3- Methods of Research and Procedure
d. Chapter 4- Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data

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 e. Chapter 5- Summary of Findings, Conclusions Recommendations

3. After The Main Body. After chapter 5, the following are included:

a. Bibliography
b. Appendices
c. Curriculum Vitae

The titles for Chapters 2, 4, and 5 are usually constant, while chapter Chapters 1 and 3 can be
varied.

The Subtopics Found in Chapter 1

The subtopics found in Chapter 1 are the following:

a. Introduction
b. Theoretical Framework or Conceptual Framework
c. Statement of the problem
d. Hypotheses of the study
e. Assumptions of the study
f. Significance of the study
g. Scope and Delimitation of the study
h. Definition of term

Let us discuss the subtopics in detail.

1. Introduction

The introduction is not a title of a chapter. It is actually a paragraph side head which
begins Chapter 1. The first word in the introduction should be strong enough to cause an
impact on the reader or stimulate interest in the paper. Statements in this chapter should
signify the importance of the paper through statements supported and substantiated by
references from important researches.

Reports or quotations taken from references should not be more than one-third of a
page. One should bear in mind that a research report is an objective report , not a literary
piece, like the Iliad or Noli Me Tangere, but is one which deals only with cold facts.
Although one is permitted to give a personal opinion, such should also be backed-up by
statements from persons of authority or substantiated by documents or records.

2. Theoretical Framework or Conceptual Framework

The research report may rest on theory or set of theories. It is a general statement
which an interplay of variables, a happening with an eventual result, a guide or a road map of
what the research should be.

If the study has no theoretical framework, the researcher may build up his own
conceptual framework, putting all the variables in a schematic diagram. All the variables

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stated in the problem and the dynamics of such variables should be considered in this part.
Variables found in the study, but not mentioned in the framework, are bound to be questioned
as irrelevant to the research.

Both theoretical and conceptual frameworks are creations of the author, upon which
the problem of the study are based. Moreover, they serve as an inductive approach towards
the objectives of the study or the statement of the problem. By reading through theoretical or
conceptual frameworks, one can easily discern what the study is all about.

Let us make this clear with regard to this part of the research report. If is a theory
upon which the study rests, it is well and good. For while it is a general statement, a
conceptual framework can be drawn from it, this time with all the variables given.

However, if there is no theoretical framework, a researcher may build up his own

conceptual framework, again, with all the variables in the study mentioned. It is wise not to
put a variable in the conceptual framework which is not relevant to the study, for it will be
questioned.

The importance of the theoretical and conceptual frameworks lie in the fact that there
are parts of the conclusion as with regard to empirical support. Through the theoretical
framework, the research can be woven into a cohesive undertaking and makes the research
more understandable, as there is a point of reference.

A research may say in the end that the theoretical or conceptual framework has been:

a. Fully supported;
b. Partially supported; or
c. Negated

By empirical data. It must be remembered that a theory has to be tested, not taken to
be accepted immediately.

3. Statement of the Problem

The statement of the problem can be expressed either generally or specifically.

a. How do we state the problem?

Basically, every research starts with a problem or problems. At the start, the
problem may be a broad one. In this case, it needs to be made specific and
clear by breaking up the major problem into smaller or limited ones.
b. How can you make the problem specific?
Read lots of materials that are relevant to the topic. The topic for the moment
is broad because not much about it is known. In this case, one needs to survey
and gather related literature. Let us say you have chosen “motivation” as one
topic.
The first step you should take is to define the word “motivation.” Get
the definition from several sources. You must know how to use the library and

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 how to select reference books which are important to the research problem.
Learn how to take down notes and write the definitions and sources on cards.
Read books, especially those written by both foreign and local authors,
including researches from both foreign and local sources, as well.
Afterwards, summarize what the author have said about motivation and
focus your attention on the definition which interests you most.
What special aspects about motivation did you gather? What variables
that are of interest have you identified? Are there different kinds of motivation
that drive students to enroll in computer or maritime courses? What categories
can motivation be made to or developed? When a student enrols in a course
,what “intrinsic” and “extrinsic” motivation factors drive a student to take a
course? What variables play an important part in such motivation? The
selection of variables plays an important part in research, for they can make
research dull or interesting.
What readings about investigations of “motivation” have you found
interesting?
At this point, you are undergoing a process of breaking up the topic,
delimiting them, and perhaps, has selected your variables, perhaps, one or two
variables. Together with this, you may already have an insight as to who your
respondents would be: elementary, high school, or college students of various
courses, among others.
You can now start formulating your problem, thinking and putting
together the objectives you have in mind including the variables.

c. How to state the statement of the problem?

In Question Form

Example:

Statement of the problem: The study seeks to answer the following questions:

A. General
What are the motivations of college students to enrol in maritime courses?
B. Specific
1. What is the profile of college students in terms of:
1.1 age;
1.2 socio-economic status; and
1.3 parents’ educational attainment

2. What are the intrinsic motivation of college students to enroll in maritime courses
as to:

2.1 personal;

2.2 social; or

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 2.3 economic

3. What are the extrinsic motivation of college students to enroll in maritime courses
as regards to:

3.1 popularity of the courses;

3.2 peer influence;

3.3 parents’ choice

3.4 school factors; and

3.5 teacher factors

4. Are there significant relationship between;

4.1 personal variables and intrinsic motivation factors

4.2 personal variables and extrinsic motivation factors

Note that in above statement of the problem, three of the problems start with “what”.
These are questions that deal with presentation of data, since data here are exploratory. It is
the only the last problem that deals with analysis, difference, and relationship.

Note also that the problems are independent and can be answered independently. At
the same time, they are interdependent upon each other and they form a cohesive part.

In Topical Form

The statement of the problem can also be expressed in tropical form.

Example:

Statement of the problem: The study seeks to determine the following:

A. General

The motivations of college student to enroll in maritime courses.

B. Specific

1. The profile of college students in terms of:

1.1 age;
1.2 socio-economic status; and
1.3 parents’ educational attainment

2. The intrinsic motivation of college students to enroll in maritime courses as to:

2.1 personal;

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 2.2 social; or

2.3 economic

3. The extrinsic motivation of college students to enroll in maritime courses as

regards to:

3.1 popularity of the courses;

3.2 peer influence;

3.3 parents’ choice

3.4 school factors; and

3.5 teacher factors

4. Significant relationship between:

4.1 personal variables and intrinsic motivation factors

4.2 personal variables and extrinsic motivation factors

In general , however, different schools in the Philippines prefer the question form for
all areas, except in business researches, where the topical form is more preferred.

d. More information on the major types of question for statement of problem

There are other types of factor that have to be considered in the formulation of
the statement of the problem and among these are:

Factors that are independent

Independent factors are intervening variables that act on another variable.

Example:

 What are the leadership skills of middle managers of the National Power Corporation
in terms of the skills in the Skill-Mix theory?
 What are the emotional quotient dimensions of the faculty in the College of Arts and
Sciences in a certain university?
 What are the problems faced by engineering graduates about to take the board?

Factors that lead to analysis of relationships

They are factors that are contained in question the imply the use of relationships.

Example:

 What role does leadership skills have in the empowerment of faculty?

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  What is the relationship between study habits and academic performance of third year
students in communication arts?
 What is the relationship knowledge symmetry of lines and differential calculus?
 To want extend do the constructs of TQM improve organizational effectiveness in the
organization?

Factors that answer” how of the variables”

These are the variables that require a lot of explanation and insight on the role of
variables and the manipulation of one variable on the other.

Example:

 How will early diagnosis of breast cancer affect the survival of the patient?
 How will Cha-Cha affect the process of legislating laws in Congress?
 How will increase in the amount of sugar affect the taste of salad?
 How will the increase in the number of class hours in Mathematics influence the
span of motivation?
 How will the change of school schedule from June to September affect enrollment
in schools?

Factors that tend to be normative

These are the factors in problem that establish explicit goals or action. They require
development of plans under which the goals may be achieved.

Example:

 What should be done to eliminate post-operative vomiting?

 What should be done to improve enrolment in the university?
 What should be done to improve board performance in accounting?
 What should be done to prevent “absenteeism” among personnel in a
manufacturing company?
 What should be done to prevent fire accidents due to electrical defects?

4. Hypothesis

One of the important features of a good research is hypothesis formulation. It also

determine the objective of the research and it is a salient feature of a good research report.

Definition

Sometime in your study, you may need to make a decision or make some predictions
of the behavior of a variable on the other. They may be wild guesses that you anticipate will
happen in the study. A hypothesis is a tentative solution to a particular problem which may be
accepted or rejected, depending on what the facts are.

The Function of Hypothesis

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 As stated, researches seek to guess the behavior of one variable over the other. In this
case, the researcher offers tentative guesses or probable actions of such variables. Or, the
researcher would like to know what will happen or what will be the behavior of the variable
and their interactions with one another. These are the researchers’ tentative guesses on what
probably would happen.

The function of hypothesis in the research report is that:

1. It introduces the thinking of the researcher, of what is the objective or target of

research in his mind.
2. It structures the next stage of the research report after presenting the variables
in the study.
3. It identifies the characteristic of the researcher, whether and objective or a
biased researcher.
4. It brings the research to a deeper analysis of the variables in the study
5. It identifies what the research hopes and contemplates for the study.
6. It helps a research provide the format of the presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data gathered in the study.

Characteristic of a Good Hypothesis

Among the different characteristics of a good hypothesis are:

1. It should reasonable. It should be one that can really be tested and should
involve the variables in the study.
2. It should state the type of analysis between the variables, whether differences
or relationships.

Types of Hypothesis and How they Differ

In general, there are two types of types of hypothesis:

1. Research Hypothesis

A research hypothesis is a temporary solution to a set of problems of the research,

using their words. It should be with the statistical hypothesis, so that there would be no
conflict of interpretation. This is the essence of inferential statistics or for problems that need
decision-making.

A research hypothesis will be better understood if discussed with the state of the
problem, especially since not all statements of the problem have research hypotheses.

Example:

Statement of the Problem

1. What is the profile of middle managers in the company in terms of the following personal
variables:

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1.1 gender

1.2 civil status

1.3 educational attainment

1.4 length of work experience

2. What are the leadership skills of middle managers in terms of:

2.1 human relations

2.2 technical

2.3 administrative skills

2.4 institutional skills

3. Is there a significant difference in the leaderships skills when respondents are grouped
according to personal variables?

Problems 1 and 2 do not need hypothesis. As a matter of fact, statement of the

problem which start with “what” are generally hypothesis free, for they “present” only data.
There is no analysis and interpretation of data.

It is Problem 3 that needs hypothesis, because it is a problem that needs analysis. One
is not licensed to use the word “significant” if it has not undergone statistical testing.

So the research hypothesis of Problem 3 is:

3.1 Leadership skills of middle managers do not significantly differ when grouped according
to age.

3.2 Leadership skills of middle managers do not significantly differ when grouped according
to gender.

3.3 Leadership skills of middle managers do not significantly differ when grouped according
to educational attainment

3.4 Leadership skills of do not significantly differ when grouped according to work
experience.

One will observe that all above mentioned hypotheses are in the null form. The word
“no” does not express a negative concept, but expresses a neutral one. It shows that the
researcher is objective and has no preconceived notion about the results, but is ready to
accept a different one when proven.

There is, however, another possible way of expressing a research hypothesis, for
example, in a positive one.

Take this problem:

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 Is there a significant relationship between age and leadership skill of managers?

The following research hypotheses may be offered as temporary solutions:

Research hypothesis 1. (Null form)

There is no significant relationship between age and leadership skills.

Research hypothesis 2. (Positive directional form)

The researcher hypothesizes that the older the manager is, the better the leadership
skills he possess.

2. Statistical Hypothesis

Similarly, these are the two types of statistical hypotheses:

The Null Hypothesis

Null, in mathematics, means “empty” of zero. Here, we try to show the corresponding
statistical hypothesis.

For example:

a. Research hypothesis

There is no significant relationship between emotional quotient and leadership

skills. This implies, the Pearson r correlation coefficient is zero, expressed:

Ho: P=O – this is a statistical hypothesis

Example:

 Research hypothesis – There is no significant relationship between maturity and

human relations skill.
 Statistical hypothesis- Ho: P=O
 Research hypothesis – There is no significant difference between the two process A
and B.
 Statistical hypothesis- Ho: A=B
 Research hypothesis- There is no significant difference two groups of respondents in
Mathematics performance.
 Statistical Hypothesis- Ho: M(2)=M(1)

b. The null hypothesis is always the first statistical hypothesis to be tested.

Alternative Hypothesis

20
 When the null hypothesis is rejected, there are three alternative hypotheses you can
choose from:

a. Non-directional hypothesis is one which asserts that there is significant difference

between the variables, but researcher is only interested in the difference and its being
greater or lesser than is of no importance. Furthermore, you will learn later that there
are statistical methods that do not have positive directional hypothesis. In a hypothesis
referring to relationship, especially in the use of a Pearson r correlation coefficient,
the non-directional hypothesis refers to the positive and negative relationships.

Example:

“There is significant (positive or negative) relationship between maturity and human

relations skill” is a non-directional hypothesis. The statistical hypothesis is:

Ho:p ≠ O

The Pearson has no positive directional hypothesis, because both positive and
negative Pearson r may be significant. It has only a non-directional hypothesis and always
uses a two-tailed test, which you will learn later.

There is no significant difference between Technical Skills when respondents are

grouped according to educational attainments (assume there are three educational
attainments, A, B, and C).

When problems of this type arise, alternative hypothesis is non-directional: Ho: A≠B
(at least one pair of means is not equal) as in Analysis of Variance: One way Classification
(ANOVA) may only have a non-directional hypothesis.

b. Positive directional hypothesis implies a difference in the positive direction.

Example:

The performance of Group A is better than that of Group B.

Ha: A>B

c. Negative directional hypothesis implies a difference in a negative direction.

Example:

1. Research hypothesis- The effects of A on the weight of the baby is lesser than
that of B.
2. Statistical hypothesis- Ha: A<B

But statistically, one post the null hypothesis as a first solution. Errors in accepting or
rejecting the hypothesis can be avoided, and the findings will not be bungled up or

21
 confusing as rejecting the null hypothesis in a statistical test and accepting an
alternative hypothesis offered in a research hypothesis.

5. Assumptions

An assumption is a statement taken for granted. It does not have to be proven like a
theory or tested like a hypothesis. In other words, it is taken as a simple truth. When one says,
assume the line is straight, forthcoming statements will be based on a straight line. It helps in
the establishing parameters of the study.

This is because there is no such thing as a perfect research. There will always be flaws
in the setting or situations beyond one’s control. A clear example of a need for assumption, is
when one gives a respondent a questionnaire for him to fill up, and one is not sure that he
will be telling the truth about some personal matters like age, income, or other variables that
may be included in the questionnaire and when interviewed whether he will give the answer.
It is something beyond one’s control, so one can only assume that he is telling the truth.

This is a situation beyond your control and you simply have to assume that his
assertions in the questionnaires are true and control. Likewise, one cannot be sure that the
data one have taken from an office, hospital, or from a government office are true are true
and correct. Data which one needs and which one have no direct hand as in secondary data,
its gathering will just have to be assumed. Assumptions are also necessary in forecasting for
factors that are assumed constant in prediction.

However, there are situations which cannot be assumed.

For example, one cannot assume a methodology in research as valid and correct, or
the computations in the study are accurate, for such are within your control and you are held
accountable for that, and its precision reckoned against you.

Example of Assumptions:

The study rest on the assumption that:

1. Facts and data gathered from the hospital are true and may be taken in for
analysis and inference.
2. Students’ assertions made on the questionnaire are to the best of their ability;
hence, inferences can be made from their responses on attitudes towards birth
control.

6. Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Some would prefer Scope and Limitations of the Study, which may also be
right. When Scope and Delimitation of the Study is preferred, it would only mean the
extent of the study, or it will be a discussion of what it will not do, but will be
confined only to the topics referred to in the study. To be more specific, the scope
defines clearly the where, what, when, and who of the study and will not go beyond
that.

22
 On the other hand, when the other is preferred or used and limitations are
expressed, it would mean it is a phase, aspect, or a situations in the study which may
adversely affect the results with which you have no control.

7. Significance of the Study

One of the most important considerations in the choice of a topic is the fact
that it is important, or that it is of value. The study should have an importance to you, to the
school, or the community, or that it will end up developing a policy that will benefit national
leadership in education, in the university, or in the community. You should be able to
mention the sectors that will be benefited by the study, as well as its contribution to current
research knowledge.

8. Definition of Terms

There are some terms in the study, which the reader may not understand. It is
therefore important to define terms which are within the context of the study, starting from
the words in the title, statement of the problem, and even in the methodology. Definition of
terms is not footnoted, since they are operational or how they are used in the study, and it is
not a technical concept.

Elaborate

Determine which are good titles by putting A if it is good and B if it needs

improvement. Improve those which are defective.

______ 1. The Effect of Stress and Emotional Capability of Nursing Students

_______ 2. The Joys and Frustration of High School Students

_______ 3. The Relative Effectiveness of the Use of the Lecture Method on the
Learning of Maritime Students in Mathematics

________ 4. The instructional Leadership Skills of Middle Managers of Certain

Manufacturing Firms

________ 5. The effects of Codeswitching of Freshman students in the

Communication Arts

Evaluate

Select three titles and develop the following:

1. Theoretical Framework
2. Statement of the problem
3. Hypothesis of the Study

23
Module 2: Review of Related Literature and Studies

Learning Outcome:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Give the importance of a Review of Related Literature and Studies in a research

paper.
2. Enumerate the functions of a Theory

Engage

I. Identify the following:

1. It is alternative hypothesis, which asserts that variable A is better than

variable B.
2. It is the anti-thesis of a hypothesis for it is not proven.
3. Like a hypothesis, it is to be tested.
4. A kind of literature which is data-free
5. It serves as an inductive approach towards the statement of the
problem.
6. It is the nucleus of the research report.
7. These are types of questions which usually start with a what.
8. This determines the parameters of the study.
9. A problem which needs specific approach.
10. A hypothesis which expresses no significant difference between two
variables.

Explore

Determine which is an assumption and a hypothesis by writing A for

assumption and B for hypothesis.

_____ 1. There is no significant effect on the length of time in teaching Mathematics

in both Groups A and B.

______2. There is significant difference between the achievement in Physics of nurses

of Company A and Company B.

______ 3. Assertions made by respondents on the stressors that they encountered are
made to the best of their abilities; hence, it can be taken for analysis and inference.

______ 4. Attitudes can be inferred from responses made on the questionnaire.

______ 5. The mean different of the performance of the students in the test is not
significant.

Explain

24
Essential Topics for Chapter 2

The review of Related Literature and Studies as an independent chapter contains two
major parts, conceptual literature and related studies.

1. Conceptual Literature. It contains literature coming from books, journals,

and other forms of material, concerning or relevant to the study, but are data-
free or non-empirical material, coming from both foreign and local sources.

Basically, conceptual literature is different from a research literature

and the researcher should note that the conceptual literature is more readily
available than the research literature. Moreover, it is more comprehensive than
the latter.

2. Related Studies. These are empirically-based, like scientific paper, theses,

and dissertations, both published and unpublished, coming from local and
foreign sources.

In both types of literature, the most recent ones should be invoked or

mentioned, or only what is the “state of the art,” unless it is historical
literature.

When doing a review of related studies, give proper acknowledgement

and then get the gist of its objectives, findings, and conclusions using your
own words.

Literature review can be categorized to include major types of

literature such as:

a. sources of research, reading from various research journals, theses, and

dissertations.
b. theoretical literature from books, articles, scholarly/ professional magazines/
journals, and speeches.
c. general and special related literature on field of educational endeavour,
education business, psychology, medical researches, quality health and health
sciences, and the like.
d. methodology literature
e. research literature coming from other disciplines, or those related with
anthropology, sociology, economics and other disciplines
f. popular literature written by experts.

It is usually easier to work on Chapter 2, than Chapter 1 and the means going to the
library and researching for materials. You will find it easier to work on the paper, as you will
already have insights on the problem, the methodology, and findings of the other researchers.
In other words, you can be eloquent on a subject matter that you already know.

25
 While invoking the related literature, you may discuss the differences or the synthesis
of the review of related literature. At the end of the chapter, though you may give
justifications of your study, or the reasons why you undertook the study and that you attempt
to confirm, negate, or improve the findings with new knowledge. This what other people call
“bridging the gap”.

In gathering materials for chapter 2, go to the library and browse over encyclopaedias
or different journals which contain information or dissertations on the topic. The National
Library has also copies of various thesis and dissertations from various schools in the
Philippines. Another best way is to use the computer or internet, and search for current theses
and dissertations from foreign sources. There are many universities in the Philippines like
Ateneo de Manila, where there are volumes of researches, and a library filled with computers
where you can work on a topic. What you want can be printed immediately and it saves a lot
of time.

In writing the review, be sure to acknowledge the contributions of the authors and
writers, or they should form part of your bibliography.

In some schools, the theoretical or the conceptual framework is placed in the review.
If the theoretical framework or conceptual framework contains the essence of the problem,
the variables, and the dynamic of the variables of the study, then it should be placed before
the statement of the problem, as it will strengthen the objectives of the study and make the
research report more cohesive. As been said, a theoretical or conceptual framework serves as
a roadmap of the researcher and will guide you where you are.

Function of a Theory

A theory is important since it establishes its direction, a target, or an objective to be

attained.

Also it has the following function:

a. it provides the study with conceptual or theoretical framework, the process for
hypothesizing and contemplating its end result.
b. It gives you insight on the past findings on the past findings or the current
status of the topic you are working on.
c. It gives information on what objectives and methodologies are to be used to
attain the purposes of the study, which you can avail of.
d. It gives information on what future studies can be made to add knowledge to
the present and current status of the topic.

To Search for Review of Related Studies

Even if you have yet decided on a topic, when you go to the library, bring with you
cards with which you can take down notes. However, in some sophisticated libraries, most of
what you want are available from computers by having them printed immediately.

26
 You should select the library that you would like to research from, where computers
are available, and where you can search for reviews without difficulty and moreover, can be
printed immediately. You can get all the chapters in a day.

You can always seek the assistance of librarians as to where you can get materials for a
particular topics.

Elaborate

Determine which are good titles by putting A if it is good and B if it needs

improvement. Improve those which are defective.

______ 1. The Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Factors of Freshman Students to Enroll in
the Different Courses in Engineering
______ 2. The Predictive Ability of Holland’s Theory on the Occupational Preferences of
HRM students
______ 3. The relationship of Academic Preparation of Nursing Students to Licensure Board
Examination
______ 4. Correspondence Between Stressors and Coping Strategies of Maritime Students
During OJT Training
_______ 5. The Relationship of Mathematics Ability to Music Rhythmic Abilities

Evaluate
Select three titles and develop the following:

1. Statement of the problem

2. Hypothesis of the Study
3. Theoretical Framework

27
Module 3: Methods of Research

Learning Outcome:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Identify the different Methods of research.
2. Enumerate the different Matching Methods in a Research.
3. Give the different experimental Designs.
Engage

Identify each of the following statements:

1. ________ all elements under consideration

2. ________ may or may not have hypothesis
3. ________ never hypothesis-free
4. ________ a research method which uses standardized sources of data
5. ________ descriptive, but forward-looking to predict future behavior.
6. ________ its adverse factor is its small number of sample
7. ________ is also a probability sample
8. ________ future-oriented
9. ________ past-oriented
10. ________ present-oriented

Explore

Identify each of the following statements:

1. ________ Data furnished by an eye witness other than the researcher

2. ________ The most scientific experimental design
3. ________ A quasi-experimental single group design which uses pre and post-tests
4. ________ Kind of sample that allows researcher to infer characteristics of population
5. ________ What sample is the stars in the sky
6. ________ The variable that predicts
7. ________ Determines how the variations of one variable go with the other
8. ________ That which are held constant in an experimental design
9. ________ In historical design, these are criticisms that look within documents
10. ________ Is preferred to the fishbowl technique

28
Explain

Methods of Research

We can categorize the methods of research in terms of the following:

1. Qualitative methods are data-free. These are the methods used for the
following:
a. Usually researches with data from non-probability samples
b. Researches that do not seek generalization of data
c. Researches not concerned with inferring the characteristics of the population
d. Used for special kinds of researches or studies such as he following:
 Ethnographic
 Phenomenological
 Appreciative inquiry (AI)
 Historical researches
2. Quantitative methods of researches refer to methods that deal with:
a. researches that are not data-free, using all types of sampling techniques
b. researches that aim for generalization
c. usually use probability samples
d. infer the characteristics of the population
e. concerned with:
 Descriptive methods
 Experimental methods

There have been so much discussion and much have been written about quantitative
methods in research. The descriptive and the experimental methods used in general,
sophisticated statistics, other researchers are not adequately prepared for these methods, so
that there is a clamor for qualitative methods resulted. People doing research have to reckon
sometimes with the sixty four dollar question “to count or not to count,” for some say,
numbers sometimes “blur results.”

There are others who defend the use of other ways of measuring quantities, not just by
the number, but by identifying the degree or amount of its presence, through describing it as
“enough,” “adequate,” “very much,” or lacking.”

There are also other researches that do not use numbers and are well interpreted and
told, like anthropological and other social studies.

Finch from Adanza’s article (2003) says that qualitative research can be reflected on
two ways:

 at the level of techniques, and

 at the level of epistemology

29
Qualitative Methods of Research

Qualitative methods have the major purpose of looking for meanings, not for causes,
differences, or relationships.

The most common qualitative methods of research are the following:

1. ethnographic
2. Phenomenological
3. Appreciation Inquiry (AI)
4. Historical

In general, they are data and hypothesis-free and is not concern about population or
sample. It is virtually narrating an event, a problem, or an experience.

ETHNOGRAPHIC METHOD

The ethnographic method of research is seen by many as:

1. concerned with the environment or setting where the behaviour occurred

2. the general frame of reference that directly influences current decision-making
about specific issues (Carp, 1989)
3. having the purpose of:
a.discovering and describing the culture of people or an organization
b. understanding the social phenomenon from the perspective of
the participants
c.analysing the context of participants and narrating their “stories”

This method also has the following characteristics:

a. reflexive orientation of the ethnographer

b. hypothesis-free
c. no statistics
d. ethnic data “on-going”
e. think description
f. limited generability

PHENOMENOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Another qualitative method of research is the so-called phenomenological method.

Its philosophy and methodology was founded in 1940 by Marvin Farber, a book which he
edited for 40 years. Other contributors include John Findley, Morton White, and J.J.C. Smart.
The openness tradition of the book continues to date, by receiving articles from interested
readers.

The methodology offers ways of understanding and doing qualitative approach which
other methods do not offers, in contrast to the quantitative method of research method of
research, especially in the interpretative aspect. It deals with human experience, using

30
metaphor, narrative form, and inductive method. Elrich (19966) says that a phenomenological
research seeks to explain rather than just merely described the incidents in the story. Ramirez
(1998) prefers and confirms this approach by affirming that phenomenological research
involves topic of human, especially social experience.

This type of research, though categorized as a “research method” and as a process, is

more viewed as an “approach” to explain human and social experience.

Philosophical Foundation

The approach is based on the following concepts of:

1. Edmund Husserl’s on “certain absolute knowledge”.

2. Investigating general essence. This grows out of the descriptive phase. The
observer orders particular phenomenon in his consciousness according to their
similarities, and then proceeds to interpret intellectually what contributes to
the essence of these phenomena when experienced together.
3. Apprehending essential relationship among essences. There are certain
relationships among essences. There is a synthetic process.
4. Watching the modes of approving. This assumes that every “seeing” means
one “side aspect” of the whole phenomenon in his field awareness, or the
presence of different modes of clarity in the phenomenon.
5. Watching the constituents of a phenomenon. The observer may describe the
phenomena as these unfold to humans as they emerge in his consciousness.
This is analogous to the process of understanding strange places which slowly
become familiar to him.
6. Interpreting the meaning of phenomenon. This is moving to the theoretical
level of interpreting data by “ethnological formulation” of essence which
illuminates phenomena for the observer in the end. Ramirez (1998) concludes
that phenomenology is difficult to explain, although it is a simple and natural
method.

In short, phenomenological approaches have the following characteristics:

a) hypothesis-free
free from preconceptions
b) developmental change of a system
c) a strategy for organizational change
d) describing highest quality of a system

Advantages of phenomenological research:

1. it is not labor intensive

2. hypothesis-free
3. not every much concerned with numeric concepts

Disadvantages of phenomenological research:

31
 1. no generalization can be made
2. no inferences due to its nature

APPRECITIVE INQUIRY

One of the qualitative methods that is gaining popularity and used even in public
schools is the Appreciative Inquiry, known popular as AI.

By its name, it would mean a method that would change negative perspectives into
something good. It circumvents the negative aspect into a positive one.

What is Appreciative Inquiry?

Appreciative Inquiry comes from two words: appreciative and inquiry.

Inquiry is an act of exploration and discovery, to ask questions, and to be open to

seeing new potentials and possibilities.

Appreciate, on the other hand, means valuing or the act of recognizing the best in
other people or the world around, affirming past and present strengths, successes, and
potentials, to perceive those things that give life (health, vitality, and excellence) to living
systems and to increase in value.

Appreciative inquiry, then, means the cooperative search for the best in people, their
organizations, and the world around them. It involves systematic discovery of what gives a
system “life” when it is most effective and capable in economic, ecological, and human
terms. AI involves the art of making questions and strengths, a system’s capacity to heighten
“positive” potentials. It mobilizes inquiry through crafting an “unconditional positive
question” often involving hundreds or thousands of people (Cooperider and Diana Whitney,
2003:XVIXIX).

It is the opposite of traditional methods of research

The traditional approach to change is to look for the problem, do a diagnosis, and find
solutions and recommendations to solve the problem. In other words, the negative aspect is
being emphasized, paying attention to problems which are simplified. Appreciative inquiries
deal with the positive aspect of things, and leverage them to correct the negative; it is the
opposite of problem solving (White, 1996:vol.XI.11 NO.15).

It is the theory which deliberately seeks to discover people’s exceptionality, their

unique gifts, strengths, and qualities. It actively searches and recognizes people for their
specialties, their essential contributions, and achievements. (Cooperrider, 2002:12)

A Method of Research (a method of inquiry)

From the definition, Appreciative Inquiry can be used as a method of research, which
is very much used in research papers in the United States. Among its strong features are:

32
  It considers the strength and potentials of persons and opportunities, not weakness or
threats.
 It turns negative into positive, what are perceived to be negative and only the best in
people.
 Although it is qualitative in nature, it can be used as a composite method with
quantitative ones.

Examples for topics in Appreciative Inquiry:

 Employee Morale and Business Successes

 Theories of Change for Success
 Learning Situations in the Lower Grades
 Qualities of Empowerment Among Employees

Advantages of Appreciation Inquiry:

1. it is not labor intensive

2. it does not involve quantitative data
3. it is in story form
4. it is hypothesis-free
5. it can be used with other quantitative methods

Disadvantage of AI:

1. One cannot generalize, since it is quantitative

2. No inferences can be made, due to is nature; no data and no hypothesis

HISTORICAL RESEARCH

History is a branch of knowledge that records and explains past events as steps in the
sequence of human nature activities. Broadly, history involves many past experiences that
help in knowing what to do in the present and plan what is in the future. It is concerned with
describing past events or facts in the spirit of inquiring critically for the whole truth and give
insights into the present and probable future.

Historical investigations help broaden our experiences and make us more

understanding and appreciative of our human nature and uniqueness. By knowing our past,
we will know the present conditions better. Although we may not be able to predict
accurately using the fact in history, it exists to familiarize us with what attempts were done
before.

The Features of Historical Method

The historical method is one which deals with past events and interprets them in the
light of the present. It is past-oriented and is concerned in giving an account of past event or
fact in the spirit inquiring critically for the whole truth. The purpose of historical method is

33
to explain the present or anticipate the future, based on a systematic collection and evaluation
of events or experiences in the past, always in terms of what can be understood presently.

Examples of topics for Historical Research:

 Did Rizal recant his religion in favour of Catholicism before he was shot in Luneta?
(He was a Mason)
 Who really was the President of the Philippine Republic? Aguinaldo or Juan Luna?
 Was the declaration of Martial Law by President Marcos justifiable?
 Was President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo right in declaring a state of rebellion during
the Marine crisis on the belief that it was the beginning of coup’ de etat?
 The History of the American Occupational
 The Rebuilding of Olongapo
 The Bombing of Pearl Harbor during World War II
 Was the removal of President Estrada legal?
 What are the defects of the Local Government Code as it is assessed today?

There are only few researchers who utilize the historical methods. There are not a few
who question the usefulness of this method, although there are others who believe that
historical investigation broaden one’s experience, while others believe that the past and its
useless thriving on them.

The Steps in Historical Method

The steps in doing a research historical project are essential the same as other
methods, which are:

 Develop a research problem that will utilize the historical method

 Determine what data are needed and make a plan on how to gather such data
 Gather data and analyse them as to internal and external criticisms
 Write the report in answer to the statement of the problem

The Three Major Procedures in Historical Research

a. Data collection with documents

b. Subjecting data to internal and external criticisms
c. Writing the research report

Types of Historical Research

There are two types of historical, namely:

a. Deliberately. It is deliberate historical method of research when there is a conscious

effort to preserve information like in diaries and epitaphs, recorded with the aim of
transmitting or passing on information.

34
 b. Incidental. It is incidental when it supplies information that was not the original
intention. This may consist of physical objects or written materials of historical value
which are called relics or remains, and are produced without deliberate aim to impart
information.

There are many evidences used and required in historical research, with information
coming from diaries, written documents, or pictorials and materials, photographs, paintings,
including love letters, and many other that are especially written or documented, for historical
research depends on them.

Steps in the Historical Method

The different steps in using the historical methods are the following:

a. Formulating the Problem

There are several motivations for undertaking a research which could spring from a
desire to know what happened in the past, i.e. an inquiry into Development of
Philippine Agrarian Reform or any other event in the Philippine history that may have
intrigued you.

At the beginning, the problem may be broad and diffused, but through
analysis, the problems will just break into proper form.

The focus of historical research may be individuals, curricula, textbooks,

facilities, projects, programs, processes or event, concepts, ideas, and phenomena
which occur during a particular period of time in a given setting, by nationality, social
strata, religion, gender, age, or occupation.

b. Gathering of Material Resources

One of the early tasks of doing historical research is the gathering of materials
and where to get the best materials so that the problem of the study may be answered.

c. Classifying Historical Resources

Historical sources may be classified as primary and secondary. A primary

source is regarded as the best source of evidence. This is due to the fact that the data
comes from the eyes and ears of witnesses to past events, or that data are said to be
direct and comes from persons who were present during the time of the event. They
may also consist of actual objects used in the past which one can directly scrutinize or
examine.

Secondary data, on the other hand, are those data which the researcher has access
from another person. For example, if you have seen fire in a certain place yourself, then that
constitutes primary data; however, if somebody tells you about it, and you were not there,
that is secondary data. The longer the line of the source of the information, the more
unreliable the data.

35
 Examples of secondary data:

 Data obtained from government offices

 Data obtained from hospitals
 Grades obtained from the registrar’s office

Places Where You Will Find Sources

After some materials have been classified, where they are to be found is the next
concern. When data concerns Philippine events, you can go to places like the Philippine
Historical Institute where such data may be available. You may find also valuable
information from card catalogs in the library and the periodical indices, bibliographies,
historical events, historical reviews, and journals of research.

You may also go to places where the event happened and get direct evidence from
witnesses.

a. Systematizing Your Note-taking

Note-taking or getting evidences and materials should be well-arranged and

systematically-sorted according to your objectives.

b. Criticizing Your Gathered Material

One of the skills that should be developed is being able to determine whether a
document or material is erroneous or deliberately produced to some misinformation.
Beware of thinking that a material is genuine, especially if you have not applied some
form of assessments or criticisms. This virtually means that your material has to be
evaluated in terms of some criterion measures and you have to apply meticulous
internal and external criticism.

1. External Criticism

Primarily, external criticism means finding out if the materials is genuine

and if it possesses textual integrity or materials which can be presented as
evidence. Its aim is to determine whether it is really what it purports to be and
whether it reads true to the original. The following are the question used to
determine such purpose:

 Who made or produced the produced the documents?

 What are the qualifications or is it an original work of a credited author?
 How was the document written, from a memory or after consultation with
others?
 What were the contents of the documents derived?

These and many other questions are asked to ascertain who produced the
source material, and where and when it was produced.

36
 There are several procedures which you can do to check the genuineness of
the source materials. The techniques may include authenticating signature, chemically
analysing the paint, or carbon or dating artefacts.

In summary, external criticism refers to the assessment of the document itself,

its validity and worthiness in terms of its originality, determining at the same time, the
type of material, date of publication, the languages used, and if it corresponds to the
period of the historical event.

2. Internal Criticism

After testing the document for external criticism, you may proceed to
assessing the internal aspect of the paper. The major concern in this
step is to check on the meaning and the trustworthiness of the data
within the document. Much of the work here is actually criticism. The
good faith of the author is to be doubted because of:

 The author’s interest, which may introduce bias

 The forces of inevitable circumstances
 Vanity
 Literary distortion

Other views of criticism that may show doubts as to the credibility or the
author are following:

 The author’s poor observation

 Hallucinations, illusions, and prejudices
 Negligence and indifferences
 The facts may be of nature, of the directly observable.

Some of these questions may also be asked:

 What is the real meaning of the author’s statement as

distinguished from its literal meaning?
 What is actually behind and between the lines?
 Was the statement made in good faith?
 Was the statement accurate and precise?
 What are data produced from his work: primary or secondary?

Advantages and disadvantages of Historical Research

1. Advantages:

 The research paper is not complete.

 Documents are strong evidence than testimonial ones.

2. Disadvantages:

37
  It develops less creativity since only data that exist are important
 Researcher cannot alter the form of the evidences, since the form itself will
denote validity.
 Data are not complete, which makes historical studies hanging and may give
rise to other problems.
 There is no room to establish inferences, generalities, or projections, so
historical research have little utilitarian value.

Quantitative Methods of Research

Another category of the methods of research are the methods that are generally
empirical and are derived from direct data, which are necessary numeric. These researches
tend to make inferences, generalizations, and projections.

DESCRIPTIVE METHOD

Dealing with what is designed for the investigator to gather information about the
present conditions, status, or trend, and dealing with what are prevailing are generally
descriptive research. The main objective of the study is to describe the nature of a situation as
it exists at the time of the study, and to explore the causes of a particular phenomenon.
Descriptive researchers seek “what is” of data and not “why is it so.” One can only describe
what is prevailing, and develop inference, but cannot explain the “why” of the dynamics of
the variables, otherwise, there is no point of research, since he knows the answer.

The descriptive research is a method which does not only contain many types of
research, but is a method which seems to encompass or is the umbrella of various types of
researches. Almost 95 percent of the researches done by both undergraduates and graduates
including doctoral dissertations, are descriptive in nature. It is dominant research method
used by the researchers, especially in empirical ones.

Different types of Descriptive Method of Research

The following are the types of research that use the descriptive method:

1. Case Studies

A case study is a type of detailed and in-depth research involving a few respondents,
ranging from one to a small size of less than ten (10), over a considerable period of time. It
provides a limited number of participants and a very in-depth description of the development
of a certain activity, matter of a person, event, institution, or community.

This type of study deals with cases that are made in-depth, even if it involves only a
few cases, since it has no major purpose of inferring their characteristic for a population and
may take longer time.

38
 Moreover, a case study is different from reporting for this particular method involves
a unique and non-traditional way of doing things. The method itself and its findings are the
major contribution of case study.

Example of Case Study:

a. A Case Study of the Kawasaki Disease

b. A Case Study of Fraternal Twins
c. A Longitudinal Study of Autistic Patients
d. Implementation of Organization Development in a Certain School: A Case Study

Uses of Case Studies

Among the uses of Case Studies are the following:

a. It provides further the investigation with hypothesis, that might be difficult to study
in other contexts, in being a micro study with limited small sample.
b. It gives out unique situation, not in the ordinary way of doing things for the study
which gives out new information.
c. It provides new insights, helps modify pre-existing beliefs, and points out gaps in
knowledge, but on micro size scale.
d. It may demonstrate the effectiveness of certain theoretical model for the sample is
smaller than larger and bigger ones. Models with in-depth and detailed information
can be derived.

Limitations of Case Studies

Some limitations of the Case Studies are the following

a. It is difficult to determine which factors are relevant to the phenomenon under study
due to its setting or sample size.
b. There is the tendency in using Case Study to select convenient cases, since it is not as
labor intensive as other studies. It cannot test hypothesis statistically, because of its
sample size and results cannot apply the principles of probability. One cannot
generalize the findings or make inferences because of its sampling technique and size.
c. There is need for various assumptions for there might be conditions beyond the
control of the researcher. This is because of the sample size and the limited selection
of the samples. The most adverse situation in a Case Study is the small size of its
sample.
d. It includes secondary data, like interpretations from documents and conclusions of
professional.

2. Surveys

The methods is used when one intends to gather a relatively limited data from a
relatively large number of subjects. Survey studies are categorized into two, namely:

 Descriptive Survey; and

39
  Descriptive Normative Survey

The former uses a questionnaire or other instruments prepared by the researcher to

generate data, while the latter deals with sources of data that are standardized, like Mental
Ability Tests, Performance Questionnaires, the Puedue Morale Questionnaires, and other
where norms are prepared.

Definition of Survey Research

A survey research is used to gather relatively large number of cases. The purpose is to
gather information about prevailing conditions or about the variables under the study. These
survey studies may include correlational, assessments, or causal comparative studies.

Survey research generally serves the purpose of describing current or prevailing

conditions, characteristics of a group of people or object, opinions, attitudes, and impressions
of people. It is essentially getting the data or information from a variety of subjects taken
purposively, but one should know how to limit the interpretations, since no inferences of the
population can be made.

Survey studies from the point of sampling are called sample surveys, if the sample is
used as census for the population.

Examples:

a. Interactions of Age and Gender on Science Subject Performance of Grade IV Students

b. Stress and Coping Strategies of Nurses in Intensive Care Units of Hospitals
c. Holland’s Vocational Personality and Working Conditions for high Level of Job
Satisfaction, Job Performance, and Stability of Teachers
d. Quantitative Measures for Productivity of Textile Manufacturing Firms
e. Emotional Quotient and Leadership Dimensions of managers in a Computer
Producing Company
f. Total Quality Management and Empowerment of Staff for Organizational
Effectiveness in the Company
g. Consumer Behavior on Purchase of Dairy Pro0ducts in a Province
h. Sociological Problems Encountered by OFW Families Left Behind
i. Problems Encountered by Different Families Structures
j. Predictive Efficacy of Academic Preparation of Nurses on Board Examinations

Advantages of Survey Research:

a. It is not labor intensive in deriving data, but may be in the writing research report,
when there are plenty of variables and computerization is needed.
b. The methodology is not complex, reduces cost, effort, and time.
c. It can avail of current questionnaires and standardized instruments for the study.

Disadvantages of Survey Research:

40
 a. There is no possibility of high returns of questionnaires or other instruments to
generate data.
b. There is likewise the possibility that assertions made by respondents to questionnaires
may not be true or correct.
c. There is the possibility that the instruments prepared by the researcher may be
inadequate or insufficient to gather data for the study. In other words, there is the
problem of validity of the instrument, especially if it is researcher-made.

3. Developmental Studies

When one desires reliable information about a group of people over a long period of
time, the method of research used is called developmental method. Such research design
requires one to devote a considerable period of time on participants who may be relatively
heterogeneous, or narrowly defined as homogenous group.

Two Methods Developmental Studies

a. The Longitude Method. In this method, you study the same sample of participants
over an extended period of time.

Examples:

1. A study on the mathematical concepts that high school students develop from
first year to fourth year
2. A study on autistic children from 1 or 5 years
3. Study on fraternal twins from birth to 7 years old
b. The Cross-Selection Method. This concerns studying participants of various age levels
and of other characteristics at the same point in time.

Example 1: Determining mathematical concepts from the first year to the fourth year,
getting participants from the four years at the same time and drawing conclusions
from the findings.

Example 2: A study on the development of babies from birth to five years afflicted
with a certain type diseases, and using participants from all age levels at the same
time.

Advantage of Developmental Studies:

The advantages of Development Studies are the following:

a. It is not labor intensive.

b. A small-sized sample can be used.
c. It gives detailed accurate information of the objects or persons to be observed.

Disadvantages of using Developmental Studies:

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 a. It is not possible to develop inferences from the findings, since the sample is
very small.
b. It is also not possible to give generalizations of the findings for the same
reason that the size is small, but can be made only for the particular sample.

4. Assessment or Evaluation Studies

Assessment or evaluation studies are those which reefer to be the efficiency or

effectiveness of policies, instruments, or the variables that may be considered. In general, the
word “assessment” is more frequently used than “evaluation”. Since the survey deals with
impression of perceptions of respondents, it is oftentimes subjective. It is not like using an
instrument, like a blood pressure instruments, where one can get most likely an accurate
measure. Evaluation is one strict and rigid measure, similarly, with the word “impact” for it
is easy to measure “impact”.

The differences in perceptions of respondents are taken care of by statistical measures

of central tendency.

Examples:

a. The use of Scanners in Determining Sex of Babies

b. The Implementation of Total Quality Management in the Company: An Assessment
c. The Capabilities of Freshmen Students in Entrance in the College of Nursing
d. Performance of Graduates in the Engineering Licensure Board Examination and the
Factors that Influence it.
e. The Performance of Students in Science Using the Process Method
f. The Improvement of the Bureau of Customs’ Collections Due to SGS Collaboration
g. The Use of Quality Control Measures in the Production of Quality Books in Selected
Printing Presses in Metro Manila
h. The Role of College Algebra In the Understanding of Mathematical Logic Among
Sophomore Business Students

Advantages of Assessment or Evaluation Studies:

a. The findings have direct use since these studies fall into category of applied research.
b. The findings serve as basis for decision-making and the formulation of policies,
especially if it is management concerned.
c. Data do exist.
d. The study is not labor intensive.

Disadvantages of Assessment or Evaluation Studies:

a. There might be difficulties in getting data. Aside from getting participants for the
study, they do not like to give information about their places of work. Managers of
organizations do not generally want their companies to be the subject of research.
b. Recommendations may not be accepted.
c. The equipment or instruments may not be available.

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5. Comparative Studies

There are also definite comparative studies in research that are studies which have
intervening variable, that will result in differences in certain characteristics according to
variables considered, without determining the cause, or may cause a difference, the latter is
referred to as casual comparative studies.

Examples of Comparative Studies:

a. Gender Differences in Mathematics Scores among Grade Six Students

b. Organization Development Interventions as Perceived and Desired by
Personnel of a Manufacturing Firm
c. The Effects of Certain Variables on the Communication Abilities of Freshman
Studies
d. Management Styles of School Managers According to Selected Variables as
Perceived by Personnel
e. Comparing the Different Quantitative Projection Techniques in Market Shares
for Oil Products
f. Comparing Attitudes of Management and Teachers on Accreditation
g. Determining Movement of Vocational Personality of Nursing Students Across
Curriculum Levels
h. Development of Altruistic Tendencies of Nursing Student in the Four Years of
Academic Work

Usually, it is easy to discern comparative studies by the way a title is paraphrased.

Advantages of Comparative Studies:

a. The method is not labor intensive and the result are easily seen.
b. The variables are selected, not only as a basis of previous studies, but also on what
subjects have,
c. The variables are selected according to which can give significant implications to the
study.

Disadvantages of Comparative Studies:

a. The findings are limited. If there are differences, the causes are unknown. The
former can only be answered in an experimental design with the cause as the
intervening or experimental variable.
b. The selection of the variables is usually limited. When using parametric tests, the
sizes of the different groups compared are important.
c. When respondents are group into categories, it is necessarily comparative studies,
but the sizes of the categories may not be “conformable” for comparison. For
example, one cannot compare in a three group management level, if top
managements is only 10, middle management 20, and rank and file is 100, for the
sizes are not “conformable” for comparison when using analysis of variance, a

43
 parametric test, and differences will then be due to the sizes, not on the variable
being compared. In this case, a non-parametric test is used.

6. Correlation Studies

These are real “relationship,” “correspondence,” or “association” studies. The word

correlation is too specific for each type, for it would mean using the Pearson r correlation
coefficient to described relationship. We will study the technical terms when we go to
statistics and be able to see the difference between these terms.

Through these kind of studies, one can determine how the variations of one variable
go with the other, including the amount or magnitude and the direction of such variations.
However, relationship does not establish cause and effect.

The student is , however, warned that “relationship” and “association” does not mean
the same thing. Relationship is used for studies of this type when the variables are linear, and
“association” when the variables are “qualitative.” More of this will be discussed on analysis.

Examples of Relationship Studies:

a. The relationship between Management Styles and Leadership Dimensions of

Manages of a Certain Business Firm
b. The Relationship between Quotient, Leadership Styles, and Performance of Principals
of Secondary Schools in a Certain Province
c. The Role of Personality Factors on Stress Experienced by Nurses Working in
Intensive Care Units
d. Loci of Decision-making Structures and Organizational Effectiveness Among Middle
Managers in a certain Company
e. Total Quality Management and Teacher Empowerment of a Certain National High
School
f. Adequacy of Knowledge of Strategic Planning and the Extent of its Implementation in
a Computer Firm
g. The Role of Vocational Personality on the Choice of Occupation of Fourth Year High
School Students

Researches would result in more information, if the researcher will proceed to testing
significance of Pearson r correlation coefficient and proceed to linear regression to
determine variance in y due to x and make the study an in-depth one. A Pearson r
correlation coefficient is only descriptive.

In relationship studies, two types of variables are considered and these are:

1. The independent variable or the x variable or the predictor

2. The dependent variable or the y variable or the criterion measure

44
 In the examples, below are independent and dependent variables:

Table 1

Problems Independent Variables Dependent Variables

x variable y variable
1 Leadership Dimension Management Styles
2 Emotional Quotient Performance
Leadership Dimensions
3 Personality Factors Stress
4 Loci of Dimension-making Organizational
Structures Effectiveness
5 Total Quality Management Teacher Empowerment
6 Adequacy of Knowledge of SP Extent of Implementation
7 Vocational Personality Choice of Occupation

Advantages of Relationship (Correlational) Studies:

a. It is easy to identify the variable; likewise, it is easy to generate data.

b. The methods are easily identifiable since there are definite statistical method and
techniques for them.
c. Some authors use Pearson r correlation coefficient for finding the relationship; then,
testing its significance, and proceeding to regression analysis to determine the amount
of variations in y due to x for predictive purposes.
d. The variables are tenable for complex multivariate analysis and for predictor
selection. Linear regression is viewed by many as an “elegant statistical method”

Disadvantages for using Relationships (Correlational) Studies:

a. It is difficult to fulfil the basic assumptions for the use of normality and linearity for
the Pearson r correlation coefficient.
b. It uses statistical methods, which are difficult to compute and the statistical program is
sometimes not available

7. Follow-up Studies (Tracer Studies)

This used when one wants to follow up the development of certain conditions or
particular sets of people. A follow-up study is sometimes referred to the “tracer studies” and
is usually employed when one wants to determine where the graduates or the alumni of
certain schools have gone and get current information about them.

Examples of Follow-up Studies:

a. A follow-up Studies of the Graduates of Maritime School from 1990 to 2005

b. A Follow-up Studies of the Nursing Graduates of a Certain University from 1990 to
2005
c. A Tracer Study of the Graduates of the Drug Rehabilitation Center from 1992 to 2005

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 Advantages of Follow-up Studies

a. The finding will benefit the institution.

b. They reveal the status or the condition of the alumni of the school for a certain
period of time, which a school should have.
c. Follow-up studies are generally purely descriptive and lack in depth.

8. Trends and Projection Studies

Trends and Projection Studies are popular for projects that are forward-looking. One
kind of these trend studies is the feasibility study, which data and conditions existing in the
present, and the success of the future is predicted.

Sometimes, this method is taken together with econometric models. Trends and
projections also predict behaviour of some economic variables, and certain assumptions have
to be made, like constancy of factors of predictions or projections.

Examples of Trend Studies:

a. Enrollment Trends in the College of Education from 1995 to 2005, and Ten Years
Hence
b. World Nursing Demands Within Five Years Hence
c. Occupational Trends in the Later Part of the New Millennium
d. Housing Trends in a Certain Region Ten Years Hence

Advantages of Trends Studies:

a. Easy to generate data since most are documentaries

b. Has a basic assumption: factors remain constant for projections
c. Important in decision-making and policy formulation
d. Imperative for planning

Disadvantages of Trend Studies

a. The probability for the presence of adverse factors is great.

b. There are complexities in feasibility studies.
c. In some cases, data may be difficult to obtain.

9. Ex Post Facto Research

While some authors view ex post facto research as distinct and different from other
methods of research, it is also the opinion of many others that this method would fall under
the descriptive method of research. The only difference is that the descriptive method deals
with what is prevailing, the ex post facto deals with past.

It deals with the variables in retrospect, with ex post facto meaning “after the fact”
and with researches where the dependent variable and the events before that have given rise
to this consequence.

46
 This method is also referred to as a systematic empirical data, only the researcher has
no control over the independent variables, for they have already manifested in the past and by
its very nature cannot be manipulated.

Examples of Ex Post Facto Researches:

a. The Effects of Having and Not Having Textbooks on College Algebra

b. Performance of Salesmen Without Fringe Benefits
c. Effects of Entrance Capabilities of Maritime Studies SOLAS Training

Advantage of Ex Post Facto Research:

a. It gives information on differences in the past results.

b. It is not labor intensive.

Disadvantages of Ex post Facto Research:

a. Data may not be available.

10. Participatory Research

Participatory research is used on a massive scale and concerns large populations. The
method has three characteristics (Sevilla et al., 1988):

a. There must be sufficient time allowed for the research process to deal with the
complexity of the problem.
b. It calls for a method which allows for reflection done jointly by the
researchers and members of a culture where the research is done.
c. It requires that the research process must be a permanent sequence of
statement, action, reflection, and analysis.

Participatory research is dependent on the following methods:

a. Methods used in research have ideological implications.

b. A research process should offer some immediate and direct benefit to a
community, instead of merely serving as a basis for an academic paper.
c. A research process should involve all the participants from the formulation of
the problem to the discussion of how this is to be solved and how the findings
are to be interpreted.
d. If the goal of the research is changed, then the members of the research team
should be made up for the researchers and the people representing all the
elements in the situation.
e. The participant to be research process as community activity where
community needs and relations are experienced.
f. The participant should see the difference or the changes from time to time, not
as static experiences, but as dynamic needs.
g. The purpose of the participant is to maximize his potentials as a member of the
community to help solve its social needs.

47
 Example:

a. Problem of Cooperatives of Rice Farmers in Nueva Ecija

b. The Management Practice of Local Dairy Farmers in Laguna
c. The implementation of the Comprehensive Land Reform Program in certain
Province in Central Luzon

11. Documentary Analysis

Documentary analysis involves the gathering of information by analyzing written

records and documents to solve a problem. The other type of descriptive research involves
secondary data, or not taken by the researcher himself.

Example of Documentary Analysis:

a. Enrollment data as influenced by Economic Variables

b. Analysing English Grades of different Groups of Students (Grade taken from
registrar’s office are also documentary data)
c. Analysis on records taken from hospitals, or from government organizations
are also documentary records
d. Differential effects of age and gender on differential Calculus grades
e. Interaction effects of age and gender on English grades
f. Intercorrelation of performance in English, Mathematics and Science grades

Advantages of Documentary Analysis:

a. If they grades, then data are easily obtained.

b. Similarly, if data come from the hospital, government office, or any secondary
documentary data.
c. It is not labor intensive.
d. If the data are grades, which are linear, they can be subjected to linear
regression if proper variables can be selected. Most of these are performance
analysis.

Disadvantage of Documentary Analysis:

a. Generally, it is not an in-depth study.

b. Most of the time, it is only descriptive.

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

The second quantitative method of research is the experimental method. It is

different from the descriptive method in a sense of time, for it is future oriented. Unlike other
methods of research, it is never hypothesis- free.

The experimental method ushers new terms and “participants” in the process per se,
for it introduces “controlled” and” experimental variable,” whether quasi or true experimental
designs.

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 An experimental design can be easily discerned from its title, usually with respect to
the extent an “ experimental or independent variable ”is” effective” on the dependent
variable.

In general, experimental designs are “solitary” designs for it cannot serve as a

composite method or collaborative method with other methods.

The experimental method is viewed as a method with the most utilitarian and most
“prestigious” and most “sophisticated method” in a sense that it always brings to the fore
important new knowledge and ushers advanced information, especially where quality of life
is concerned. Unlike relationship studies, it is cause and effect and uses sophisticated
statistical techniques.

Characteristics of Experimental Method

a. It has two important and necessary “actors”: the “controlled” and the “experimental”
variables.
b. The experimental, or the independent variable, is manipulated and applied to a
dependent variable, while the latter is held constant.
c. The “effect” of the independent variable on the dependent variable is measured, and is
usually the criterion measure for an experimental design.
d. Experimental designs are usually numeric and caters to sophisticated statistical
design.
e. Usually, experimental designs are limited to small samples.
f. Experimental designs are labor intensive since it is done in the laboratory.

Experimental designs involve two groups: controlled and the Experimental Group,
although there is a quasi-experimental single group, with pre and post-test information. More
groups are used to more sophisticated designs.

The Experimental Group receives the treatment under investigation and is expected to
gain something, while the Control Group receives the treatment, usually in an ordinary
technique.

True experimental design have the following characteristics:

1. Manipulation

The researcher does something to at least the subjects in the study. There is the
presence of an experimental variable which is introduced in the experiment and its effects are
determined.

When you set up groups and you randomly assign them to treatments, you are in effect
manipulating the variable treatment.

49
 Some variables in the experiment may not be manipulated, such as gender, socio-
economic status, age, or mental ability. These are non-manipulated variables. If you have
well-chosen groups and you randomly assign them to three treatments, and you would like to
find out which group will profit from the treatments, the boys or the girls, the high average or
the low socio-economic status groups, the younger or older children, the high average or low
mentality ability children, you are actually using gender, socio-economic status, and mental
ability as non-manipulative variables, Any group can receive one of the treatments, but no
group can be seen to become males or females, nor can any group be assigned to any non-
manipulative group.

2. Control

The researcher is able to control one or more variables. Generally, in an experiment,

these are the control and the experimental groups which are placed initially alike at the start
of the experiment.

As what has already been mentioned, it is very important in your work as an

experimental researcher to be sure that the two groups are equal at the start of the experiment.
Furthermore, you should give the groups sufficient exposure to the treatments you are
investigating. This means that you are giving the treatments the “chance to work.”

Example:

a. Suppose you are experimenting on the effects of feedback on science achievement.

Suppose that one group is given extra teaching of the lesson covered in the experiment.
Control here is necessary because the objective of the experiment is to determine which of
the two treatments is effective. Giving one group extra teaching gives this group an
advantage over the other group, which is not given extra teaching. This should be controlled.

b. A mathematics teacher wants to find out if the use of the Galley Method of multiplication
will be effective among third year high school students taking algebra. One group will be
given the tradition method of multiplication. This is the control group, while other group will
be using the method of multiplication in Algebra. This is the experimental group and the
experimental variable in the Galley Method of teaching. The two groups shall be matched
according to mental ability and a pre-test.

 The independent variable- method of teaching

 The dependent variable- performance in algebra.

c. A medical student wants to find out how long blood sample placed in test tubes and then
immersed in iced water will be affected.

 Experimental variables- length of time

 Dependent variables- blood samples in the test tubes soaked in ice

50
d. Suppose and agriculturist would like to determine if a type of soil cultivation will affect the
number of fruit a certain tree will have. He will use an experimental method with the
following variables:

 Independent variables is type of cultivation

 Dependent variables would be the number of fruit

e. A medical doctor would like to introduce a new drug that will influence the cure of typhoid
fever. He will use two groups of patients using an experimental design with the control group
using the ordinary drug and the experimental group using the new drug. The two groups have
to be put initially alike in variables that might affect the experiment.

 Independent variable- the new drug

 Dependent variable- cure for typhoid fever

The two groups must be placed initially alike, so that whatever increases there are in
the dependent variable, they can be attributed to the effects of the independent
variable.

3. Randomization

In this method, the researcher assigns subjects for the Control Group and the
Experimental Group, the latter using the experimental variable.

The third characteristic of an experimental design is randomness, that is, the

experimental variable is randomly applied to the experimental group. The researcher should
be as objective as possible, assigning as well the different subjects without personal bias.

Randomness is based on the assumption that differences between the two groups will
tend to cancel each other out.

Randomization should be used whenever possible subjects should be randomly

assigned two groups whenever possible, treatments should be randomly assigned to groups
whenever, and anything should be randomly assigned.

Randomization means that assignment is done by pure chance, involving the use of
the table of random numbers or other accepted random sample procedures.

Different Matching Methods

One of the most difficult aspects of the experimental method is the arrangement of the
control variables, especially when two groups are used. The two groups must be initially a
like or should be matched. The two groups could be similar on the results of the pre-test, or
they could be similar in other factors, such as gender, age, socio-economic status,
intelligence, curriculum year, or others which may be necessitated by the purpose of the
experiment.

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 In experimental designs, the experimental variable or the independent variable, is
selected in accordance to its relevance to the criterion measure. On the basis of these
variables, you equate groups by randomly assigning pair members, one member from each
group. For each of the available subjects, you find another subject with the same or similar
score on the variable or the variable which is the basis for matching. Subjects who do not
have a match must be eliminated. As a matter of fact, it is desirable to have more than the
number of pairs in both groups, for if one member, for instance, in the control group drops
out, its counterpart in the experimental group must also be dropped out from the experiment.

Among the different matching methods are the following:

1. Person-to-person matching. Here, people are selected on the basis of similar or

identical personal characteristics. One of the most important variables to be controlled
is intelligence, for as what others say, it is “bad” intervening variable. Many results are
affected adversely by intelligence. It is one variable that should be controlled in
experimental designs.

Here, you look for people similar or the same on the variable and you randomly
assign them to groups. An individual in the control group has a counterpart in the
experimental group.

2. Matching groups. The bigger populations, groups are paired on a variable. It is held that
the two groups are similar on the basis of the mean and the standard deviation of the
scores used in measuring the variable. However, matching group is less precise than the
person-to-person method.
3. Ranking method. Sometimes, the subjects of the study are ranked in some selected
variables, like achievements, grades, socio-economic variables, and others depending on
the problems of the research. The process of selection is continued until all the subject
have been assigned.
4. Homologous group. Another way of controlling extraneous variables is by comparing
groups that are homogenous. If you think that the age can effect=t the dependent variable,
you may as well use only one age group. This is holding age as constant. If gender would
be an extraneous variable, then you can employ either boys or girls only. If intelligence
will affect the outcome of the study, which generally does, you may draw only subjects of
the same IQ level. There is a disadvantage of homogeneous selection, however, that is,
the findings of the study are limited only to subjects involved, and there is less
generalization of the results since only one level of the variables is employed.
5. Using subjects as their own controls. This involves using the same subjects for the
treatments. If there are three methods of instruction to try out, all the subjects will receive
three treatments, one after the other in different order. One difficulty, however, is that
there might be a carry-over from one treatment to the next.

Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA)

One of the uses of analysis of Covariance is when using two experimental groups and
there’s no particular method to putting them in initial form. Analysis of Covariance will

52
identify later if the samples have been selected or not. A detailed discussion of the method
will be found in statistics.

Different Experimental Designs

The different experimental designs are the following:

A. PRE-EXPIREMENTAL DESIGNS

Design No. 1. The One-Shot Case Study

The One-Shot Case Methods considers only one group exposed to the experimental
variable.

a. X

b. O

where: X = treatment

O= post-test

The one-shot case study consists of just one group which is exposed to a treatment
(X), and then give post-test. It is devoid of controls.

Example: When one wants to know the effectiveness of a seminar, an examination is given.

Design No.2. The Single Group Pre and Post-Test Design

This is an improvement of the first experimental design. Sometimes, this is viewed as

a quasi-experimental single group design with pre and Post-test where variables are more
visible.

Below is the design for such method:

O (1) Pre-test

X Experimental variables

O (2) Post-test

The Pre and Post-tests are the same and an increase of measures in the Post-test
signifies the effectiveness of the experimental variables where the same participants (single
group) took the tests. The fact that it is the same group of participants, the variability of
personal attributes are held constant and therefore, controlled. To determine the effectiveness
of the experimental variable, dependent t-test or paired observation is used.

Example:

53
1. When giving a seminar, a pre and post-test design is tenable and the effectiveness of the
experimental variables can easily be made. The sample participants have the same variables;
hence personal variables are ready controlled

2. Measuring the effectiveness of a teaching method using a single group

3. The effectiveness of an intervention on organizational effectiveness

4. Measuring the effectiveness of musical instruments on the study of mathematics

5. The of the laboratory method in the teaching of statistics

6. The effectiveness of diet and medicine in the treatment of diabetes

Advantage of the method:

a. One does not have to worry about controlled variables.

b. The method is not difficult and data are accessible.

Disadvantages of the method:

a. It is not very sophisticated method of research.

b. It is difficult to prepare the pre and post-tests for they have no undergo validation.

Design No.3. The static Group Comparison

This is a design in which a group which has experienced x is compared with other
group which has no experience and knowledge of x for the purpose of establishing the effects
of x.

Design No.4. The Parallel-Equated Two Group Design

This method is similar to Design No.3, but they differ in purpose. They involve also
two groups: the experimental and the control group, which are not usually random samples.

The two groups must initially be the same or alike at the beginning of the experiment.
The control variables may be gender, age, mental ability, which is a bad intervening variable
and the pre-test results for both groups, which should also be equal, as another control
variable. The design is as follows:

Experimental Group Control Group

1. Pre-tests X1 X2
2. Post-tests O1
O1
The Process Method The Traditional method

54
 3. Post-tests X3 X4

Data analysis would be;

1. X1, X2, X3 and X4, are the same tests.

2. There are four pairs of tests to be tested, and these are:

a. X1 and X2 – by an independent t-test. This should not be significant, for it

serves as a control variable.
b. X1 and X3 – to determine extent of improvement of performance in the
Experimental Group due to be the method by a dependent t-test
c. X2 and X4 – to determine the extent of improvement of performance in the
Control Group due to the method by a dependent t-test
d. X3 and X4 – to determine the effectiveness of the method, and if the Process
Method is better than the ordinary method by an independent t-test

If the result of the fourth test is significant in favor of the Experimental Group, then
the experimental variable is better and more effective, otherwise it is not.

Examples:

1. Finding the effectiveness of a curriculum material.

2. A science teacher would like to test the effectiveness of a new method in Science,
which is the Process method. A two parallel-equated group is selected: the
Experimental Group and Control Group. The Experimental Group is taught the
Science Process Method, while the Control Group is taught the ordinary method.

3. Determining the effectiveness of:

a. Coaching Method

b. Giving and giving rewards

4. Training the effectiveness of a seminar in method of research or statistic.

B. THE TRUE EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

The true experimental designs control nearly all sources of internal and
external validity.

Design No. 5. The Pre and Post-Test Control Group

It has following schematic or research design:

The schematic diagram method is drawn below:

R O (1) X (2)

55
 R O (3) --- (4)

Where:

R - random assignment

O (1) - experimental pre-test

O (2) - control pre-test

O (3) - experimental post-test

O (4) - control post-test

X - treatment

The design involves two groups, both of which are formed by random
assignment. Both groups are pre-tested and post-tested, but only one group is given
the experimental treatment. Threats to internal validity are prevented by means of a
second group. Maturation and testing, for instance, are manifested equally to both
groups and so is regression. Selection is taken care of by randomization.

Design No. 6. The Solomon Four-Group Design

The design can be illustrated as follows:

R O (1) X O (2)

R O (3) O (4)

R X O (5)

R O (6)

This design has the highest prestige since it has the greatest validity. It is the
extension of the pre-test / post-test control group design and post-test – only control group
design. Two groups are pre and poste-tested; two groups are post-tested; two groups have
treatments; and two groups do not have experimental treatments. There are four comparisons
to be made which are as follows:

1. O (1) and O (2)

2. O (2) and O (4)
3. O (5) and O (6)
4. O (3) and O (6)

The two independent variables are the treatment and the pre-test variables. While
the design enjoys preference, there is one difficulty with it- that there might not be
enough subjects to form four groups.

56
 Data Analysis. The data generated by this design are computed using the two-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) on post-test scores. The results of the computation are
analysed as follows:

a. If the post-test mean of the experimental group is significant greater than that mean of the
first control group, and if the control post-test mean is significantly higher than that of the
second control group, there is evidence that the experimental treatment is effective.

b. If the average of differences between post-test scores of the experimental group and those
of the first control group and between the second control group and those of the third control
group are the same, then the experiment must have had a comparable effect on pre-tested and
on unpre-tested groups.

For example, an experiment was conducted on finding the effects of rewards on the
motivation and job performance of four groups of salesman: Groups A, B, C, and D. The first
two groups, A and B, were the experimental groups, the first with pre-test and the other group
without pre-test.

The first data analysis was the computation of 14 two-way analysis of variance. Since
the computed F values for the main and interactive effects of the pre-tests were not
significant, an analysis of covariance on the post-test scores of the first and second groups
with the post-test of the two groups as covariates was computed.

The other dependent variable that was employed was the job performance of the
subjects. Since the variables were continuous, an independent t-test was used to find the
difference between the means of the two related samples.

Design No. 7. The Post-test-Only Control Group Design

The Post-test-Only Control Group Design is illustrated by the following diagram:

R X O (1)

R O (2)

Where: R = random assignment

X = treatment

O (1) = experimental post-test

O (2) = control post-test

In the design, there are two groups, one of them receiving the experimental treatment;
both are post-tested, but are not pre-tested. It is commonly confused with Design No. 3, but
its difference with the latter lies on randomization. Design No.7 is considered the last two
groups of the Solomon Four-Group Design. The combination of random assignment and the
presence of a control group sources of internal validity, except on mortality.

57
 Data Analysis. To test the significant difference between the post-tests, a t-test for two
independent random sample is used for data analysis.

C. QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

Design No. 8. The Time-Series Experiment

O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 O7 O8

The time series design is elaboration of the one-group Pre-test- Post-test design
involving just one group; it is pre-tested four times and then the same is post-tested four
times. The number of times of pre-testing and post-testing may be more, but foregoing
example has only four and four. The multi-testing prevents the incidence of maturation,
testing, and regression as threats to internal validity. History will be a problem since
something untoward may happen between the first and last testing which may affect the
dependent variable. You might confuse it with the effect of the experimental treatment.
Instrumentation may also interfere with internal validity, since it is likely that you will use a
variety of tests. If the measuring instrument are stable in a sense that no new ones must be
introduced at some point in the repeated testing, instrumentation will not affect internal
validity. Pre-test treatment interaction may also be a validity problem.

A variation of the time-series design involving addition of a control group can be

done. This variation eliminates history and instrumentation threats to validity.

O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

01 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8

Analysis of data generated in a time-series experiment involves studying the patterns

of test scores.

Below shows patterns obtained by one researcher:

X, A, B, C, D

Scores on the dependent variable

O1, O2, O3, O4, O5, O6, O7, O8

Pre-test scores, X, Post-test scores

Design No. 9. Counterbalance Designs

This counterbalance design is an experimental design in which the experimental

treatments are arrange in a different sequence, in a rotation method, in a counterbalance
method, and ends in what is called the Latin square arrangement, consisting more often four
methods in a virtual matrix form as noted below: (note the arrangement of the independent
variable)

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 Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4
Group A X1 O
X2 O
X3 O
X4 O
Group B X2 O X4 O X1 O X3 O
Group C X3 O
X1 O
X4 O
X2 O
Group D X4 O X3 O X2 O X1 O
The foregoing designs uses only post-tests sinces the problem cannot make use of pre-
tests. It makes of three classifications: group, time, and treatments.

This Latin square can be rearranged in the following way although the two designs are
basically the same.

X1 X2 X3 X4
Group A t1 O t2 O t3 O t4 O
Group B t2 O t1 O t4 O t2 O
Group C t3 O t4 O t1 O t3 O
Group D t4 O t3 O t2 O t1 O

Where t = time sequence

A weak of the Latin sequence design is the inference of multiple treatments. Thus, it
should be used only where one treatment will not contaminate other treatments. Exposure to
one treatment should not affect the evaluation of the effectiveness of the other.

Treatment of Data

To determine the effectiveness of the independent variables used in the experiment,

the average treatment for each is compared. On the other hand, the post-test scores for all the
groups given the first treatment can be compared with all the post-test scores of the second
treatment, and so on with the rest of the treatments.

The Latin Square experimental design can be used to determine the effectiveness of
the three treatments or three experimental variables, on diabetic patients using medicines ,
using Diets A, B and C one after the other. Analysis of Variance may be used to compare
reduction of sugar in the blood of the patients and determine the sources of variation: 1)
reduction of sugar in the blood, 2) treatment (different diets), 3) sequence presentation, and 4)
interaction effects. Further, she employed t-tests for more specific groups differences.

Design No. 10. The Non-equivalent Control Group Design

The design is illustrate us follows:

This design is considered as one of the most widely used in educational research.
Consisting of two groups, the design gives pre-test and post-test to each group, but only one
gets the treatment. The broken line between the two groups suggests that there has been no

59
randomization done. Campbell and Stanley say that there are two things to keep in mind
about the design:

1. The non-equivalent group design should not be confused with Design, where
the experimental subjects are assigned randomly from a common population to
the experimental and the control group.
2. The non-equivalent design should be recognized as well worth and using in
many instances in which design 5, 6, and 7 are impossible to use.

The design is commonly used with groups with participants naturally assembled such
as those in the classrooms. The assumption is that both groups are equal, but in case
there are effects of extraneous variables identified, the analysis of covariance may be
used. An advantage of this design is that since classes are chosen “as is” possible
effects or reactive arrangements will be minimized.

D. FACTORIAL DESIGNS

Basically, factorial designs are extensions of the true experimental designs. Designs 5
to 7 are made factorial by adding more groups to take care of more treatments and more
variables. These designs allow you, the researcher, to measure not only the main effect each
independent variable on the dependent variable, but also the interaction effects of theses
independent variables. You should understand that life is co complex now that you should not
investigate a phenomenon on just one variable. Using two or three variables will make you8r
experiment more realistic.

The term factorial means that two or more independent variables are being
investigated, each variable having two or more levels. Thus, a 2 x 3 factorial design has the
first variable in two levels and the second variable in three levels.

The simplest factorial design is a 2 x 2 grouping where there are four groups in all.

Examples:

1. Two kinds of treatments are tried on children in two mental ability groups.
2. Two kinds of production processes on two types of rope.

The purpose of a factorial design is to evaluate whether the effects of an experimental

variable are generalizable across all levels of a control variable, or whether or not the effects
are specific levels of the control variable. Moreover, the factorial design can tell if there is an
interaction among variables which a single-variable experiment cannot.

The number of variables and levels will depend on the problem being investigated,
but rarely, there are four or more factors studied for the following reasons:

1. Posing more than three factors will involve more subjects which may be
difficult to get due to the various levels of variables necessary.
2. Statistical analysis after the treatment will be difficult to compute with so
many main and interaction effects; and

60
 3. Interactions between and among variables will be difficult to interpret.
Interaction between two variables is easy reading, but interactions among
three or more will be difficult to interpret. Campbell and Stanley explain that
such interactions tend to have no meaning anyway.

Data Analysis. A score generated in the factorial designs of experiments are analysis of
variance.

The Topics of Discussion in Chapter 3

Actually, ANOVA can be used for both descriptive and experimental variable and no
control variables.

1. ANOVA: one-way classification implies that there is one independent or experimental

variable.

a. Example 1. Descriptive – Comparing the performance of three classes in Biology

(You will only know the difference, but cannot attribute it to a variable)
b. Example 2. Experimental – Determining the effects of three kinds of chemicals A, B,
and C on the strength of three same type of ropes
 Experimental variable – Chemicals A, B, and C
 Control – the same type of ropes

2. ANOVA: two-way (two variables)

a. Example 1. Descriptive –Finding effects of age and gender on English test

b. Example 2. Experimental – Effects on fruits of plants, using 1) types of cultivation;
and 2) different volumes of water

3. ANOVA: three-way (three variables)

a. Example 1. Descriptive – Effects of 1) age, 2) gender, and 3) socio-economic status

on Licensure Board Examination
b. Example 2. Experimental – Effects of three kinds of disinfectant A, B, and C on
staphycoccus

Internal and External Validity

A. INTERNAL VALIDITY

Internal validity refers to the condition that observe differences on the dependent
variables as a direct result of manipulation of the independent variable, not some other
variable.

To determine internal validity, you may ask the following questions:

1. Did the experiment treatment really bring about a change in the dependent variable?
2. Did the independent variable really make a significant difference?

61
The Threats to Internal Validity

There are eight (8) threats to internal validity. These are the following:

1. History. This refers to some specific events that occur between the first and the
second measurements of the independent variable, which may cause changes in the
dependent variable.

Example: You are interested in measuring attitudes as the outcome of your

study. In between measurements, your subjects listen to a speaker talk about
the attitudes you are measuring. In doing so, the students might change their
attitude not because of the speaker. This is the case of history.

2. Maturation. Sometimes in between measurements, the participants may undergo

physical or mental changes. They may be tired, bored, or older, which may affect their
performance on the measure of the dependent variable.
3. Testing. When the improvement of the subjects’ performance on the dependent
variable is a function of the pre-test and not of the experimental treatment, internal
validity is jeopardized. This condition may be due to the fact that the pre-tests are
easy to recall. One way to control this is by not giving pre-test. Or you may use
alternative forms of the test for the post-test. This is done to enhance the internal
validity.
4. Instrumentation. This threat to interval validity happens in the following situations:
a. When pre and post-tests are not equal in difficulty.
b. When essay tests are used for measurement and the grading of the two tests
may fluctuate.
c. When the interview is used for measuring gains, and the familiarity with
interview schedule affects the second interview.
d. When the observation is used as the measuring device and the observers may
change in their ways of pre or post-test treatment of observation.
5. Statistical Regression. This threat to internal validity occurs when the subjects chosen
are the lowest and highest scores in the pre-test. The tendency of these subjects is for
their scores in the post-test to regress toward the mean, even without the benefit of the
treatment. The bright students tend to get lower scores and higher scores. Campbell
and Stanley explain that this is an inevitable accompaniment of the imperfect test-
pre-test correlation for groups selected for their extremity. To avoid the occurrence of
this phenomenon, you may refrain from selecting extreme scorers.
6. Selection. This happens when the participants are chosen by groups, and not by
individuals. Suppose you pick a class as the experimental group, and another class as
a control group, the two groups may not be really equal because individual
characteristics have not been considered.
7. Mortality. This refers to subjects who may drop out from the experiment. The
participants left to continue the experiment may not constitute the original property of
the group. The study will lose internal validity.

62
 8. Selection-Maturation Interaction. It is selection and maturation that commonly
interact. Selection-maturation interaction is concerned when one group profits more
from the treatment, or it has an initial advantage because of maturation, history, or
testing factors.

B. EXTERNAL VALIDITY

This refers to the condition wherein results are generalizable or applicable to groups
and environments outside of the experimental setting this indicates that the results of the
study, thee confirmed cause-effect relationship, can be expected to be reconfirmed with other
groups, in other setting, at other times, as long as the conditions are similar to those of the
original study.

The Threats to External Validity

The following are specific factors that pose as threats to external validity:

1. Pre-test-Treatment Interaction. This occurs when the subjects (Ss) respond or react
differently to a treatment because they have pre-tested. The pre-test-treatment
interaction is probably on hand among mature highly sensitive students who can sense
the relation of the pre-test and thee the treatment. Very young children who would not
know the connection between a pre-test and a treatment would not meet this threat.
2. Selection-Treatment Interaction. This refers to the situation when groups selected are
not representative of the population so desired in the experiment. This non-
representativeness may result in the findings of the experiment good only for the
experimental sample and therefore, are generalizable.
3. Specifity of Variables. This refers to the fact that when a given study is conducted
with a specific kind of subject, using specific measuring instruments, at a specific
time and under a specific set of circumstances. This means that the specifity of
everything might not lead to generalizability.
a. Operationally define variables in a way which has meaning outside of the
experimental setting and
b. be careful in stating conclusions and generalizations.
4. Reactive Arrangements. This pertains to the artificiality of the experimental setting
and the subjects’ knowledge that they are participating in an experiment. Some
authors advise that, unless very necessary, your subjects should not know that they are
participating in an experiment. Some authors advise that, unless very necessary, your
subjects should not know that they are participants in an experiment. You should,
therefore, treat all groups equally; that the experimental subjects should not feel
favoured and the control subjects, discriminated against. When the unequal treatment
occurs, the results of the study may not represent the effect of the treatment, and
external validity is jeopardized.
5. Multiple-Treatment Interference. This occurs when the same subjects receives more
than one treatment so that there is a carry-over from one treatment to the next.
Assessing a latter treatment, therefore, is difficult due to this carry-over. You are

63
 advised, then, to minimize multiple-treatment interference by allowing sufficient time
to lapse between treatments.

The true experimental designs control for nearly all sources of internal and external
validity. There is one obvious characteristic of these designs and this is
randomization. Also, there is a presence of a control group.

Elaborate

Indicate what method of research will be best for the following topics:

1. The Problems Encountered by the Anthropologist in Search For His Wife’s Original
Home
2. A Summary of the Interviews Made with President Mandela as President of South
America
3. The Laws that Provides for the Creation of the National Police
4. Enrollment Trends of the College of Maritime for the Last Ten Years
5. The Role of Total Quality Management in the Development of Faculty Empowerment
in the University
6. The Teacher’s Morale Using Purdue Moral Questionnaire
7. The relationship between Brand Loyalty and Consumer Buying
8. The Effects of Seminar on Change of Mental Models of Applicants of a
Manufacturing Firm
9. Gender Differences in Educational Degrees Among Asian Leaders
10. The Implementation of Organizational Study In the University: A Case Study

Evaluate

Indicate what method of research will be best for the following topics:

1. The Effect of Age and Gender on Sixth Grade Pupils in Science Performance
2. The behavior of Autistic Children from Age Four Till Seven Years of Ages
3. Entrance to Battery Examination Scores to Mental Ability of Nursing
Students
4. The Effects of Three Herbal Medicine in the Treatment of Colds
5. The Need to Review the Local Government Code in the Tenure of Local
Officials
6. The Effects of Mobility on Faculty With and Without Their Families Around
7. The Effects of Seaweed on the Growth of Some Plants
8. The Effects of Volume of Water and Soil Cultivation on the Number of Fruits
of the Nangca Tree
9. The Use of Bread Fruit as Staple Food for the Filipino Family
10. The Effects of Reducing Time of Mathematics on Performance Using
Experimental and Control Groups

64
Module 4: Sampling and Sampling Technique

Learning Outcome:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:
1. Differentiate the different sampling and sampling technique.
2. Appreciate the different Sampling techniques.

Engage

I. Identify the following:

1. ________ the most ideal samples

2. ________ elements do not have equal chance of being selected\
3. ________ all elements considered
4. ________ a portion of the population
5. ________ a sampling technique good for homogeneous sample
6. ________ a sample of heterogeneous sample
7. ________ used as a source for getting samples
8. ________ method of deriving a sample
9. ________ population frames that can be counted
10. ________ population frames that cannot be counted

Explore

Give the title of the study, then suggest the probable sampling technique and method
of research.

1. Enrolment Trends of the College of Education

a. Method of Research______________

b. Sampling Technique _____________

2. Relationship between Emotional Quotient and Leadership Styles of Middle Managers

a. Method of Research______________

b. Sampling Technique _____________

65
Explain

Population

The population consists of all the elements under consideration. It is the universe of
the study, and its characteristics are called the “parameters” or the perfect measurements of
its characteristics.

Examples:

1. All the fourth year students in the West Central High School.
2. All the faculty of the Western High School.
3. The Senior Students of the College of Medical Technology in a certain
university.
4. The first four sections of the College of Nursing in certain university.
5. The senior students in the College of Law of a certain university
6. The soldiers in the camp.

Kinds of Population

There are two types of populations:

1. Finite population frames are those that can be counted, such as the fourth year high
school boys of a certain public high school; top management of Philippines Long
Distance Company; the senior business students of a certain college, and the like.
2. Infinite population frames on the other hand, are those which cannot be counted, like
the stars in the sky, the number of pedestrians that will cross the street, or the cars that
will cross Mendiola Bridge.

In other words, finite population frames are those sets which are well-define, unlike the
infinite population frames.

Sometimes, what makes a population finite or countable is that it is delimited to a

certain period oof time, or certain place or location.

In planning a research project, especially an empirical research project, one has to

reckon on which to use: a population or a sample frame.

A sample is a part of a population. It may be representative or not representative,

depending on how it is selected.

When to Choose: a Population or a Sample

It is an ideal research when the characteristics of the population can be used, for the
results would be the parameters or the 100 percent values of its characteristics. But
oftentimes, the population frames are very large, that they tend to “blur” the results.

66
Inferential statistics, allows a research to be conducted by using a sample, for the choice of
the correct sample or a representative sample can give the same results as the population
frames. This is the essence of inferential statistics, which we shall discuss later.

Factors to Consider in the Selection of a Population

One does not simply choose a population for the sake of choosing one. There are
factors to consider and among these are:

1. Objectives of the Study

It is but logical that when a researcher decides to do a piece of research on the
attitudes of the public towards the Value Added Tax, the population to be chosen should
be those who will be affected directly. The researcher can get consumers from different
parts of the community. Or when one wants to find the level of job satisfaction of nurses,
then, the setting of the study should be hospitals, and the respondents of the study should
be nurses.

Examples:

a. A researcher would like to determine the relationship between socio-economic

status and severe diarrhea among adults in a certain barrio in Cebu City. He
has to decide on the classification of adults in the barrio and the time of the
research.
b. If a person likewise wants to do a piece of research on drugs addicts who have
been rehabilitated, then, he has to get records from rehabilitation center and
their current addresses.

In other words, the objective of the research report determines who the respondents
are and the population.

2. Availability of Data
The data needed for the study must be available. If the population frame does not have
the data required for the purpose of the research, then again, it cannot be chosen as the
population.

3. Nature of the Research

The selection of the population is also dependent on the nature or type of
research, whether it is historical, descriptive, or experimental.

When it is historical research, there is no need for a population, but when the
research is empirical and descriptive, some studies need populations from which
samples may be derived for use.

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 a. In cohort studies, the choice of the population is dependent on the common
characteristics possessed by a group of people who are observed for a
particular period of time. The investigator may describe the population in
terms of the place where they work.
Example:
 The pediatrics in an obstetrics department
 The salesman in a sales department
b. In case control studies, where at least two groups of respondents are used,
the researcher selects two population frames.
Example:
 Those who have disease and those who do not have it
 Those who have AIDS and those do not have it
c. In experimental studies, the selection of the population is determine by the
variables to be measured and controlled.
Example:
The Relative Effects of a Certain Drug in the Reduction of Fever

In this case, two samples are derived from two population frames, one, the
experimental group using the variable and the other group not using variables, or the
controlled group.

4. Variables to be Measured, Assessed or Associated

The selection of the population is also constrained by the variables that are to be
measured, assessed, or manipulated. Surely, if the population does not have the variable
considered for the study, it is not selected.

5. Inferences to be Made

The researcher from the beginning has insights into the probable inferences that he
would like to contain in his findings. It is generally preferred that findings in a study can
result in inferences and generalizations. In this case, a finite population is considered from
which representative sample may be chosen and therefore, inference can be made.

Choosing a Sample

A sample is a small group that you observe and a population is the larger group about
which your generalization is made.

In research, it is usually a practice to take a slice of a big population for several

reasons:

1. It is very expensive to get the entire population.

2. It takes a lot of time to reach what is known as the target population.

68
3. The sampling enables the researcher to do some inferences or generalizations about the
target population. This is a very beautiful experience knowing about the population from the
sample.

There are cases, however, when there is no need to get the sampling of the target
population. This happens when the contemplated population is small, such as if in your
school, or company to which you belong, where there are only 100 fourth year students or
personnel. It is wiser to get the entire population because any way, there are only a few
members. Even if the entire population is big , however, such as in census, you need the
entire population. But a particular researcher should avoid such problems as these. Adanza
(2006) says that the population frames often times are too large to be used, that a random
sample is not only ideal, but difficult to obtain. There could be other reasons such as cost and
geographical location, and unavailability of the desired respondent. However, statistic
provides special techniques by which other sampling processes may be used that will allow
inferring the characteristics of the population (using Central Limit Theorem) even in using
smaller samples.

The process which involves taking a part of the population, making observations on
this representative group, and then generalizing the findings to the bigger population is
termed as sampling. Also, the term sampling refers to the strategies which enable you pick a
subgroup from a larger group, and then use this subgroup as a basis for making judgements
about the larger group. Samples are to be taken from a finite population.

For inferences, a probability or a random sample is a necessity, but random samples

cannot be taken from an infinite population frame.

Oftentimes, sampling for research is unavoidable since time, money, and effort
involved do not allow you to study all possible members of a population But as long as the
sampled used is representative of the population, that is, you are able to generalize with
confidence and describe the population from which the sample has been taken, the findings
and conclusions obtained from your sample are valid.

Regardless of the specific technique used in selecting a sample, the steps used in
sampling include:

1. Identification of the population

2. Determination of the required sample size
3. Selection of the sample
Sampling Size of the Population. For you to determine the sample size of the population ,
a formula by Slovin (1960) is given as follows:

Where:

n = a sample size

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 N = population size

e = the margin of error (at. 05, minimum)

Error is percentage allowable for non-precision, since a sample is used instead of a

population. This formula is one of the easiest and the convenient to use in determining the
size of the sample.

Example: Determine the sample size of a population with 1000 elements with a .05
error margin.

Substituting faithfully in the formula:

So that, out of a population of 1000, one can use sample of 286. One can just imagine
the saving of time, effort, and money when a sample in used. One can also imagine the
usefulness and the advantage of using a sample.

Another formula for finding the size of the sample, when a probable variance, the
level of confidence are known, depending on whether the researcher would use a t-test or a z-
test. In most cases, researchers prefer a z-test as it is more stable and not affected by degrees
of freedom. Therefore, it is:

where:

n = a sample size

z = value at .05 probability

o= the square of the population variance

e= maximum allowable error

Let us illustrate the use of this formula. If a researcher wants to get a probability
sample of nursing students for a particular school, and the square of variance is known, then
the size of sample would be:

Given: z.05 = 1.96

o = 2.77

1= 0.05 (maximum allowable error)

then the sample size would be:

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 n=

n=

n=

n= 117 nurses

In the following selection of the sizes of sample, the following things are taken into
consideration:

1. The most ideal and the best sampling technique is to look for a random sample
or a probability sample and follow the formulas for deriving the size of the
sample. For with the use of the random or the probability sample, inferences
and generalization of the characteristics of the population can be made, which
is the real purpose of research, aside from this, sophisticated statistical
methods can be used.
2. However, when a random sample is not available. A purposive sample can be
selected, and the sizes are dependent on the type and purposes of the research.
The researcher should also select a population where he would not have to
reckon with the problem of getting the proper sample size.

The Different Sampling Techniques

Sampling techniques or strategies refer to the different ways of deriving a sample.

1. There is the “rule of thumb method” which says that 20 percent of the population
frame for sample is tenable or would suffice, although there is no statement regarding
its validity.
2. For a descriptive normative and survey researches, the Central Limit Theorem is
considered, that is, the greater the size of the sample, the nearer the result approaches
the parametric values, so that if the population frame is not very large, 50 percent and
above of the population frame can be considered for the sample purposes.
3. When lesser than 50 percent, but greater than 30 percent, parametric statistics may be
used, but interpretations shall be limited for the sample considered.
4. When lesser than 30 elements and it is a purposive sample, the interpretation of data
are limited to the sample only, and may have to use non-parametric tests.
5. There is no problem with other types of research, since a small sample is allowable.

The Different Ways of Deriving a Sample

There are two types of samples, the probability and the non-probability samples. The
method or way of deriving such probability or non-probability sample is referred to as the
sampling technique.

There are two kinds of samples:

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1. Probability sample. A probability sample is one where all elements in the population
frame have an equal chance of being selected. Probability samples are random samples, and
are the best representative samples of the population. Findings of researches using a
probability sample are valid and used to infer the characteristics of the population frame. The
basic assumptions for the use of parametric test is based on the randomness of the sample
characteristics.

2. Non-probability sample. A non-probability is a sample where not all elements of the

population frame have an equal chance of being selected. The sample is not a representative
sample of the population frame and cannot be used to infer the characteristics of the
population, unless its size sustains the operation of the probability laws, based on the Central
Limit Theorem.

Example: A teacher counted 100 students in the auditorium. She wants to get a
random sample of 290 students. She made a head count of the students and said that only
those who had numbers that were multiples of 5 are included in the sample she desired.

Questions: Does the 25 selected students constitute a random sample? (No, is the answer; for
not all elements have an equal chance of being selected. Right from the start, those with
numbers having multiples of 2 and 3 and some numbers of 4 have no more chance of being
selected.

The Different Probability Sampling Techniques

The different sampling strategies for probability samples are the following:

a. Simple Random Sampling

The best known and most common used probability sampling is the simple random
sampling.

There are two basic principles in random sampling which are:

1. Equi-probability, which means that every member of the population has an equal chance of
being chosen for the sample.

2. Independence, which refers to the condition that when one member is selected for the
sampling, this should not affect the chances of thee other members getting chosen.

There are two methods of getting a simple random simple:

 The Lottery Method. The lottery method is popularly known as the “fishbowl
technique.” It is applicable to finite populations and the steps in deriving it are as
follows:
- Construct the population frame and assign randomly a number to each
participant
- Write the numbers of all the participants in small pieces of papers which are of
the same size, shape, form, and color to eliminate the partiality of the

72
 researcher who may knowingly or unknowingly be influenced by the form,
size or color, thus, violating the equi-probability chance of a participant to be
selected.
- Roll these papers and put them in a container, where they can move freely in
all directions.
- The container is shaken very thoroughly and a number is drawn. The owner of
the number becomes a member of the sample.
- Stop when the desired number of participants is picked from the container.

The researcher may or may not return the drawn piece of papers with the number.

1. If the paper drawn with a number is returned to the container, the sample drawn is
known as random sample with replacement.
2. If the paper with the number is not return to the container, then the sample drawn
is random sample without replacement.

It is preferable to return the paper drawn, to make the probability of selecting a

number constant. The probability, for instance of drawing a number of 1/1000 if there
are 1,000 papers and if the paper is returned, the probability of 1/1000 is made
constant.

The lottery method in actual practice is now viewed as obsolete with the
coming in of computers and increased scientific technology and knowledge of
probability. However, the discussion of the methods is to gain insights into the role of
probability in sampling techniques.

 Table of Random Numbers. This is considered as the most systematic method for
getting sample units at random. The Table of Random Numbers contains columns of
digits that have been mechanically generated, usually by a computer, to assure a
random order. Most books in statistics and research include table of random of
numbers.

To illustrate the use of the Table of Random Numbers the following steps are
suggested:

a. Construct the population frame. Here, you have to enumerate or identify all the
participants of your population.
b. Give number to each participant randomly, as arranging them alphabetically will
introduce a bias.
c. Use the Table of Random Numbers. Close your eyes and randomly point a number,
which shall serve as the start of the random numbers to be used.
d. Stop when the desired number of sample is obtained

Table 2 shows an example of a Table of Numbers.

Table 2

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 Table of Random Numbers

319 432 148 732 826 144

261 389 099 487 003 823
138 278 133 688 194 205
271 425 784 542 316 667
408 058 919 892 847 009
269 131 649 538 291 857
383 398 502 296 888 711
527 036 087 129 203 108

The digits in the Random Table should be equal to the digits of your population.

A simple random sample is generally used when the characteristics of the population
are homogeneous.

When the random sample has been drawn, the sampling fraction is computed with
formula.

where: sf = the sampling fraction

n = the sample size

N= the population size

The sampling fraction is used in the research methodology in describing the relation
of the sample to the population and will also be used for other purpose.

b. Systematic Sampling with a Random Start

Another form of sampling is the “systematic sampling” with a random start s strategy
for selecting the members of the sample that allows only chance and a system to determine
the membership in the sample. A system is a planned strategy for selecting members after a
starting point is selected at random, such as very fifth subject, every tenth subject, and so on.

Here are the steps to be followed in doing a systematic sampling with a random start:

1. Construct s population and assign a number to each participant randomly.

2. Compute the sampling fraction of sf=n/N
3. Enumerate the elements contained in the set N. this set shall contain the number for
the random start.
4. From this set of elements in N, select a number using the Table of Random Numbers
for a random start.
5. Using that number as a “system,” select every nth number of the population as the
case may be.
6. Stop when the required number of participants has been obtained.

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Example: A sample size of 100 is to be drawn in the population of 1000, so in this case , the
sampling fraction is:

So that N=10 and from it, enumerate the elements. The set of numbers in 10 are:

N = (1,2,3,4,….10)

One of the numbers n in the Set N will be the random start. If from the Table of
Random Numbers, 2 is chosen, then 2 is the random start. Then every 10th number (which is
the system) from multiples of 2 will be the numbers of the participants that will be members
of the sample. Below is show the “system” for the sampling technique:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

And so on.

The numbers of the sample shall be those with numbers 2, 12, 22, 32, 42, 52, and so
on, or the system is to keep on adding 10.

Systematic sampling is to be representative if it does not have built-in bias and is used
when the characteristic of the population are heterogeneous. A systematic sample is good
substitute for a random sample if the original population is arranged similarly in a random
manner.

c. Stratified Random Sampling

A stratum is defined as a sub-population and the strata consisting of two (2) or more
heterogeneous population. The following steps are to be used for the stratified sampling
technique:

1. Construct the population frame with the participants randomly given a number.

2. Select the number of each stratum using:

a. proportional

b. equal allocation

If the sizes of the strata are almost the same, use equal allocation, if otherwise, use
the principle of proportional allocation, that is to determine the proportion of the strata in the
frame and use the same proportion on the sample.

75
 For example, if 35 percent of the population are non-smoking pregnant women, 45
percent are smoking pregnant women, 15 percent are smoking women, then the same
percentage should be found in the sample.

You should use participants of the research within each of the categories according to
the sample random sampling methods.

d. Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling occurs when you select the members of your sample in clusters,
rather than in using separate individuals. It is sampling in which groups, not individuals, are
randomly selected. Any intact group of similar characteristics is a cluster. This sampling is
sometimes referred to as area sampling, because it is frequently applied on a geographical
basis.

While other sampling techniques, such as the random sampling, systematic sampling,
and stratified random sampling refer to selection of individual ones or persons, the cluster
sampling refers to the selection of clusters or any group of homogeneous characteristics that
constitute a cluster, taken as one. This is a method usually selected by salesmen, where they
select clusters for their products.

Example 1. A salesman who markets pharmaceutical products uses different location

of clusters of houses, instead of individuals in marketing his products.

Example 2. A researcher studying the work experience of nurses uses hospitals

instead of individuals and gets a random sample nurses from each cluster of hospital.

Cluster sampling is also used in large scale survey, while the other sampling
techniques are concerned only for few subjects or few locations.

e. Multi-stage Sampling

Multi-stage sampling technique is rarely used because of the complexity of its

strategy. Moreover, it incurs a lot of effort, time, and expense.

Ultimately, probability sampling is based on probability theory, and it focuses on the

possibility of events most likely to occur. Although it is likely to be biased sample; that is
representative of the population since it uses the probability principle of randomness, and that
every element has an equal chance of being selected. Consequently, sampling error can be
estimated with a probability sample, it being the difference between the sample value and the
population value.

Moreover, because the sample is random, it is likely that the quantitative variables
generated are likewise probability distributions allowing, therefore, the use of sophisticated
statistics and parametric.

The Different Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

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 Non-probability sampling is the opposite of probability sampling, and since it is non-
random sampling, there is less chance of obtaining a representative sample. Most nursing or
medical researcher are involved with non-probability samples. It is also in this strategy that
participants of the investigation are not derived through equal chances.

Among the non-probability sampling techniques are the following:

a. Accidental or Convenience Sampling

This is sampling strategy based on the convenience of the researcher. This strategy
allows the use of any available group of research activities. There are two kinds of this type:

1. Snowballing
Snowballing is a kind of sampling technique where the population frame
cannot be identified. These are used for samples that are usually hidden from the
public view, like transsexual, women who have had abortion, or faith healers, so that
it needs a person to identify others of his kind and “snowballs” for other members of
the sample.

Examples:

a. The researcher asked each prisoner to suggest one or two other prisoners who might
be interested to be a participant.

b. The researcher asks a rape victim to suggest other rape victims to be a participant
of a research.

2. Network Sampling
Network sampling is virtually similar to the process of snowballing in the
sense that they have members of the population who are also hard to find and
are usually in hiding such as alcoholic, criminal, rapists, or those who are
described as “socially devalued.” The same process of identification is used.

b. Purposive or Deliberate (Judgement) Sampling

If you are interested in finding out the reactions of some people towards the Value
Added Tax, instead of asking all consumers in Metro Manila, whether they agree with this or
not, consumer leaders in different locations may be asked about it. This is sampling with a
purpose.

Adanza (2003) speaks of the purposive or judgment sample as also a deliberate

sampling technique where the researcher selects a particular group or groups based on certain
criteria of purposes or variables. It is a sample selected by a researcher which in his judgment
is a representative sample. Usually, since this is a biased sample, and it is not recommended
for use, except in certain circumstances.

Examples:

77
 1. A researcher wants to find students’ reaction towards the issue of “unicameralism.”
He approaches a group of students and uses them as his sample because his judgment
tells him it is a good sample.

2. If a researcher wants to test the effectiveness of a certain instrument which

measures anxiety, he can use a purposive sample for this study.

c. Quota Sampling

This is oftentimes used for infinite population and therefore, the researcher cannot get
a random sample from such big population. Like the purposive sample, this is not a
representative sample.

Education, psychology, and business oftentimes need population, but medical

research, in general, settle for non-probability sampling, since the population is too unknown
to be able to obtain random sample. Because of these limitations, caution should be
considered in inferring the population or generalizing the findings beyond what is warranted
for in the study.

d. Sampling from Special Population Frames

There are also special types of population frames. One of these constitutes patients
who are chronically ill, and research ethics not only require informed consent, but permission
from the guardians. This is also true for special children or minors where the same
requirement is necessary. Getting sample subjects for a medical researcher such as these are
difficult to find and gives special problems to researchers.

Example:

1. Children who are mentally ill or mentally retarded should require special considerations
from the researcher.

2. Those who have rare disease like leprosy and others.

It is important in research, that some ethics have to be observed, especially for

respondents or subjects of researches who cannot defend themselves, and as such, there must
be some form of consent from this set of respondents through their parents or legal guardians.
There should be more caution and vigilance on the part of the researcher in dealing with such
type of respondents.

Elaborate

Give the title of the study, then suggest the probable sampling technique and method
of research.

1. The Role of Mental Ability on Academic Performance

a. Method of Research ___________
b. Sampling Technique ___________

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 2. The effects of having a Textbook and Not Having a Textbook on Mathematics
Performance
a. Method of Research ___________
b. Sampling Technique ___________
3. Comparing Effects of Teaching Method Using Experimental and Control Group
a. Method of Research ___________
b. Sampling Technique ___________

Evaluate

Develop a proposal with the following:

1. Title
2. Theoretical
3. Statement of the problem
4. Method of Research
5. Sampling Techniques

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Module 5: Sources of Data and Tools of Research

Learning Outcome:
At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. Described the different kinds of data in terms of sources.

2. Identify the different kinds of questionnaire.
Engage

I. Identify the following:

________ 1. Measure what it intends to measure

________ 2. Method of testing the validity of tests

________ 3. Data-gathering tools

________ 4. Living with the respondent

________ 5. A measuring tool containing list of information

________ 6. Face-to-face encounter

________ 7. Methods of summation rating

________ 8. Method of validation by clustering items of similar qualities

________ 9. Means the accuracy, stability, repeatability, or consistency

________ 10. Determining whether an item is differentiating or undifferentiating

Explore

I. Identify the following

_______ 1. Watching the situation

_______ 2. Containing reminders on what to do during observation

_______ 3. Data taken from offices, hospitals, and the like

_______ 4. Data obtained from questionnaires by researcher himself

________5. Methods of testing reliability of test

________ 6. It is, at the same time, a structured questionnaire

________ 7. Arrangement of options in a questionnaire

________ 8. Differentiates degree of an item in terms of difficulties

_________9. Methods of validation by floating the questionnaire

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_________ 10. Method in testing validity of a test

Explain

We are in chapter 5 of a research proposal on Methods of Research on Sources of

Data or Instruments Used, after going through enumerating different kinds of research
methodology.

Different Kinds of Data in Terms of Sources

1. Documentary data. It refers to those information which the researcher does not have at
hand in their generation. These are secondary data obtained from offices, hospitals, agencies,
government offices, or those which are not obtained directly.

2. Empirical data. It refers to those obtained directly by the researcher himself, through
different techniques, using surveys and questionnaires, personal interviews, and observations.

General Criteria for Research Tool

The criteria for a good research technique, instrument or toll are the following:

1. VALIDITY

Validity is considered as the most important characteristic of a good tool for research.
Validity is defined as the extend of which the procedure actually accomplishes what it seeks
to accomplish or what it seeks to measure, especially for tests.

Validation of a test

If the instrument or research tool or if the instrument seeks to determine achievement

in mathematics, then it should accomplish that purpose.

Three kinds of Validity

1. Face Validity. This consists of examining the instrument or the test to find out if it is a
good one. Merely looking at it makes this validity very weak. Two or three supposed experts
on the subject are asked to look at the items. Face validity is considered the weakest form of
validity.

2. Content Validity. This is stronger than face validity. Experts again may do the evaluation
of the test, but this time, there is a more serious query to find out if the test really measure
what it seeks to measure. The experts help in defining the universal interest, the careful
drawing of a representative sample of ideas from its universe, and the preparation of the test
items that match these ideas.

Statistical methods may be applied to the problem of content validity. In this case,
there is item analysis. Item analysis today is not difficult anymore, since there are many
software programs for it.

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 The process of item analysis enables the test constructor too check its test item in
differentiating. The item is undifferentiating if it does not measure what the battery of test
items are measuring. Hence, item analysis is a test for content validity of the test. Item
analysis indicates which items may be too easy or too difficult, and which may fail to
discriminate clearly between the better and the poorer examinees.

After the test has been administered and scored, item analysis begins. There are
various ways of doing this analysis, but the following steps are suggested:

The U-L Index Method

a. Arrange the scored tests or answer sheets in order from high to low.
b. Separate two sub-groups of test papers: an upper paper, consisting of
approximately 27 percent of the total group which received the highest scores on
the test, and a lower group consisting of an equal number of papers from those
which received the lowest scores.
c. Count the number of times each possible response to each item was chosen on
the papers of the upper group. Do the same separately for the papers of the lower
group.
d. Record these response counts opposite the responses they refer to on a copy of
the test. In a tally sheet, tally the number of cases from each group which gets
the item right for each of all the time.
e. Convert the tallies to frequencies and then to proportions.
f. Compute the difficulty index in each item using this

Formula: Df = Pu+P1
2
Where:

Df = difficult index

Pu = proportion of the upper 27 percent group who got the

term right.

P1 = proportion of the lower 27 percent group who got the

Item right
g. Compute the discrimination index of each item using this
formula: Ds = PuP1

Where:
Ds= the discrimination index

Index of Discrimination Evaluation

.40 and up Very good item
.30 and .39 Reasonably good item but subject

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 improvement
.20 and .29 Marginal item, usually needing
improvement
.19 and below Poor item, to be rejected improved or
revised

In item analysis, items with difficulty indices within .20 and .80 and
discrimination within .30 and .80 are retained.

3. Construct Validity. It refers to the degree to which an instrument measures the theoretical
construct or trait that it was designed to measure. Construct validity can likewise be measured
by noting the group differences, changes, correlation, processes, multi-trait, multi-method
ways, and through factorial validity. Factor analysis has been considered as the most
powerful method of construct validation. It is a statistical method of reducing a large number
of measures to a fewer number called “factor.” This is done by correlating each of the
measures and inspecting which ones cluster together. In other words, it is discovering the
correlates of a construct.

2. RELIABILITY

Reliability is another characteristic of a good tool of research. It refers to the extent a

research tool elicits the same or similar results whenever it is given. Moreover, it refers to the
degree of consistency it can give the same results, or that characteristic which describes the
tool as possessing internal consistency in terms of results of data on repeated use.
Reliability is also considered the basic attribute which every technique or procedure must
possess. Reliability means the accuracy of data, their stability, repeatability, or precision.
There are estimates of reliability, some of which are the following:

a. Test-Retest Reliability. A test has reliability when it is given to the same samples on
two different occasions and these two tests show a high degree of correlation. The
test-retest reliability is sometimes called a coefficient of stability in the sense that the
trait being measured is fairly stable through the period of time that separates the two
administrations. It also implies that the second score is not greatly affected by the
double exposure.
b. Equivalent Form Reliability. If you think that the test-retest reliability involves
some problems, you may do the equivalent forms of the same instrument. Both forms
are administered to the same group of subjects and estimated reliability is the
correlation of the two sets of scores.
c. Split-Haft Reliability. This is a popular test of reliability among test constructors. A
single administration of the instrument is made. The test is split into halves which are
scored separately, and the correlation is computed between the two sets of scores.
After this computation, the Spearman-Brown Prophecy Formula is used to
compensate for the fact that the reliability has been estimated from a test one-half of
the length of the final form. Another variation of the Split-Half estimate is the Odd-

83
 Even approach in which the odd numbered test items are treated as one-half of the test
and the even numbered as the alternate half. But there should be assurance that the
two halves should have same equivalence. This type of reliability is one form of
internal consistency reliability.
d. Reliability Based on Item Statistics. This was developed by Kuder and Richardson
in order to overcome some of the deficiencies of the split-half reliability. In the
computation, the whole test is split into as many parts as there are items in the test.
Assumptions are made that all of the items measure a single trait and that each
attempts to answer every item. The estimates use the Kuder-Richardson Formula.

3. SENSITIVITY

It is the degree or the ability of an instrument to make discrimination required for the
research problem. When a test can detect differences, there must be sensitivity in it. A single
characteristic measured may yield variations within subjects and between groups. When the
test manifests both validity and reliability in measuring and discriminating differences, then it
is said that it possesses sensitivity.

4. SPECIFICITY

This is the capacity of a tool used in medical research to differentiate diseases which may
be found and labeled negative against those who do not have the disease.

5. POSITIVE PREDICTIVE

Value. This refers to the ability of a toll in medical research to note the change, and a
positive result is indicative of the disease.

6. APPROPRIATENESS

An instrument is appropriate if the respondent group can meet the demands of the
instrument. Appropriateness is of particular concern in view of its relationship to the
generalizability of data.

7. OBJECTIVITY

Generally, an instrument must be objective, but sometimes, this characteristic cannot be

achieved for some reasons. One situation is that when in the administration of the test, the
respondents are affected by the way the test is explained. Another example is the face-to-face
encounter might make him refrain from answering questions correctly. Important aspects of
objectivity are in test administration, scoring, and interpretation. In view of the foregoing
example, objectivity is defined as the degree to which measure is independent of personal
opinions, subjective judgement, biases, and beliefs of the individual test user. Regardless of
the sex, age, appearance, or gestures of the examiner, a respondent should obtain a score that
is stable, accurate, and free from influence of the personal variables of the examiner.

The Different Tools or Research Techniques Used in Generating Data

84
 One of the most important components of a research design is the tool for generating data.
Among these are the following:

1. Questionnaires

If an interpersonal interaction is sufficient, the researcher puts his questions on paper

and asks the respondents to answer them. This is the questionnaire technique which is
frequently used in surveys.

The questionnaire is also the most commonly used tool to generate data. Sometimes, it is
called the survey form. It refers to paper and pencil data-gathering method by letting the
subject or respondent complete the questionnaire before the researcher or his representative,
or it can be mailed. It is an inventory of pieces of information which the researcher
anticipates to gather from a respondent.
Criteria of a Good Questionnaire
All empirical studies resort to the use of questionnaires. But in order to be a good source
of data, aside from giving the required information for the research paper, it must have the
following characteristics:
a. The language must be clear and specific, it should not be equivocal in meaning.
b. The items on the questionnaire must represent a single idea.
c. The items in the questionnaire must be free from bias and assumptions.
d. The questionnaire must give the proper evaluation and scoring, and proper
interpretation. An example for the scoring should be shown.
e. The items in the questionnaire, in order to be statistically viable, should, as much as
possible, have the same scoring and the same options for a single objective or
purpose.
1. The language must be clear.
The language of the questionnaire should be clear and appropriate and should lead the
respondent to give specific responses. It should not only suit the level of the respondents, but
should also generate the desired information needed in the study. One of the things that
researchers should avoid in questionnaire preparation is the use of a language which tends to
embarrass the respondents because of its personal implications.
This also indicates that the intent of the question and the nature of the information sought
is clear to the respondent. The vocabulary, language structure, and conceptual level of the
question should be suited to the abilities, levels, and background of the student (Sevilla,1990
).
2. The content of the question and the period involved must be specific.
An item in the questionnaire should elicit a single piece of information or a single
response. Asking the respondents to give multiple responses discourages him because of the
complexity and this may lead him to give inaccurate information.
Oftentimes, a respondent does not know how to answer the question because its content is
not specific enough including the time period concerned.

85
 Examples: consider the question:” What has been your most interesting experience in
school?” The question is clearly stated, but the respondent will think even of his elementary
school days. This will be easier to answer if the question runs this way:
“What is your most interesting experience in your fourth year of schooling in this high
school?”
In the latter question, the content and the time period are specific.
3. The question should show singleness or purpose.
The questionnaire as a whole should bring pieces of information that are relevant to the
purposes of the study. Questions that do not serve the purpose should be eliminated.
Consequently, during the duration of the questionnaire preparation, the researcher should
watch this. This characteristic is intended to assure that each question is independent of other
items and seeks one and only one piece of information or fact. An option should not lead to a
dual answer or an ambiguous answer, which should be avoided.
Example: consider this question: “Do you favour adding a year to the high school?”
4. The question must be free from assumptions
Sometimes in a question there can be found an unasked question.
Example: Consider this question: “Do you think that the use of herbs is sufficient for your
cough?” Instead of asking, “Do you take herbs when you are sick with colds?”
The next question perhaps should be:
“What herbs do you take when you are sick with colds?”
Making the assumption that the respondent uses herbs when he is sick with colds is an error
in questioning.
5. The question should be free from suggestions.
Questions such as the following may have the power of suggestions for the respondents:
“Many countries have become progressive due to industrialization. Do you agree that
the Philippines can also be progressive if it becomes industrialized?”
6. The question should have linguistic completeness and grammatical consistency.
The question should be formed according to the rules of correct grammar to avoid
embarrassment on the part of the researcher. Hence, it important that prior to the survey, at
least two things should be done and these are:
a. Have the questionnaire edited by an English teacher or a Filipino teacher as the case
may be.
b. Float the questionnaire to a trial sample that shall be executed from the final selection
of the sample.
This characteristic should be present in all research work, instruments, and even
reports. But it should be reflected in a questionnaire since questioning is essentially a
verbal interaction between the researcher and the respondents.

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Kinds of Questionnaire
There are two kinds of questionnaire:
a. Open-ended Questionnaire

An open-ended questionnaire is one whose options in the items are not given or are
not arranged. This leaves the respondent to answer this question in his own way. In
other words, the answer is entirely left to the discretion of the respondent.

Example:
Directions: Please answer the following questions:
1. Give your opinion on the issue of the Value-Added Tax Law.

2. What are its advantages?

3. What are its disadvantages?

In general, respondents do not like to answer open-ended questionnaires for aside from
giving multiple responses, they feel that they are taking an examination. Aside from this, an
open-ended questionnaire gives multiple responses which make statistical analysis difficult.
2. Close-ended Questionnaire
In a close-ended questionnaire, the options or answer are given or enumerated and the
respondent simply check or encircles his answer. It does not require much effort on the part
of the respondent to answer the questions.
This type of questionnaire has, in most cases, the same options throughout the whole
questionnaire as in Likert Scale. Some questionnaires are constructed with two or three
options. It is better to use a five-point Likert Scale.
Example:
Directions: Encircle the number with the best answer. The options are the
following:
Strongly Agree - 5
Agree - 4
Not sure - 3
Disagree - 2

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 Strongly Disagree - 1
1. English should be used as a medium of instruction in all subjects
5 4 3 2 1
2. Units in English courses should be increased
5 4 3 2 1
Another tool of research that needs validity is the questionnaire. As an instrument or
research, the question of its validity is oftentimes asked if it seeks to get what are desired for
the study, and if the respondents have the personality and the capacity to answer. So, a
questionnaire is validated in at least two ways:
a. Unsophisticated floating to a group about 20 or more and letting them answer the
questionnaire, soliciting some recommendations for improvement of the questionnaire
is also a form of validation. Items that will not be answered imply irrelevance to the
objectives of the study and should be eliminated or removed. Recommendations of
group should be referred to the adviser for comments, suggestion, and evaluation. The
members of the group should not become members of the final sample.

b. Factorial analysis is a very sophisticated statistical analysis for determining the

clusters of the items of the questionnaire. There are statistical programs for factorial
analysis and validating a questionnaire by such methods would constitute an
independent research report itself.
Advantages of using questionnaires:
a. The researcher is not influenced by the personal comments and emotions of the
respondents.
b. The data are written and easy for computer editing and assessing.
c. Easy preparation for statistical tables.
d. Make interpretation easy and convenient.
Disadvantages of using questionnaires:
a. The assertions made by the respondents cannot be verified.
b. Some missing information cannot be gathered.
2. The Research Interview
This is feasible when a personal interaction is available. The research interview is a
research method that involves the collection of data, through direct verbal interaction
between the interviewer and the respondent.
There are two types of research interview: the structured interview and the unstructured
interview.
In the structured interview, the questions are stated specifically in a fixed list called the
interview guide, and the interviewer asks the question are verbatim or in the order in which
they are listed. If complete Standardization is required, he is told not to repeat a question, not
to deviate from the order, and not to ask additional question.

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 In the unstructured interview, although the interviewer has a list of questions, he does
not need to follow the order in which they come. Moreover, he is free to repeat a question, to
ask additional questions, and to move to other points which he thinks are useful to the
interview.

Martinez (1994) says that some people call the structured interviews as focused
interview, and is one where questions are asked by the interviewer based on certain
guidelines. It is one way of ascertaining confirmation of the information in the questionnaire
previously given. The interview requires that at the end, the necessary information has been
gathered.

A special type of interview takes place in medical research, like when the doctor talks
privately with a patient to get relevant information that may be of help in his diagnosis. Such
medical information derived is usually considered privileged communication and of common
discussion in medical ethics.

Example:

a. A clinician interviews a patient in determining the impact of a diagnosis of

inseparably lung cancer on a person’s attachment and goals as the illness progresses.
b. An interview between a researcher and a patient regarding the causes of anxiety and
stress prior to operation.
The advantages of an interview:
a. It is inexpensive in terms of the number of questions to be prepared, since the
researcher or his representative has to meet the respondent himself.
b. The researcher is able to witness for himself the emotions portrayed by the subject or
the respondent.
c. More information is generated since, when in doubt, the researcher can verify for
himself right away the issue in question.
d. It is a necessary technique for some respondents, especially where information on a
person’s feelings is needed. They gather better insight into opinions, attitudes,
feelings, or perception from the subjects.
e. Interview are sometimes necessary for some particular samples, such as patients
suffering from strokes, paralysis, or those who are immobilized due to some medical
equipment attached to them.
f. Interview can gather better information or can clarify some points personally which
are not found in the questionnaire.
The Disadvantage of an interview:
a. When respondent feel that they are participants of research, it may result their
expectation for some sort of returns or directly help or reward for participating.
b. It is uncomfortable for some persons to the point of instilling fears of what are to be
asked of them.
c. Interviews are time-consuming and more expensive when commuting from one place
to another to meet respondents.
d. Information gathered through interviews is difficult to quantify, thus, making
statistical analysis difficult.
e. Interviews need training to be able to do the art of questioning. Interviewing cannot
be done by any ordinary person, but by persons with specialized skills.
3. Observation Method

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 This involves the researcher watching the research situation. It can be used in
descriptive or experimental investigation, but it cannot be used in historical studies.
In this kind of study, the researcher is concerned with the direct description of the
research situation and the best way to achieve this objective is to watch it.
There are four elements to remember in using observation as a method of data
collection:
a. Decision concerned with specifying the outcomes and content of the observation
itself. This means establishing a foundation for the observation in terms of what the
researcher wishes to do with the data (the outcomes) and what and whom he wishes
to observe (the content);
b. The development of the observation guide, which is the researcher’s operational
statement as to content he has decided to watch and the instrument through which the
observation data will be recorded;
c. The observers, their identification, recruitment, and training; and
d. The respondent-observer interaction, which will include the decision as to whether the
researcher is watching the actual research situation as it develops, or whether he is
watching some indirect version of it, and who the respondent believes the observer to
be.
The following steps are observed in the observational method:
1. Determining the objectives of the observation with the corresponding hypotheses for
the investigation.
2. Putting such objectives in the personal notes or in the observation notebook.
3. Determining the objectives or the subjects to be observed and their characteristics or
profile.
4. Observing the specific behavior in line or corresponding to the target and objectives
for the observation.
5. Specification and outcomes of the observation.
6. Comparing outcomes of observation and targets or objectives of the observation.
7. Comparing results according to
a. direct and inflect observation
b. known and unknown in the observation
8. Making conclusions on results and evaluation
9. Pilot studies in order to:
a. provide observes with field; experience in the use of a guide
b. provide data to estimate reliability of the guide
c. provide test of data analysis plan
d. verify that data will answer research questions/ hypotheses
10. Design of the observation data-gathering plan
11. Invitation to selected sample to participate
12. Implementation of the data-gathering plan
13. Analysis of the data
14. Preparation of the report
Different Kinds of Observation
The researcher can be a direct participant or an indirect participant.

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 Examples:
a. When the researcher is one of the respondents, then, he is a direct participant,
such as when an anthropologist lives with a cultural minority to observe its
customs, traditions, and others.
b. When one observes how fractions are taught in the classroom, then, the researcher
is an indirect participants.
Observation may also be classified into structured and unstructured observation.
Structured observations are guided by some rigid rules and focus on a particular
activity or a set of activities. It focuses on important and relevant information, and is also
based on a given observation guideline which delimits the observation activities.
In an observation, the researcher records the information through:
a. Methodological Notes (MN) are those which are written instructions to oneself, or
reminders about things to be done that will help the observation.
b. Personal Notes (PN) are those referrals to one’s reactions, opinions, attitudes,
reflections, and experience about the observed situation.
Aside from the questionnaire, interview, and observation methods, there are also other
research techniques.
4. The Measurements or Objective Method
The process of measurement involves a four-step process.
a. the delineation of what needs to be measured in terms of the research problem
b. the selection of the appropriate techniques for measurement
c. the selection or development of an instrument
d. the collection and analysis of data
Other Measuring Techniques
There are many kinds of measuring techniques such as:
1. Testing Technique. This is a technique where a respondent answer queries to a
questions, problem, or a task.
2. Project Technique. This function at the conscious level and which a stimulus is
p0resented to the respondent, and his association to that stimulus is received and
interpreted in terms of some psychological dynamics.
3. Sociometric Technique. This measures social interactions.
4. Rating Scale. This constitutes the types:
a. Verbal Scale
b. Numerical Scale
A verbal scale is illustrated by a Likert scale, which has assigned points within a
continuum of four or five points exemplified below:
Options Assigned Points
Very Adequate (VA) 5

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 Adequate (A) 4
Doubtful (D) 3
Inadequate (I) 2
Very Inadequate (VI) 1
5. Inventory Technique. This is an application of the checklist to measurement.
6. Scaling technique. It is a technique where a finite sample of concepts is ordered along a
continuum with other instances, without quantitative measurement of the variable represented
by the continuum.
Other measuring tools include the following:
1. Biophysical instruments
2. Paper and Pencil instruments
3. Psycho-social instrument
Elaborate
Enumeration
1. Different gathering tools
2. Kinds of questionnaire and interview
3. Criteria of a good instrument
4. Criteria of a good questionnaire
5. Disadvantages of an interview
Evaluation
How important data and tools in Research?

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 Module 6: Thesis Format

 Preliminary pages:
 Use small letters for page number that will start i.
 Arrangement of content:
- (title page, table of contents, list of tables, list of figures)
 Cover Page:
- The alignment of the content of the cover page should be in the center of the
bond paper.
- Note: Refer to the MSUN Thesis proposal Format.

 Reminders:
 Use A4 size Bond paper.
 Use Arial and font size 11 for the titles of each Chapter.
 Use Arial and Font size 10 for the text of the paper.
 Use double spacing for the details.
 Use 4 spaces from the title to the text of the content.
 Use 6 spaces for the indention.
 Margin: use 1 inch for top, bottom and right margin.
 Use 1 ½ inches for the left margin.
 Page number should be center below the paper.
 No page number for the first page of Introduction part.
 Start new page for Every Chapter of the paper.

 References and Definition of terms should be hanging indention and single space and
Alphabetical order.

 Attachment:
 Letter of request for respondents.
 Survey Questionnaires.
 Table of specification
 Pre-test
 Post-test
 Lesson Plan
 Answer key

Note: Have your title check and approve by your subject teacher first.
First come first serve basis.

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Module 7: Crafting of Thesis Proposal

 Making of Thesis Proposal

 Presentation of thesis proposal to the adviser, select panel members and subject
teacher for the final grade.

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REFERENCES

Adanza,E. and Martinez, F. (2002), Methods of the Health Profession. Rex Book Store, Inc.
Quezon City.

Adanza, E. Reyes, F.. and Martinez, F. (2006) Research Statistics for the Health Profession.
Rex Book Store Inc. Quezon City.

Adanza,E., Bermudo, P. and Rasonabe, M. (2009) Meyhods of Research: A Primer. Rex

Book Store Inc. Quezon City.

Padua,.Roberto N., Adanza, Estela G. (2007) Statistical Methods for College Students. Rex
Publishing Company Inc. Quezon City

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