STS - SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

UNIT I – NATURE OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

- Refers to the study of science and technology in society. That is the study of the ways in w/c
technical and social phenomena interact and influence each other.

- Refers to studies of phenomena such as the general natures and relationships of science and
technology; the social structure and reward systems of the professions of science and engineering
and social aspect of everyday scientific and technological activity.

SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

- Are dynamic processes engaged in by man to satisfy two basic needs- the first for knowledge and
the material requirements for human survival and prosperity.

- They have been around even before the word biology, physics, chemistry, engineering, and
agriculture were coined.

SCIENCE

- Is the description, understanding, and prediction of physical phenomena through the use and
generation of verifiable theories, laws, and principles. Research and development are usual
activities associated with science as a process. Research and development involve the acquisition
of new knowledge and the utilization of such knowledge to devise new or improved products and
processes.

TECHNOLOGY

- Is the use of scientific knowledge and/or empirical knowhow for the production, improvement,
and distribution of goods and services, as well as the satisfaction of other material needs.

- A broad concept that deals with a species’ usage and knowledge of tools and crafts, and how it
affects a species’ ability to control and adapt to its environment.

- In human society, it is a consequence of science and engineering although several technological

advances predate the two concepts.

SOCIETY
- As an organized group of individuals who work together because of common interests,
beliefs, or practices in order to achieve a common goal.
- It embodies a common system or condition in which such groups live together.
- The functional unit of society is the individual or man. Man, as the “thinking mind”, is
basically responsible for the intellectual concerns of the society. Man is free from physical
danger and from elements of nature for as long or as he employs the ideas of others to
generates his own ideas.
- Concerned with any area where the individual benefits from the knowledge of science and
technology.

ENVIRONMENT
- The complex of physical, chemical, and biotic factors that act upon an organism or an
ecological community and ultimately determine its form and survival
- The aggregate of social and cultural conditions that influence the life of an individual or
community

THE NATURE OF SOCIETY

THE ROLE OF MAN’S MIND IN SOCIETY

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 Man is described as a physically vulnerable entity because his survival depends on how he makes
practical use of his mind. However, he lives and co-exists with his fellow individual through merging of
their lives.

Man is free from physical danger and from elements of nature for as long as he employs the ideas
of others or generates his own ideas. The logical extension of this concept is that although man lives with
other men, he is a self-contained and self-sustaining entity. To claim that man is absolute, an end to
himself and not a means to anything or anyone else is the only logical extension possible to the fact that
man’s ultimate function is the function of his mind.

Society is concerned with any area where the individual benefits from the knowledge of science
and technology. The impact of science and technology to society somehow provides better insights and
understanding on the process of life, the human place in nature and environmental issues facing us today.

From the perspective, the meaning of society becomes clear. Man lives with other men as long as
they are willing to trade with him, not take from him, the products of his mind. As a result, everyone
stands to gain enormously. Man has access to wealth of ideas instigated by men who lived before him and
his access to this legitimate forms of interaction open to man in society. This can be uniting factor which
can eradicate conflict between the individual and the group of men with whom he lives - society.

What is the Current State of the STS Field?

The field of STS courses and programs appeared on the academic horizon in the late 1960’s. A
small number of undergraduate STS departments and programs exist some of which confers their own
degrees.

Can Philippine Science Evolve and Progress?

“ The Filipino has his own unique technological potential that, when given support and the right
environment with the corresponding atmosphere of freedom, he or she can produce inventive ideas,
products, and processes in an exceptional manner on a par with international standards. Think of the
fluorescent lamp, videophone, the moon buggy, pontoon bridge, floating power tiller, mighty mite, the
sing along system, and a super lubricant used by American motorist and aircraft makers. These are just a
sampling of the many creations attributed to Filipino ingenuity”

Republic Act No. 7459, the inventors and inventions Incentive Act of the Philippines, “declares
as a national policy the giving of priority to scientific inventions and its utilization on the country’s
productive system and national life” (DOST Publication, 1998).

INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM

- Is embedded in the daily life experience of young children as they grow up
- Their parents and older folks served as their first teachers and their methods of teaching are
very effective in transmitting cultural knowledge in their minds
- Their lessons they learned are intimately interwoven with their culture and the environment

Indigenous
- Produced, living, or existing naturally in a particular region or environment
- Innate, inborn, native, endemic

INDIGENOUS SCIENCE
- Is part of the indigenous knowledge system practiced by different groups of people and early
civilizations
- It includes complex arrays of knowledge, expertise, practices, and representations that guide
human societies in their enumerable interactions with the natural milieu: agriculture,
medicine, naming and explaining natural phenomena, and strategies for coping with changing
environments ( Pawilen,2005 )

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 - Ogawa (1995) claimed that it is collectively lived in and experienced by the people of a given
culture.
- Pawilen (2006) develop a simple framework for understanding indigenous science that
indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge that uses science process skills and
guided by community values and culture
1. Indigenous science uses science process skills such as observing, comparing,
classifying, measuring, problem solving, inferring, communicating and predicting.
2. It is guided by culture and community values such as the following:
a. The land is a source of life. It is a precious gift from the creator
b. The Earth is revered as “Mother Earth”. It is the origin of their identity as
people.
c. All living and nonliving things are interconnected and interdependent with
each other.
d. Human beings are stewards or trustee of the land and other natural resources.
They have a responsibility to preserve it.
e. Nature is a friend to human beings. It needs respect and proper care.
3. Indigenous science is composed of traditional knowledge practiced by people and
valued by people and communities such as ethno-biology, ethno-medicine,
indigenous farming methods and folk astronomy
- It is important in the development of science and technology in the Philippines
- Like the ancient civilization, indigenous science gave birth to the development of science and
technology as a field of discipline and it helped the people in understanding the natural
environment and in coping with everyday life

- UNESCO’s declaration on Science and the use of scientific knowledge (1999) recognized
science as a historical and valuable contribution to science and technology.
- Pawilen (2005) explained that indigenous science knowledge has developed diverse
structures and contents through the interplay between the society and environment
- According to Kuhn (1962), developmental stages of most science are characterized by
continual competition between a number of distinct views of nature, each derived from, and
all roughly compatible with the dictates of scientific observation and method.
- Sibisi (2004) also pointed out that indigenous science provides the basic of astronomy,
pharmacology, food technology, or metallurgy, which were derived from traditional
knowledge and practices.

Indigenous beliefs
- develop desirable values that are relevant or consistent to scientific attitudes as identified by
Johnston (2000, namely:
1. Motivating attitudes
2. Cooperating attitudes
3. Practical attitudes
4. Reflective attitudes
- These cultural beliefs therefore can be good foundation for developing positive values toward
learning and doing science and in bringing science in a personal level

Some examples of indigenous knowledge that are taught and practiced by the indigenous people
1. predicting weather conditions and seasons using knowledge in observing animal behavior and
celestial bodies
2. using herbal medicine
3. preserving foods
4. classifying plants and animals into families, and groups based on cultural properties
5. preserving and selecting good seeds for planting
6. using indigenous technology in daily lives
7. building local irrigation systems
8. classifying different types of soil for planting based on cultural properties
9. producing wines and juices from tropical fruits and vegetables in the yard

Indigenous science is important in the development of science and technology in the Philippines. Like the
ancient civilizations, indigenous science gave birth to the development of science and technology as a
field and as discipline. Indigenous science helped the people in understanding the natural environment

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and in coping with everyday life. UNESCO’s declaration on Science and the use of scientific knowledge
(1999) recognized science as a historical and valuable contribution to science and technology.

ORGANIZATIONS/AGENCIES SUPPORTING SCIENC and TECHNOLOGY

I. THE DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (DOST)

The Department of Science and Technology is mandated to provide central direction of all
science and technology activities throughout the country and formulate science and technology policies,
programs, and projects in support of national development priorities.

II. NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (NAST)

The National Academy of Science and Technology was created in 1976 through Presidential
Decree 1003-A to recognize outstanding achievements in science and technology and to serve as a
reservoir of competent scientific and technological manpower for the country.

In 1982, through Executive Order 818, the Academy was also formally conferred with the
function of advisory body to the President of the Republic of the Philippines and the Cabinet on policies
concerning science and technology in the country.

III. TECHNOLOGY APPLICATION AND PROMOTION INSTITUTE (TAPI)

The Technology Application and Promotion Institute was created by virtue of Executive Order
No. 128 which recognized the National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) into the Department
of Science and Technology (DOST) on January 1987.
As one of the DOST’s service agencies, TAPI’s major thrust is to promote the transfer and
commercialization of technology and market the services of other operating units/agencies of the
Department.

IV. PHILIPPINES SCIENCE HERITAGE CENTER (PSHC)

The Philippines Science Heritage Center is a convergence of the Filipino culture’s most creative,
inventive, and important contributions to science and technology. It showcases national scientists and
their contributions.

The PSHC regards as its Centennial Scientists Dr. Fe del Mundo, who dedicated her life to the
cause of pediatrics in the country and Discoro L. Umali, who improved a variety of food grains, legumes,
fruits, and ornamental plants.

It hailed as national scientists figures like Juan S. Salcedo, whose numerous research studies in
biochemistry, nutrition, and physiology further improved the health of the Filipino people; Carmen C.
Velasquez, whose pioneering research on trematodes described 32 new species and one genus from
Philippine foods, birds and mammals; Paulo C. Campos, who did outstanding research on nuclear
medicine, insulin action, red blood cells, and goiter; and many more.
V. INDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT INSTITUTE (ITDI)

Invented Products
1. Etta’s Compact Skin Whitening Powder
2. Etta’s Mixing Solution Skin Whitening Powder
3. Vitasugar Nutrition Sweeteners
4. Canton Royale from Kalabasa
5. Pancit Kalabasa
6. Ready to eat Laing from Taro Leaves in coconut cream

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VI. PHILIPPINE COUNCIL OF HEALTH AND RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT (PCHRD)

Hepatitis B Diagnostic Kit

Hepatitis B Diagnostic Kit is an effective and affordable locally made kit distributed by Medtes
headed by the Managing Director Dr. Wency Reyes.

The invention of the kit was in cooperation with the University of the Philippines-Philippine
General Hospital (UP-PGH) Liver Study Group, Philippine National Red Cross (PNRC), JICA,
Philippine Council of Health and Research Development (PCHRD) and World Health Organization
(WHO). According to Dr. Michael Marquez, Medical Officer 1 of the Red Cross, the kit is better than the
imported one because there is an additional 15% PPHA cella and there is 0.8 % concentration after
reconstitution. It is also affordable and available in different sizes. The kit is exclusively distributed by
Medtes.

VII. SALINLAHI / PHILIPPINE SCIENCE HERITAGE CENTER (PSHC)

The Philippine Science Heritage Center (PSHC) or Salinlahi (meaning, heirloom of a generation) was
conceptualized and established to serve as a resource center of significant contributions of Filipinos in the
world of science. It fosters the commitment of the science community to bring science and technology
closer to the public and eventually, to promote a strong science and technology culture in the country. It
was inaugurated on December 14, 1998 as the contribution of the National Academy of Science and
Technology (NAST) to the Philippine Centennial Celebration.
Realizing the potential of Salinlahi as an important instrument to promote scientific culture in the
land, President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed into law Republic Act No. 9107, also known as the
Philippines Science Heritage Center Act, on April 14, 2001. The law was published in the Malaya and the
Manila Times on April 25, 2001. The Act affirms the government’s commitment and policy to continually
support and encourage the development of the country’s science and technology program and to promote
the Philippines’ scientific contributions to the world.
R.A. No. 9107 identifies the NAST as the government agency that would manage, operate, and
maintain the Center. It also gives the PSHC the following legal powers and functions.

VIII. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION INSTITUTE (STII)

Executive Order No. 128, signed by then President Corazon C. Aquino on January 30, 1987,
created the Science and Technology Information Institute (STII), STII serves as the information
marketing arm of DOST, and the national depository of science and technology data. It operates through
its four divisions, namely: Communication Technology Division (ITD), Information Resources and
Analysis Division (IRAD), and Finance and Administrative Division (FAD).
In addition, STTI is designated as the administrator and the secretariat of the Science and
Technology Information Network of the Philippines (SCINET-PHIL), a consortium of information and
library centers of the Department of Science and Technology.

IX. THE DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH

The Department of Health (DOH) is the principal health agency in the Philippines. It is
responsible for ensuring access to basic public health services to all Filipinos through the provision of
quality health care and regulation of providers of health goods and services.

X. TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND SKILLS CENTER (TESDA)

The Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA) was established through
the enactment of Republic Act No. 7796, otherwise known as the “Technical Education and Skills
Development Act of 1994”, which was signed into law by President Fidel V. Ramos on August 25, 1994.

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 This act aims to encourage the full participation of and mobilization of the industry, labor, local
government units, and technical-vocational institutions in the skills development of the country’s human
resources.
Overall, TESDA formulates manpower and skills plans, sets appropriate skills standards and
tests, coordinates and monitors manpower policies and programs and provides policy directions and
guidelines for resources allocation among concerned institutions in both the private and public sector.

XI.THE INTERNATIONAL RICE RESEARCH INSTITUTE (IRRI)

The International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) is an autonomous, nonprofit agricultural

research and training organization with offices in more than 10 nations. The Institute’s main goal is to
find sustainable ways to improve the wellbeing of present and future generations of poor rice farmers and
consumers while at the same time protecting the environment.

Its objective is to generate and disseminate new related knowledge and technology of short and
long term environmental, social, and economic benefits and to help enhance the national rice research
system.

XII. MAKILING BOTANICAL GARDEN (MGB)

The Makiling Botanical Gardens (MBG) is a unit of the Makiling Center for Mountain
Ecosystems (formerly Institute of Forest Conservation), and College of Forestry and Natural Resources. It
was established in 1963 by virtue of Republic Act No. 3523. The MBG is being developed to support
professional instructional and research related to forestry and plant sciences and to serve the needs of
tourism as well as the educational and recreational needs of the general public.

Improvement and development of the botanical gardens started as early as September 1965. The
MBG occupies 300 hectares of forest land which are distributed into three main areas; the Arboretum,
Nursery and recreational areas.

IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Military power
- The outcome of World War II depended primarily on the superior scientific and
technological capabilities of USA and its allies.
- Today those technical capabilities and resources remain vital to the security of many
nations and governments.
2. Economic strength
- Technology played a major role in increasing the country’s productivity (amount of
output generated per unit of input, where output refers to good and services and input
refers to labor or labor and capital combined).
- Technological change is credited as responsible for almost half of the increase in
productivity achieved in the USA since World War II, a contribution for greater than
those of capital, education, resource allocation, or economics of scale

3. Medical well being

- Science and Technology have also played an important role in increasing the scope
and efficacy of medical care in this century,
- From advances in diagnosis and surgery to vaccines, therapeutic drugs, prosthetic
devices and rehabilitative apparatus.
- The substantial individual and public health benefits afforded by technical advances
achieved in recent years are widely recognized and highly valued in contemporary
industrial societies.

IMPACTS OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Threat to human survival

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 - It is posed be development and used of their potent products such as nuclear weapon,
products designed for chemical or biological warfare, and products that threaten
sustainability of the ecosystem.

2. Ethical dilemmas
- Refers to the exploitation of advanced scientific knowledge and technological
devices and systems sometime given rise to situation in which these advances seem
to have turned upon their beneficiaries creating ethical and legal dilemmas.
- The ethical conflicts posed by science and technology -based dilemmas requires
careful analysis.

3. Disparities in human being

- S & T have made possible the possession of a cornucopia of some sophisticated
material goods by millions of people of the industrialized countries.
- There is a big gap on the level of material affluence between the less developed and
develop nations.
- The existence of such disparities and the belief that scientific and technological
resources will be required to reduce them provide another reason that these forces
have on growing social importance.

4. Social conflict
- In the last two decades, conflict in the US has swirled around issues such as the
location of recombinant-DNA laboratories in or near residential communities,
landing rights for Concorde Supersonic Transport, the love canal incident, the Karen
Ann Quinlan and others.
- Such struggles have taxed society’s capacity for conflict.

NOTABLE HUMAN SUCCESSES IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1.The landing on the moon

Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar
module pilot Buzz Aldrin formed the American crew that landed the Apollo Lunar Module Eagle on July 20,
1969, at 20:17 UTC. Wikipedia

Launch date: 16 July 1969, 9:32 pm GMT+8

Return launch: July 21, 1969, 17:54:00 UTC

EVA duration: 2 hours, 31 minutes, 40 seconds

Orbital departure: July 22, 1969, 04:55:42 UTC

Orbital insertion: July 19, 1969, 17:21:50 UTC

Orbits: 30

Spacecraft: Apollo CSM-107; Apollo LM-5

2. Polio vaccine

The inactivated polio vaccine (IPV) was available first, given as a shot, in 1955. A more convenient form,
called oral polio vaccine (OPV), was given as liquid drops via the mouth. It was developed in 1961. OPV was
recommended for use in the United States for almost 40 years, from 1963 until 2000.May 11, 2020

An inactivated (killed) polio vaccine (IPV) developed by Dr. Jonas Salk and first used in 1955, and.

3. Civilian jet aircraft transportation

A jet aircraft (or simply jet) is an aircraft (nearly always a fixed-wing aircraft) propelled by jet engines.

Whereas the engines in propeller-powered aircraft generally achieve their maximum efficiency at much lower
speeds and altitudes, jet engines and aircraft achieve maximum efficiency at speeds close to or even well above

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the speed of sound. Jet aircraft generally cruise at faster than about Mach 0.8 (609 mph, 981 km/h or 273 m/s)
at altitudes around 10,000–15,000 metres (33,000–49,000 ft) or more.

Frank Whittle, an English inventor and RAF officer, developed the concept of the jet engine in 1928,[1] and
Hans von Ohain in Germany developed the concept independently in the early 1930s. He wrote in February
1936 to Ernst Heinkel, who led the construction of the world's first turbojet aircraft and jet plane Heinkel He
178.

4.The discovery of the the deoxyribonucleic acid

The discovery in 1953 of the double helix, the twisted-ladder structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), by
James Watson and Francis Crick marked a milestone in the history of science and gave rise to modern
molecular biology, which is largely concerned with understanding how genes control the chemical processes
within cells. In short order, their discovery yielded ground-breaking insights into the genetic code and protein
synthesis. During the 1970s and 1980s, it helped to produce new and powerful scientific techniques,
specifically recombinant DNA research, genetic engineering, rapid gene sequencing, and monoclonal
antibodies, techniques on which today's multi-billion dollar biotechnology industry is founded. Major current
advances in science, namely genetic fingerprinting and modern forensics, the mapping of the human genome,
and the promise, yet unfulfilled, of gene therapy, all have their origins in Watson and Crick's inspired work.
The double helix has not only reshaped biology, it has become a cultural icon, represented in sculpture, visual
art, jewelry, and toys.

Researchers working on DNA in the early 1950s used the term "gene" to mean the smallest unit of genetic
information, but they did not know what a gene actually looked like structurally and chemically, or how it was
copied, with very few errors, generation after generation. In 1944, Oswald Avery had shown that DNA was the
"transforming principle," the carrier of hereditary information, in pneumococcal bacteria. Nevertheless, many
scientists continued to believe that DNA had a structure too uniform and simple to store genetic information
for making complex living organisms. The genetic material, they reasoned, must consist of proteins, much
more diverse and intricate molecules known to perform a multitude of biological functions in the cell.

5. The Green revolution

The Green Revolution in India refers to a period when Indian agriculture was converted into an industrial
system due to the adoption of modern methods and technology such as the use of high yielding variety (HYV)
seeds, tractors, irrigation facilities, pesticides, and fertilizers.

The large increase in agricultural production due to mechanised agriculture, use of High yielding variety of
seeds, use of chemical fertilizers and plant protection by spraying pesticides, etc. is called Green
Revolution. ...

6. Antibiotic

This phenomenon has long been known; it may explain why the ancient Egyptians had the practice of applying
a poultice of moldy bread to infected wounds. But it was not until 1928 that penicillin, the first true antibiotic,
was discovered by Alexander Fleming, Professor of Bacteriology at St. Mary's Hospital in London.

Alexander Fleming was, it seems, a bit disorderly in his work and accidentally discovered penicillin. Upon
returning from a holiday in Suffolk in 1928, he noticed that a fungus, Penicillium notatum, had contaminated a
culture plate of Staphylococcus bacteria he had accidentally left uncovered.

7. Personal computer

The Kenbak-1, released in early 1971, is considered by the Computer History Museum to be the world's first
personal computer. It was designed and invented by John Blankenbaker of Kenbak Corporation in 1970, and
was first sold in early 1971.

The first personal computers, introduced in 1975, came as kits: The MITS Altair 8800, followed by the
IMSAI 8080, an Altair clone. (Yes, cloning has been around that long!) Both used the Intel 8080 CPU. That
was also the year Zilog created the Z-80 processor and MOS Technology produced the 6502.

8.Big Bang theory

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The Big Bang Theory is the leading explanation about how the universe began. At its simplest, it says the
universe as we know it started with a small singularity, then inflated over the next 13.8 billion years to the
cosmos that we know today.

Because current instruments don't allow astronomers to peer back at the universe's birth, much of what we
understand about the Big Bang Theory comes from mathematical formulas and models. Astronomers can,
however, see the "echo" of the expansion through a phenomenon known as the cosmic microwave background.

While the majority of the astronomical community accepts the theory, there are some theorists who have
alternative explanations besides the Big Bang — such as eternal inflation or an oscillating universe.

The phrase "Big Bang Theory" has been popular among astrophysicists for decades, but it hit the mainstream
in 2007 when a comedy show with the same name premiered on CBS. The show follows the home and
academic life of several researchers (including an astrophysicist).

Human notable failures in the field of science and technology

NOTABLE HUMAN FAILURES IN THE FIELD OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

1. Bhopal incident

The Bhopal disaster, also referred to as the Bhopal gas tragedy, was a gas leak incident on the night of 2–3
December 1984 at the Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL) pesticide plant in Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
It is considered among the world's worst industrial disasters.Over 500,000 people were exposed to methyl
isocyanate (MIC) gas. The highly toxic substance made its way into and around the small towns located near
the plant.

Estimates vary on the death toll. The official immediate death toll was 2,259. In 2008, the Government of
Madhya Pradesh had paid compensation to the family members of 3,787 victims killed in the gas release, and
to 574,366 injured victims. A government affidavit in 2006 stated that the leak caused 558,125 injuries,
including 38,478 temporary partial injuries and approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling
injuries.Others estimate that 8,000 died within two weeks, and another 8,000 or more have since died from
gas-related diseases.The cause of the disaster remains under debate. The Indian government and local activists
argue that slack management and deferred maintenance created a situation where routine pipe maintenance
caused a backflow of water into a MIC tank, triggering the disaster. Union Carbide Corporation (UCC) argues
water entered the tank through an act of sabotage.

2. Challenger space shuttle disasters

The Space Shuttle Challenger disaster was a fatal incident in the United States space program that occurred
on January 28, 1986, when the Space Shuttle Challenger (OV-099) broke apart 73 seconds into its flight,
killing all seven crew members aboard. The crew consisted of five NASA astronauts, and two payload
specialists. The mission carried the designation STS-51-L and was the tenth flight for the Challenger orbiter.

The spacecraft disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean, off the coast of Cape Canaveral, Florida, at 11:39 a.m.
EST (16:39 UTC). The disintegration of the vehicle began after a joint in its right solid rocket booster (SRB)
failed at liftoff. The failure was caused by the failure of O-ring seals used in the joint that were not designed to
handle the unusually cold conditions that existed at this launch. The seals' failure caused a breach in the SRB
joint, allowing pressurized burning gas from within the solid rocket motor to reach the outside and impinge
upon the adjacent SRB aft field joint attachment hardware and external fuel tank. This led to the separation of
the right-hand SRB's aft field joint attachment and the structural failure of the external tank. Aerodynamic
forces broke up the orbiter.

The crew compartment and many other vehicle fragments were eventually recovered from the ocean floor after
a lengthy search and recovery operation. The exact timing of the death of the crew is unknown; several crew
members are known to have survived the initial breakup of the spacecraft. The shuttle had no escape system,[a]
[1] and the impact of the crew compartment at terminal velocity with the ocean surface was too violent to be
survivable.[2]

3. DDT pesticides

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DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) was developed as the first of the modern synthetic insecticides in the
1940s. It was initially used with great effect to combat malaria, typhus, and the other insect-borne human
diseases among both military and civilian populations. It also was effective for insect control in crop and
livestock production, institutions, homes, and gardens. DDT's quick success as a pesticide and broad use in the
United States and other countries led to the development of resistance by many insect pest species.

In 1972, EPA issued a cancellation order for DDT based on its adverse environmental effects, such as those to
wildlife, as well as its potential human health risks. ... In addition, some animals exposed to DDT in studies
developed liver tumors.

4.Chernobyl Disaster

The Chernobyl disaster was caused by a nuclear accident that occurred on Saturday 26 April 1986, at the No.
4 reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian SSR. It is
considered the worst nuclear disaster in history and was caused by one of only two nuclear energy accidents
rated at seven—the maximum severity—on the International Nuclear Event Scale, the other being the 2011
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster in Japan.

The accident started during a safety test on an RBMK-type nuclear reactor, which was commonly used
throughout the Soviet Union. The test was a simulation of an electrical power outage to aid the development of
a safety procedure for maintaining reactor cooling water circulation until the back-up electrical generators
could provide power. This gap was about one minute and had been identified as a potential safety problem that
could cause the nuclear reactor core to overheat. It was hoped to prove that the residual rotational energy in a
turbine generator could provide enough power to cover the gap. Three such tests had been conducted since
1982, but they had failed to provide a solution. On this fourth attempt, an unexpected 10-hour delay meant that
an unprepared operating shift was on duty.

5.Ford Pinto

The Ford Pinto is a subcompact car that was manufactured and marketed by Ford Motor Company in North
America, sold from the 1971 to the 1980 model years. The smallest American Ford vehicle since 1907, the
Pinto was the first subcompact vehicle produced by Ford in North America.

The 1971 Ford Pinto was rushed into production to fight imported sub-compact cars. ... The poor design of
the Pinto's fuel tank and rear end made it vulnerable to crashes, even at low speeds, in which the fuel tank
would suffer extreme damage and catch on fire, often trapping the car's occupants inside.

6.Building collapses and airplane crashes

Most collapses that occur during earthquakes aren't caused by the earthquake itself. Instead, when the
ground moves beneath a building, it displaces the foundation and lower levels, sending shock waves through
the rest of the structure and causing it to vibrate back and forth.Apr 30, 2018

withstand collapse, buildings need to redistribute the forces that travel through them during a seismic event.
Shear walls, cross braces, diaphragms, and moment-resisting frames are central to reinforcing a building. Shear
walls are a useful building technology that helps to transfer earthquake forces.Feb 6, 2019

Contributing Factors of airplane crashes

Some common factors that can contribute to accidents

A. Equipment Failure/Malfunction

Defects in aircraft can be caused by design flaw, manufacturer flaw, or wear and tear from use. Although
inspections are performed on the airplane before and after flights, accidents still result from faulty equipment
and malfunctioning components.

B.Human Error

From mechanics and ground crew to flight attendants and air traffic controllers, these professionals all play an
important role in the maintenance and safe operation of the aircraft. The Federal Aviation Administration

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(FAA) looks at the training each person has received, the attention to detail that was provided before the flight
took off, the communication that exists before air traffic control, the ground crew, and the pilot to determine if
human error contributed to the cause of the accident.

C.Mid-air Collisions

Mid-air collisions are less common than other types of aviation accidents, because the FAA uses the most up-
to-date technology for its air traffic control system, which monitors airliners in the United States. In addition,
airliners are required to have TCAS II collision-avoidance systems, which detect potential collisions with other
transponder-equipped aircraft and advise pilots to climb or dive in response. When these devices malfunction
or are ignored, accidents can occur.

D.Pilot Error

Pilots are responsible for the safe transportation of their passengers. At times, rarely, pilots fail to comply with
proper procedures in the operation of an aircraft.

E.Weather

Unpredictable weather, such as shear gusts of winds, freezing ice storms, thunderstorms and lightning, and
more, can affect both small and large airplanes. Before airplanes can fly in freezing weather, they are de-iced,
and all airplanes are required to have forward-looking radar wind-shear detectors onboard.

7. environmental degradation

Environmental degradation is the disintegration of the earth or deterioration of the environment through the
consumption of assets, for example, air, water and soil; the destruction of environments and the eradication of
wildlife. It is characterized as any change or aggravation to nature’s turf seen to be pernicious or undesirable.

Ecological effect or degradation is created by the consolidation of an effectively substantial and expanding
human populace, constantly expanding monetary development or per capita fortune and the application of asset
exhausting and polluting technology.

Also, environmental degradation aspects such as deforestation and mining destroy the natural land cover.
The alterations include global warming and climate change which can increase the risks of climatic natural
disasters, and ozone layer depletion which increases the risk of skin cancer, eye disease, and crop failure.

8.human diseases caused by irresponsible scientific and technological practices

Social media and mobile devices may lead to psychological and physical issues, such as eyestrain and
difficulty focusing on important tasks. They may also contribute to more serious health conditions, such as
depression. The overuse of technology may have a more significant impact on developing children and
teenagers

INTERRELATIONSHIP AND DYNAMICS BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

-Science and technology are not independent variables; they interact and interpenetrate either social
variables.
1. Science cannot develop w/o the required technology infrastructure needed for research and
development. Materials, equipment, information, organization, management, and financial
resources are necessary for the conduct of productive research and development.
2. Technology cannot advance w/o continuing inputs from science .Knowing that heat technology
was used for cooking and lightning even by primitive people, the technological leap was achieved
only after explanation by the science of thermodynamics based on physic s and chemistry
3. Science is not the only source of technology. Empirical know how, experience, and practice are
also valuable sources of technology. There are other determinants of technology aside from
science.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Bases of Comparison Science Technology

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 1. Aim/Objective Seeks to discover the workings Seeks to invent new or improve
of nature tools & materials or better way of
doing things

2. Concern Know-why Know-how

3. Result New knowledge w/c may be New products or process of w/c

theory-based or theory related is then appropriated in the form a
knowledge of nature. patent & commercially exploited.
This may be technics or technic-
related intellectual construct.

4. Core Activity Focuses on research ( pure, Focuses on dev’t w/c involves

applied, fundamental, basic, or transforming research findings
oriented. into prototype inventions of new
materials, devices, and processes
so technologists are product-
oriented.

Limitations of Science

1. It can’t answer the question of morality.

2. It can’t answer the question of values.
3. It can’t make aesthetic judgment.
4. It can’t prove the existence of a supernatural being.
5. Science cannot answer all categories of questions.
6. Science cannot guarantee immediate solutions to problems.
7. Scientific laws ultimately rest on past observations but future predictions cannot be absolutely
certain
8. Many events occur simultaneously but we cannot be certain that the same situation will lead to
the same results.

Limitations of Technology
1. Natural Limit
2. Ethical Limit
3. Economic limit

UNIT II – THE NATURE OF SCIENCE

DEFINITIONS OF SCIENCE

- comes from the Latin name Scientia, which means to know or “Scire” meaning to
know

- systematized body of knowledge based on experimentation, research, and facts

- is about ideas, it an organized body of knowledge gained from careful study,

observation, or experimentation
- science is dynamic – it grows with time as we discover ways of applying scientific
principles for our benefit
- According to McGinn (1991),there are four meanings of Science:

1. As a knowledge
- the organized, well- founded body of knowledge of natural phenomena
- there are three generally recognized ways to obtain knowledge:
a. Intuition – a “mental flash” which is not always reliable;
b. Authorities – who may differ and contradict one another; and

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 c. Scientific method – basic tool used by scientists in the search for knowledge.

2. As a field of systematic inquiry into nature

- the particular field or domain or systematic inquiry in which such knowledge is
sought

3. As a form of human cultural activity

- a distinct form of human activity in which scientists are engaged

4. As a total societal enterprise

- The summation of knowledge, people, skills, organization, facilities, techniques,
physical resources, methods and technology, which is devoted to the study and
understanding of the natural world

SUPERSTITIOUS OR SCIENTIFIC
- Among terms used to describe beliefs and practices in our local communities are superstitious
and scientific.
- Some belief, practices and ways of thinking of many people, not only in the rural areas but also
in the cities, are not in accord with the laws of nature. They are unscientific and are called superstitious.
- If a belief or practice is superstitious, it is definitely unscientific. However, some superstitions
have scientific explanations.

*superstitious - practice founded on illogical or irrational feelings.

*scientific practice/belief – is in accord with the laws of nature

IMPORTANT TERMS:

1. Fact – refers to knowledge or information based on real occurrence.

2. Concept – pertaining to general idea derived or inferred from specific instances or occurrence
3. Principle – refers to a rule or law concerning the functioning of natural phenomena or
mechanical process
4. Scientific Law – it is the verbal or mathematical statement that relates series of observations that
have been verified again and again resulting from persistent observations
5. Scientific Theory – it is referring to a hypothesis extensively tested and able to describe a model.
It is questioned and tested by new experiments. It is an idea in science with at least some
evidence or observations supporting it, useful in making predictions

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

- is a process used to find answer to questions about the things around us

- it involves the application of scientific knowledge and problem-solving skills

1. Observation
- Researchers make observations around them to spot problem areas and then, they
identify the specific problem they want to study.

a. Indirect Observation – observation made on something you cannot see or measure

“Second hand”
b. Direct – an observation made on something you can see or measure “first hand”.
2. Statement of the Problem.
- Ask a question about an observation. It is a question that the application of current
knowledge and technology can answer.
3. Formulation of hypothesis
- A hypothesis is an investigative tool that helps clarify ideas and state relationships so
they can be tested. It is derived from the preliminary data that have been gathered.
4. Testing of hypothesis
- A hypothesis is a tentative idea or educational guess
- some hypothesis can be tested by making observations
- the common way to test hypothesis is experimentation
5. Experimentation
- this is the stage where the hypothesis is tested
- the researcher see to it that the experiment is a fair test

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 - A “ fair test” happens when only one factor or variable is changed and all other
conditions are kept the same
Experimental variable
-the real test variable in an experiment
Control variable
-part of an experiment treated “normally” which is used to compare experimental
results
6. Gathering data
- the use of all available resources to learn as much about the problem as possible
Experimentation
- this is the stage where the hypothesis is tested
- the researcher see to it that the experiment is a fair test
- a “ fair test” happens when only one factor or variable is changed and all other
conditions are kept the same
- An experiment that makes use of a scientific method has variables and controls
- Has two variables: the independent or manipulated variable and the dependent or
responding variable
7. Analysis of data
- the analysis and interpretation of data gathered from the experiment allow the
researchers to list the findings of their study
8. Drawing Conclusion/ Generalization
- based on the finding of the experiment, the researchers draw a generalization about
the problem being investigated
a. Deductive Method – conclusion from general to specific
b. Inductive Method – conclusion from specific to general

9. Verifying the validity of the generalization

- This means that, under the same conditions, they should be able to draw a similar
generalization.

METHODS OF DISCOVERY

1. Serendipity
- It’s a discovery by chance. It is the effect by which one accidentally discovers
something fortunate, especially while looking for something else entirely. Sometimes
not all important discoveries we made are according to plan; favourable accidents
happen. But it takes a prepared mind to get insights from an accident. But it takes a
prepared mind to get insights from an accident.

2. Discovery Based on Intuition

-this is a rational or mental processing of previous information.
-examples: mass-energy relationship or the theory of relativity by Albert Einstein

ATTITUDES AND VALUES OF A SCIENTIST

-refers to scientific outlook, how they see situation, and happenings and how they feel about
them.
1. Curiosity
- must have keen observation of things and events in the environment
- a curious person has the desire to learn
2. Logic and system
- He uses step by step experimental method and keeps accurate records

3. Open mindedness
- He has readiness or willingness to change ideas or principles when necessary
4. Intellectual honesty
- He acknowledges contribution of others to one’s success
5. Hard work
- He works industriously and has willingness to continue study despite problems or
obstacle
6. Creativity
- the ability to use the imagination to develop new ideas or things
- always try to seek, inquire and discover

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 7. Resourcefulness
– the ability to use of available materials and equipment; this quality also enables a
person to find substitutes for unavailable or expensive materials

8. Humility
- ability to accept criticisms and suggestions from others; willingness to accept one’s
weaknesses and limitation

9. Responsibility
– refers to the willingness to be accountable for one’s conduct and decision
10. Persistence and Determination
– the ability to sustain interest in the midst of setbacks; the ability to set aside personal
convenience
11. Skepticism
- develop the doubting attitude unless presented with reliable data
12. Critical mindedness and Rationality
- consistent with or based on reason, possesses disciplined intellectual criticism that
combines research, knowledge of historical context, and balanced judgement

MAJOR BRANCHES OF SCIENCE

I. Social science
- deals with human beings and their interactions with each other

1. History – deals with past occurrence

2. Psychology – the science of human mind and its functions or the study of human behavior
3. Sociology- relationship of man with other men toward society
4. Economics – refers to the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services and
with the theory and management of economies and economic systems
5. Political – study of the processes, principles, and structure of government and of political
institution
6. Anthropology – holistic discipline that deals with the integration of different aspects of the social
sciences, humanities, and human biology
7. Demography – the science of vital and social statistics such as birth and marriage, etc., of the
population

II. Abstract Science

- deals with abstract ideas and employ the mental faculties
1. Computer – deals with mathematics & technology of computers and their application
2. Geometry – a form of mathematics , that deals with among others, the deduction of properties,
measures and relationship of parts, lines and angles in space
3. Logic – correct or reliable reasoning
4. Logistics – military science dealing with the procurement, maintenance, and transportation of
facilities
5. Philosophy – the study of the truth and principles of being, knowledge and conduct
6. Mathematics – deals with numbers and measurements

III. Natural Science

- Classified as either Pure or Applied, and divided into physical or biological Science
- Are part of the interplay between nature and man and describe nature as exposed to our
method of questioning
A. Earth Sciences
- Fields which deal with the structure of the earth and nature of the Universe
1. Astronomy – deals with the material universe beyond the earth’s atmosphere
2. Astronautics – the science of travel beyond the earth’s atmosphere including interplanetary
and interstellar flights
3. Geology – study of the earth and its history, including its rocks and its physical changes
4. Meteorology- deals with atmosphere and its phenomena, including weather and climate
5. Seismology – earthquakes and their phenomena
6. Volcanology – volcanoes and of eruptive phenomena

15
 7. Oceanography – deals with the biology and chemistry of the oceans
8. Physiography – study of the surface features of the earth and the effect of the relationship
between air and land
9. Petrology – deals with the study of rocks
10. Mineralogy – chemical composition and structure of minerals
11. Cosmology –refers to the origin and mode of formation of various celestial objects
12. Glaciology – concerns about icecaps and glaciers

B. Biological Sciences
-living things /organisms
- plants ( Botany ) and animals ( Zoology )
1. Microbiology – microscopic organisms
Anton van Leeuwenhoek - the father of microbiology
2. Anatomy – structures or parts
Andreas Vesalius - the father of anatomy
3. Genetics – genes and heredity
Gregor Mendel - the father of Genetics
3. Ecology – relationship between organisms and their environment
Ernst Haeckel - the father of ecology
4. Cytology – cells
Robert Hooke - discovered the cell and the father of cytology

6. Histology – tissues
Marie Francois Bichat - the father of modern histology
7. Evolution – origin of life
Charles Darwin - the father of evolution
8.Taxonomy – classifications, naming and identification of organisms
Carolus Linnaeus
9. Physiology – functions and processes
10. Paleontology – fossils
Georges Cuvier - founding father of paleontology
11.Pathology – origin and nature of diseases
Rudolf Virchow - the father of modern and cellular pathology
12. Biogeography –distributions of organisms
13. Embryology – development
Karl Ernst von Baer- the father of embryology
14. Biochemistry – chemical composition of living things
15. Morphology – forms and structures
Wilhelm Hofmeister - the father of morphology
16. Molecular biology - the study of biochemical molecular processes within cells especially the
processes of replication, transcription, and translation
17. Biophysics – deals with the application of physics in the study of biological processes in
living organisms

C. Physical sciences
- Fields which have something to do with the physical nature of matter with atoms and
molecules and the manner they react together
1. Aerometry – science of weighing and measuring air and other gases
2. Astronautics – science of travel beyond the earth’s atmosphere including interplanetary and
interstellar flights
3. Chemistry – deals with matter and its properties, composition, and its structures
4. Physics- science dealing with the properties, changes, interaction of matter and energy
5. Engineering – deals with design and building of machines, devices, and structures
6. Ballistics – concerns with the dynamics of the path taken by an object moving under the
influence of a gravitational field such as missile
7. Dynamics – refers to the behaviour of material objects under the action of external forces
8. Electronics – behaviour of electrons and other carriers of electric charge as they flow
9. Mechanics – study of the behaviour of physical system in terms of their position in space,
under the action of external forces which may be equal or different from zero
10. Metallurgy – study of metals
11. Optics – light and vision
12. Radiology – X-rays or rays from radioactive substances especially for medical uses

16
 13. Thermodynamics – mechanical properties of matter related to heat energy
14. Statics – equilibrium of external forces acting on material objects
15. Robotics – design and use of robots particularly their application in manufacturing

HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Technology went through phases of times before finally reached its peak. Just like anything in
this world, it all started with uncomplicated and simple ones. There are five eras of history in the field of
Technology:

I. The Dawn of the First Civilization

- People of the first civilization discovered, learned, and develop Science and Technology essentially
as the consequences of their search for food and other survival needs, for practical reasons as well as
curiosity

II. Pre-Historic Times ( 3000 – 1000B.C.)

A. Stone Age
- Old stone age is known as Paleolithic Period
- New stone Age or Neolithic Period
- This is the time when tools and weapons were made of stone, animal bones and wood such as
axes, arrowheads, hammers, chisels, javelins, and harpoons
- It was during this period when Java man, Peking man, Neanderthal man, and Cro-Magnon
man existed. They began to use ornaments, paint pictures and carved figures of clay, bone
and ivory.
- Later, as they learned domestication of plants and animals, they began to engage in
agriculture and improved crude stone implements by polishing them.
- They developed pottery, weaving and other industries.
- They made dugouts, the first boats made out of jungle trees and with these, they were able to
navigate rivers and lakes.
- Human began farming about 12,000 years ago. The ability to control their food supply freed
people from nomadic lifestyle, w/c allowed for the beginning of cities and towns.

B. Bronze Age
- Usage of bronze as tools and weapons

III. Ancient Times ( 3500 B.C. –A.D. 1200 in the old World)

A. Sumerians, First Builders of Civilization

- an ancient civilization founded in Mesopotamian region
- These ancient people of Western Asia used cuneiform, a system of writing made of clay or
stone tablets with wedge shaped characters.
- Aside from inventing writing, Sumerians invented the plow and the wheel
- They built the first cities, first schools and temples and wrote the first history, poetry, epics,
and law codes.
- Sumerians were also the first people in the world to mix copper and tin, thereby producing
an alloy called bronze, a metal w/c is harder and more durable than copper.

B. Babylonian Civilization
- was state in ancient Mesopotamia
- Babylonians excelled in mathematics.
- They invented the sexagesimal system of calculation by sixties
- They were the first people in history to divide the circle into 360 degrees
- They also divided the hour into minutes and each minutes into seconds
- First people to devise the twelve signs of the zodiac and they believed that every planet is
God
- The crowning glory of Babylon was the fabulous Hanging gardens w/c was built by
Nebuchadnezzar to please his favourite wife Amythist.

C. Egyptian Civilization

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 - Made the world’s pyramids, the oldest man made stone monuments in history that still exists
to the present time. No wonder an Arab proverb says: “All the world fears Time, but Time
fears the Pyramids.
- The ancient Egyptians erected palaces, obelisks, and temples of granite and stone, whose
splendor has amazed all men up to the present time.
- Devised the first 365-day calendar
- Produced the first seagoing ships made of buoyant papyrus plants that sailed to Phoenicia,
Mesopotamia and Iran, and to the islands of the Mediterranean Sea carrying trading goods.
- First people to develop geometry because of the need to restore the land boundaries erased by
the annual flood of the Nile River.
- Egyptians writing was in the form of pictorial symbols known as Hieroglyphics, representing
individual objects or actions
- Egypt increased man’s knowledge of medicine, surgery, and embalming
- They gave mankind various practical inventions such as the inclined plane and pulley w/c
enable builders to construct colossal structures like the pyramids, sundial, and water clock
w/c are used to measure time.
- They mummified their dead to preserve the body and keep it intact forever

D. Cretan or Minoan Civilization

- They had a script system of writing known as Linear A
- LInear A - form of writing used in Crete from the 18 th to the 15th centuries
- Crete is the longest island in Greece and the fifth largest of the Mediterranean
E. Greek Civilization

1. Hippocrates
o was the first Greek to challenge the notion that disease was punishment sent by the
Gods.
o He discovered the connection between human disease and poor environmental
conditions.
o His accurate clinical observation led him to be considered as the Father of medicine

2. Pythagoras
o Established a movement in the 16th century B.C. that emphasized the study of
mathematics as a means to understand all relationships in the natural world.
o Pythagoreans, were the first to teach that the earth is a sphere revolving around the
sun.
3. Archimedes
o He was credited with important contributions to the development of physics.
- develop practical inventions such as the lever and screw
o discovered the principle of water displacement while taking a bath when he realized
that his body caused the level of water to rises
o Lever is a strong bar that is used to lift and move something heavy
o Screw - simple machine of inclined plane
4. Empedocles
o Taught that nature was a mixture of 4 elements: earth, fire, air, and water
5. Anaxagoras
o Argued that matter was composed of or convertible to water

F. Persian Civilization
- Introduced a uniform system of gold and silver coinage, a standard of weights and measures,
a postal service, a code law and a common calendar

G. Roman civilization
- Romans were poor in science and the only celebrated Roman Scientist was Pliny the Elder
1. Pliny the Elder
-he is a naturalist and scientific worker ( Natural History )
- Natural history - is the study of plants, animals and sometimes ancient human
civilization
2. Galen

18
 -the famous physician, he wrote more than 150 books on medicine
3. Cleopatra
- Roman queen who used cosmetics and bathed in milk before the science of cosmetology
was known and developed

 Medicine – through the scientific achievements of the Romans, they established clinics and
hospitals, as well as baths and sewers to safeguard health
 The aqueducts were marvellous achievements of Roman engineers, including the Parthenon, the
Coliseum, baths, roads, and other infrastructure.
 Parthenon - doric temple of Athena built on the Acropolis at Athens in the 5 th centuries

H. Arabic or Islamic Civilization

- Introduced Arabic system of numbers, although it was Hindu in origin

I. Chinese Civilization
- People built walled settlements with heavy gates and made bronze weapons, tools, and
ornament
- Used a photographic and ideographic script
- Learned technology of silk production
- Created magnificent bronze vessels, discovered lacquer, developed horse drawn chariots
- Develop calligraphy( the art of making beautiful handwriting), water color painting and block
painting
- Invented printing press
- Their apothecaries ( a pharmacy or a person who prepared and sold medicine) and
acupuncture proved to be effective cures to most known disease
- Invented gunpowder, used coal as fuel, used water wheel, wheelbarrow, and the flexible
bamboo pole that speedily enchanted the transport of heavy loads, engaged in technology of
copper coinage, artistry of wall paper and porcelain

J. Indus-Hindu Civilization
- Constructed layout of its cities which featured water wells, bathroom, waste pipe or drains in
nearly every house
- SANSKRIT is the classical language in India

IV. Science & Technology During the Pre-Columbian Times (1500 B.C. – 1500 A.D. in the New
World)
A. Olmec Civilization
-used calendar and a developed counting system
B. Mayan Civilization
-develop mathematical system that was based on the number 20
C. Aztec Civilization
-prepared and ate spicy tacos and tortillas, the original corn chips
D. Inca Civilization
-transformed steep mountainsides of their highlands into networks of terraced fields
linked by a system of miles-long irrigation canal

V. Middle Ages (1300 -1600 A.D. in the Western World)

- Monasteries established during this time became center of learning and the source of relief
for the sick and the poor

VI. The Advance of S & T during the Renaissance

- Technology for printing books
- Translation of scientific knowledge from Greek to Latin

1. Leonardo da Vinci
-Left behind thousands of pages of notes where historians found the plans he drew up that
anticipated such inventions as the helicopter, the submarine, the machine gun, and the motor
car
2. Copernicus
-proposed the theory that the sun is the center of the universe
3. Vesalius

19
 -founder of modern medicine, laid out the first scientifically accurate description of
human anatomy

VII. Science & Technology during the Scientific Revolution (1600 -1700 A.D.: Europe Century of
Genius)

1. Bacon
-promoted the new scientific method because it involved the process of empirical
inductive method
2. Galilei
-used the telescope to observe satellite circling Jupiter, the first to make detailed drawings
of the surface of the moon
3. Descartes
-strengthened the power of reason against the unverified arguments based on Aristotle’s
philosophy and Ptolemy’s astronomy
4. Kepler
-made the crucial discovery that the orbits of the planets were not circular but elliptical
5. Huygens
-started the use of the pendulum as a time controller in clocks
7. Leeuwenhoek
-used simple microscope to observe protozoa and bacteria
8. Harvey
-discovered the blood circulation

9. Malpighi
-discovered capillary connection
10. Hooke
- discovered the cell
11. Torricelli
- invented the barometer

VIII. Science & Technology During the Age of Industrialization (1703 -1930 A.D. in the Modern
World)
1. Kay –flying shuttle
2. Watt –first satisfactory condensing steam engine
3. Black – discovered latent heat ( heat given off or absorbed in a process such as fusion or
evaporation
4. Franklin
– demonstrated that lightning is electricity by flying a wired kite in a thunderstorm
which led him to invent the lightning rod to prevent houses from getting burned when struck
by lightning
5. Galvani
-discovered that electric current could be generated by putting two different metals in
contact with the muscle of a frog
6. Volta – electric battery
7. Faraday – experimented on electromagnetism ( a magnetic field that is produced by electric
current
8. Edison – electric light bulb
9. Hertz-first to broadcast and receive radio waves
10. Marconi –created system of radiotelegraphy, a mass communication device
11. Roentgen – x-rays

ANCIENT SCIENTISTS AND THEIR ACHIEVEMENTS

SCIENTISTS ACHIEVEMENTS
Astronomer, predicted eclipse of sun
1. Thales of Miletus Geometry of circle in 585 B.C.

2. Anaximander Cartography- the art and science of graphically

representing a geographical area usually on a flat
surface such as maps or charts,
Ogliquity of the ecliptic
Ogliquity - astronomical term describing the angle

20
 of tilt of the earth’s orbit around the sun

3. Anaximenes Laws of conservation of matter & energy

4. Pythagoras Relations between sides of right angled triangle

5. Meton of Athens Metonic cycle- period of 19 calendar years ( 235

lunar mos) after which the new and full moons
return to the same or nearly the same dates of the
year

6. Philolaus of Croton Phythagorean Cosmology - astronomical system

positing that the Earth, moon, sun and planets
revolve around an unseen “central fire” was
developed in the 5th century B.C.

7. Democritus Atomic Theory

His ideas is more on reasoning than science

8. Hippocrates Father of Medicine

9. Eudoxus Theories on planetary motion theory

Classified plants & animals.
10. Aristotle Father of biology
Human dissection, brain as the center of thought
11. Herophilus

12. Crates Globe

13. Philon Flow of liquids and gases

14. Diocles First Greek Treatise on Medicine

15. Euclid - the father of geometry Systematized Geometry

16. Apollonius Conic section

Area of circle, Principles of Lever, screw,
17. Archimedes buoyancy

18. Eratosthenes Ptolemaic system

19. Theodorus Size of earth, climate

Pattern of Cosmos, latitude, longitude, triangular
20. Hipparchus measure
Ptolemaic system, mathematics, Geography, Optics
21. Ptolemy

22. Julius Caesar Calendar reform

WELL-KNOWN FILIPINO SCIENTISTS

FILIPINO SCIENTISTS CONTRIBUTIONS

Discovered an antibiotic known by its generic
1. Dr. Abelardo Aguilar name erythromycin w/o receiving anything from
the sale from a giant US drug firm (Ely Lilly of
Indiana)
The drug’s propriety name is Ilotycin and Ilosone
in honor of the Iloilo province where Aguilar
obtained soil samples that bore the Aspergillus in
1952.

21
 The world’s leading authority on Community
Ecology, Biogeography and Systematics of
Amphibians/Reptiles.
2. Angel C. Alcala
He was the first scientist to develop a project to
create artificial coral reefs.
Focused her research efforts on the morphology,
physiology, and biochemistry of drug plants.
3. Magdalena C. Cantoria
He was hired as a design automation engineer and
later became a senior engineer at INTEL,
Philippines.
In 1987, he left INTEL to found Innovatix, a fitting
acronym for a company aiming in Innovative
4. Ramon Ilejay Castillo consumer gadgets in the market today: Power delay
mechanism, Lantern Blinker, portable lamp
dimmer and dancing light and three channel lamp
cluster.
She was admitted at the Harvard Medical Post
Graduate w/ the help of the late President Manuel
Quezon.
She was appointed by the late Mayor Leon Guinto
of manila to help in the building of a hospital for
5. Fe Del Mundo children, known today as the Jose Reyes Memorial
Hospital.
Made more studies regarding diseases among
children.
Invented the incubator and the jaundice relieving
device as her contribution to the World of Medical
technology.
Helped in building the Children’s Medical Center
in Banawe, Quezon City.
, His work on soft x-rays w/c required high vacuum
photography earned him recognition.
He co-founded the Bartol Research Foundation in
6. Casimero Del Rosario Philadelphia.
For 11 years, he headed the Philippine weather
Bureau and was the first Vice Chairman of the
National Science Development Board.
In 1965, he received the President award for
researches in physics, meteorology and astronomy;
and the UP Alumni award.

As a scientist, he made contributions to rice

breeding as plant breeder and professor.
He provided leadership in the development,
isolation and release of nine Seed Board rice
7. Pedro B. Escuro varieties.
A world renowned Filipino scientist, is a doctor
with specialization in orthopedic surgery.
He invented different hip replacement systems for
hip joints to ease the pain of victims of accidents
and victims of chronic arthritis.
8. Dr. Ramon Gustillo He designed also replacement of the knees that
well- known companies in USA distribute.
Contributed much in the advancement of nutrition
in the country, having served as the director of the
9. Carmen Intengan Food and Nutrition Research Institute from 1974 to

22
 1980.
The most notable ophthalmologist in the country,
introduced corneal transplantation in the country
and designed a corneal dissector.
10. Geminiano De Ocampo In 1977, he was elevated to the Philippine
Opthalmology’s Hall of Fame.
A foremost botanist, he pioneered in the study of
Philippine Medicinal Plants where he made
tremendous contributions.
11. Eduardo Quisumbing His book Medicinal Plants in the Philippines is the
foremost of all the researches on medicinal plants
in the country.
Invented the Quink trademark ink, the indelible ink
w/c is Parker commercial stamp.
13. Francisco Quisumbing
He is a renowned Filipino leprologist and
14. Jose Rodriguez researcher who has devoted 53 yrs. of his life to the
control of leprosy in the country.

Leprosy - is a serious disease that causes painful

rough area on the skin and that badly damages
nerves and flesh
A NASA engineer who designed the moon buggy
15. Eduardo San Juan w/c the Apollo astronauts used.
He pioneered in phillipine psychology and he made
the first intensive study of the local Myxophyceae
or blue green algae from w/c he received local and
16. Gregorio Velasquez international recognition.

Invented the two-way television-telephone, electric

kinetic resistance known as the Zara’s effect,
17. Gregorio Zara airplane engine using alcohol fuel w/c was first
flown at the Manila International Airport on
September 30, 1954 and solar energy.

WELL-KNOWN FILIPINO INVENTORS

FILIPINO INVENTORS INVENTIONS

Co-discovered erythromycin w/o receiving

anything from the sale of the drug that earned
1. Abelardo Aguilar billions of dollars for the giant US drug firm Eli
Lilly.
He sold his energy-efficient fluorescent lamp
2. Agapito Flores invention to General Electric in the USA.

He is the designer of the moon rover. An alumnus

3. Agapito Mayuga, Ph.D. of Mapua Institute of Technology

Moon roover - a vehicle use to explore surface of

an extra terrestrial body like the moon or Mars
His patented inventions include the improved oven,
ice shaver unit, hotdog and bread warmer,
improved hotdog cooker, improved grinding
machine, press grated coconut, combined display
4. Benjamin Almeda, Sr. type chicken barbecuing device and oven, barbeque
cooker, portable sandwich toaster, waffle maker,
etc.
Major commercial food outlets like Jollibee,
McDonalds, Goldilocks, La Chesca, to name few,
purchased their customized food machinery from

23
 Almeda.
He invented the portable test pump, a handy leak-
testing apparatus for newly installed pipings and
lines.
5. Antonio Mateo
He was one of the 1994 World Intellectual Property
Organization(WIPO) Gold medal Award recipients.

He led the development of electronic telephone.

6. Camilo Magsaysay Tabalba
He made the water-powered car in 1969 and is
believed to have sold his invention to a foreign
7. Daniel Dingel company already

He invented the single chip graphical user

8. Diosdado Banatao interface accelerator
He sold his lunar rover model to Boeing Company
9. Ed San Juan in the USA.
She invented pito-pito, a cleansing drink which
10. Erlinda Sangui won the 1989 WIPO Gold Medal Award.
She invented “ettas’s Instant Skin Bleaching
11. Feliza Velonza Powder”.
He created the comparison sensitivity matrix .
He used engineering and mathematics to devise the
12. Dr. Jose B. Cruz comparison sensitivity matrix for evaluating
changes occurring in different components
He led a team of inventors in making the one-chip
13. Marc Loinaz video camera while working for Bell Laboratory
She made the natural food supplement Squalene
14. Remedios Lopez Reynoso,M.D Capsules, source from sharks indigenous to the
Philippines.
He built a 22-watt reflectoriszed circular lamp in
15. Eduardo Sta. Ines the wooden box. The auxiliary is a plastic diffuser
and a stainless steel reflector that gives a bright and
wide illuminator.
A Filipino physicist with NASA, he discovered a
recurring polynya ( semipermanent area
16. Dr. Josefino Comiso of open water in sea ice) in the Cosmonaut Sea,
south of the Indian Ocean.
He designed the pilot seat for Boeing 747 jumbo jet
17. Eugene Resos in 1968.
He invented airplane engine using alcohol. He also
18. Dr. Gregorio Zara made TY-telephone (video), a device that enables
caller to see each other onscreen.
They discovered Asteroid 6282 called Edwelda, an
19. Edwin Aguirre and Imelda Joson asteroid orbiting the sun between Mars and Jupiter.
20. Robert del Rosario He invented the karaoke which was modified later
by the Japanese.

WELL-KNOWN FOREIGN SCIENTISTS

FOREIGN SCIENTISTS DISCOVERIES

Founded individual psychology called
1. Alfred Adler ( 1870 – 1937 ) psychotherapy that influenced many educators,
psychologists, and psychiatrists.

Psychotherapy - is a treatment of mental or

emotional illness by talking about problems rather
than by using medicine or drug

24
 French physicist and mathematician after whom the
practical unit of electric current is named, noted for
2. Andre Marie Ampere ( 1725 – 1836 ) his important discoveries in the field of magnetism
and electricity.
The father of the electric telephone. In 1898, Bell
succeeded his father-in-law as president of the
National Geographic Society. He was aided by his
3. Alexander Graham Bell (1847– 1922) future son-in-law, who transformed what had
begun as a modest pamphlet into a unique
educational journal-the National Geographic
magazine.
His fame rests on his discovery of radioactivity in
4. Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852-1908) early 1896

He was one of France’s and the World’s greatest

5. Louis Bleriot (1872 – 1936 ) aeronautical Engineer and Aviators.
Accidentally blinded himself at the age of three.
Braille learned about a writing technique that had
been invented by a French army officer, Charles
Barbier. It was 12-dot system that was punched on
6. Louis Braille ( 1809 – 1852 ) cardboard for night time battlefield communication
s. Braille devised a similar system using six dots in
1824,when he was only 15 yrs. Old.

She was a polish scientist who, with her French

husband Pierre and Henri Becquerel, received the
7. Marie Curie ( 1867 – 1937 ) 1903 Nobel prize for Physics for the discovery of
radioactivity. She also received the 1911 prize for
Chemistry for her discovery of the elements radium
and polonium.
Advanced the atomic theory in 1805 which states
that matter is made up of small particles called
atoms and that chemical changes take place
8. John Dalton (1766 – 1844 ) between atoms or groups of atoms.
The diesel engine improved on the efficiency of
previous internal combustion engines by dispensing
w/ an internal ignition source. With its ability to
run on cheap, unrefined oil, the engine became
9. Rudolf Diesel ( 1859 – 1913 ) widely used in industry and transport. It was named
after its inventor. As a result of his invention he
became a millionaire, but because of his disinterest
in wealth, he invariably found himself in financial
difficulties. Depression over the war in Europe and
his desperate financial situation drove him to
suicide.
It was for an electric vote counter to be used in the
US House of Representatives. The machine worked
perfectly, but the congressmen would not buy it.
When he died at the of 84, he patented 1,093
10. Thomas Edison (1847 – 1937 ) inventions like the motion-picture projector,
phonograph, electric-light bulb incandescent, and
hundreds of others.
He was regarded by many as the greatest
theoretical physicist of all time. Best known as the
creator of the theory of relativity.
Indeed, his Nobel prize (1921) was awarded not for
relativity; the selection committee, uncertain
11. Albert Einstein ( 1879 -1955 ) whether relativity was here to stay, chose to honor
him instead for his theory of photoelectric effect.
Penicillin was discovered in Sept. 1928.Thsi
miracle drug was discovered and given to the world
12. Alexander Fleming ( 1881 -1955 ) by Fleming, a physician and research bacteriologist

25
 at St. Mary’s Hospital Medical school in London.
He organized the first library in America.
In Europe, he persuaded the English to repeal the
hated Stamp Act. He convinced the French to aid in
13. Benjamin Franklin ( 1706 – 1790 ) the American Revolution. Helped draft both the
declaration of Independence and the American
Constitution.
In 1752, franklin attached a key to a kite string and
drew electric sparks from the key from lightning
strike, thus becoming the first person to identify
lightning as an electrical discharge.
He is chiefly remembered for his work on free fall,
14. Galileo Galilei ( 1564 – 1642 ) his use of the telescope and his employment of
experimentation.
He invented trigonometry. He was the first
cataloguer of stars, lightning almost 1,000 suns in
the universe.
15. Hipparchus ( died: approx. 125 B.C.) Most strikingly, he invented longitude and
magnitude, linear division of a 360-degrees circle,
w/c made good maps possible.
Lister’s first important scientific contribution
entitled “An Essay on the Early Stages of
Inflammation”, was published in 1857.
In 1867, he wrote On the Antiseptic principle in the
16. Joseph Lister ( 1827 – 1912 ) Practice of Surgery w/c put an end to surgical
diseases.
He was the first to solved the problem of wound
infection after surgery.

He did not design the Periodic Table; he discovered

it. While working on chemistry in 1869, he wrote
the names & some of the main nature of the
17. Dmitri Mendeleyev ( 1826 – 1910 ) elements on individual cards to help establish a
suitable order in w/c to discuss their chemistry. It
was while arranging this pack of cards in different
ways that he established upon the pattern we now
recognize as the period table.

He formulated the laws of universal gravitation.

Newton’s fame rested securely on his application
of the mathematical method on the study of nature,
18. Isaac newton ( 1642 -1727 ) and his having been the first to bring under one
general principle the law of gravitation a wide
range of natural phenomena.

19. Louis Pasteur ( 1822 – 1895 ) Founder of Microbiology, known primarily for his
pasteurization of food and on preventive vaccines.
It was he who discovered the electron and
20. Joseph Thompson ( 1856 -1946 ) established the theory of electrical nature of matter.
Showed that Neptune, the most distant known
planet from the sun, made erratic orbit by the
gravitational influence of some still undiscovered
body.
In 1930,he discovered that one of the dots found in
21. Clyde Tombaugh( Born: 1906 his photos was indeed the planet that Lowell had
said to be found and he named it Pluto, following
the fashion of naming planets after Greek and
Roman deities.

26
 His most significant invention was the
apochromatic lens of the microscope, w/c made it
possible to bring a clear image of an object into
focus.
22. Carl Zeiss ( 1816 – 1888 ) The world’s first planetarium projector was built by
the Zeiss firm in 1923. The firm became famous for
its telescope, microscope, field glasses, and other
optical instrument.

WELL – KNOWN FOREIGN INVENTORS

FOREIGN INVENTORS INVENTIONS

1. Wright Brothers (Wilbur & Orville) Airplane

Atomic Bomb. It was successfully tested about 200
2. Albert Einstein miles from Los Angeles in the US on July 6, 1946.

3. Laszlo Biro He invented the ball-point pen in 1938.

4. Galileo Galilei Clinical thermometer

He devised the first electronic computer in 1888
5. Herman Hollerith A.D.

6. Alfred Nobel He invented dynamite in 1867.

With the invention of hydroelectric power in 1881
in England, the way for an electric iron was paved.
7. Henry W. Seely The very next year, he developed the electric iron –
the first electrical appliance.
He received the 1924 Nobel Prize in physiology &
8. Willem Einthoven medicine for his invention of the
electrocardiograms.
In 1852, he developed automatic safety device to
9. Elisha Graves Otis prevent a lifter contraption from falling if the cable
were to break.
They invented the escalator, a moving stairway.
10. G. Wheeler & W. Reno
A Frenchman who invented the gear in 1827 A.D.
11. Onesiphore Pecquer A gear is a mechanical device that transfers rotating
motion of power from one part of a machine.
Invented the ice cream w/c has been enjoyed since
12. Gerald Tissain 1620.

13. Theodore Maimon He developed the first laser in 1960 by flashing

ordinary light into rod of synthetic ruby. LASER –
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation.
Invented in 1590 the microscope. By 1600,
14. La Charra Janssen Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek, made more powerful
microscope and observed microscopic life through
it.
He invented the first car w/ a steam powered
15. Nicolas Joseph Cugnot engine.
He developed the electric car in 1890.
William Morrison
He introduced the gasoline powered car.
Emille Levassor

16. Henry Hertz He discovered radio waves in 1887.

17. Jacob Parkin He invented the first refrigerator in 1834.

27
 18. Alexander Graham bell Telephone

19. John Logi Baird Television

20. Hamilton Smith Washing machine

UNIT III – THE NATURE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEFINITIONS OF TECHNOLOGY
- derived from 2 Greek words: “techno” meaning art or skill and “technologia” meaning
systematic treatment
- a body or reservoir of skills and knowledge by which we control and modify its systems,
processes and developments in the world
- combination of software ( processes, techniques, organization, and management) and the
hardware ( machines, tools, equipment, and materials) relevant in the manipulation of the environment
toward the manufacture of a product or the provision of a service
- Is a practical science
- It is responsible for the production of important conveniences
- According to McGinn (1991), there are four meanings of Technology:

1. As a technics – material artifacts, or hardware produced by a person, group, or society

Subcategories of Technics
a. Device – invention serving a particular purpose, especially machine to perform one or more
simple task
b. Machine – device consisting of fixed and moving parts that modifies mechanical energy and
transmits it in a more useful form
c. Tool – device that facilitates work ( small manually operated device)
d. Instrument – relatively small precision tool used by trained professional
e. Implement- preferred term for tools in agriculture and certain building trades
f. Utensils- tool used in a household, especially in the kitchen
g. Appliance – power-driven device that performs an specific function
h. Gadget – small specialized mechanical or electronic device or contrivance, especially on of
which the name cannot be recalled

2. As a technology – the complex , knowledge, methods, materials, and if applicable, constituent

parts used in making a certain kind of technic at a certain point in time
3. As a form of human cultural activity
- specific type of endeavor practiced by technologists
4. As a total enterprise
- the complex knowledge, people, skills, organization, facilities, technics, physical
resources, methods, and technologies, that taken together and in relationship to one
another, are devoted to research, development, production, and operation of technics

Types of Technologies (According to Specialization and Scope of activities by Roger Posadas, Ph. D):
1. Material Technologies – deals with the extraction, processing, fabrication, combination, and
synthesis of materials
2. Equipment Technologies – refer with the design and fabrication of tools, instruments, devices,
and machine
3. Energy Technologies – deal with the generation, conversion and distribution of various forms of
energy
4. Information Technologies – collection, storage, processing, retrieval, transmission, and utilization
of information
5. Life Technologies – preservation, repair, maintenance, reproduction, and improvement of living
systems
6. Management Technologies – deal with the planning, organization, mobilization, coordination,
and control of social activities

Classes of Technologies (based on a Country’s Level of Technological Sophistication from the book of
Alvin Toffler entitled The Third Wave)
1. First-Wave Technologies – comprising the pre- industrial technologies w/c are labor - intensive,
small-scale decentralized, and based on empirical rather than scientific knowledge. The

28
 intermediate, appropriate, or alternative technologies f based on the philosophy of “small is
beautiful” also fall under this category.
2. Second –Wave Technologies – comprising the industrial technologies w/c were developed since
the time of the industrial revolution up to end of World War II. These are usually capital-
intensive technologies w/c are essentially based on the principles of classical physics, classical
chemistry, and classical biology.
3. Third- Wave Technologies – comprising the post- industrial or high technologies w/c are called
science-intensive because these are based on our modern scientific knowledge of the structures,
properties, and interactions of atoms, molecules, and nuclei. Among the important high
technologies are micro-electronics, robotics, computers, laser technology, fiber optics, genetic
engineering , photovoltaics, polymers, and other synthetic materials.

Some Representative Technologies under the Different Wave Classes

First-Wave Second-Wave Third-Wave
Type of Technology Technologies Technologies Technologies
Material Technologies
Copper Bronze Polymers
Equipment
Technologies Plow Engine Laser tools
Energy Technologies
Wood Coal Solar cells
Information
Technologies Printing Typewriter Computers
Life
Technologies Herbal Medicine Antibiotics Artificial organs
Management
Technologies Calendar Organizer Web pages

Categories of Technology based on Stages of Development

1. Operative Technology – denotes implementation and practical utilization of technology

a. Static – know-how skills which permit the possessor to execute technology’s routine
operation
b. Dynamic- know-how skill which endow its possessor with a comprehension of
scientific principles underlying the technology and with the capacity to develop and
design an improved version of the technology
2. Advanced, Frontier, or High Technology – refers to modern or sophisticated technologies which
began and developed after the 2nd World War of modern research in the basic sciences,
Recombinant DNA technology, Lasers, computers, and the like fall under this category.
3. Appropriate, Intermediate, or Alternative Technology – deals with technologies w/c are low- cost,
low-level in complexity, small-scale, labor-intensive, suited to local materials and skills, designed
for decentralized and renewable energy resources, and oriented toward rural industries.

Characteristics of Advance and Appropriate Technology

Advance Technology Appropriate Technology
1. Often involve big machines that displace Involves small to medium size machines that do
many people not displace too many people
2. Complex and understandable only to Is simple and understandable to unspecialized
highly trained workers workers
3. Provides meaningless and uncreative work Provides meaningful and creative (whole product)
roles work roles
4. Requires much capital build and maintain Requires small amounts of capital to build and
maintain
5. Involves machinery that is difficult and Involves machinery that is easy and cheap to repair
expensive to repair
6. Often depends on imported materials Emphasizes self-sufficiency and use of local
materials
7. Creates products designed for export Creates products designed for use in local area
8. Requires centralized production and Involves decentralized production under local or
control in urban areas regional control in rural areas
9. Can disrupt local cultures Compatible with local culture

29
 10. Produces standardized, short lasting Often produces unique handcrafted products that
products that are soon thrown away are durable and easily reused and recycled
11. Emphasizes use of synthetic materials Emphasizes use of natural materials
12. Usually requires large input of matter and Requires small input of matter and energy
energy resources resources
13. Creates much pollution Creates little pollution
14. Usually emphasize use of non-renewable Usually emphasizes use of renewable energy
energy resources resources
15. Efficient only on large scale Efficient on a small scale
16. Attempt to disrupt and dominate nature Attempts to maintain and cooperate with culture

MEDICAL AND HEALTH RELATED TECHNOLOGIES

Diagnostic Technology

- Doctors use three main types of “clue” in making a diagnosis:

1. The patient’s case history

2. The doctor’s physical examination

3. The results of medical tests

Diagnosis

- Is the examination of a person to determine the cause of an illness or what disease is present

The process of Diagnosing

1. Patient provide their own medical history by answering questions posed on them such as

a. Physical condition and past illness

b. Family disease and habits

c. Present illness

2. Doctors use certain tools and Techniques to perform physical examination diagnosis by making
chemical and microscopic tests on body

*Medical laboratories aid diagnosis by making chemical and microscopic tests on body fluids and
tissues.

General and physical examination include:

a. Height and length measurement

b. Taking of blood pressure

c. Eyes, ears, and mouth examination

d. Reflex tests for nerve conduction

Importance and Social implications

To make a final diagnosis, the doctor fits together all the clues from the patient’s case history,
physical examination, and medical tests. If the diagnosis is complicated, the doctor may ask the opinion
of other experts.

1. By diagnosing body fluids such as blood, urine, stool sample, spinal fluids, and mucus, we will
know the important information about a disease.

30
 a. Blood – determine whether the person has anemia, infection blood disease.
b. Blood analysis – can also uncover nutritional deficiencies and other disorders.
c. Glucose tolerance test – measures insulin activity in the blood

2. Urine is tested for:

a. Glucose – diabetes Mellitus
b. Bacteria - can indicate kidney or bladder infection
c. Protein – its presence of blood may result from kidney disorder
3. Stool sample – tested for disease-causing microorganisms and other unusual contents
4. Spinal Fluids – examined for microorganisms and other unusual contents
5. Mucus ( in the nose and throat ) – tested to identify organism responsible for respiratory
infections

Various Types of Diagnostic Technology

1. Radiology
– uses electromagnetic radiation and ultrasonic for treatment of injury and disease
2. Conventional radiography
– generally and commonly known as x-ray
-tumors, pneumonia, and tuberculosis could be diagnosed
- it can also be used to see bone fractures and other conditions and to examine the
muscular /skeletal system
- its disadvantage is, the organ overlaps in the image
3. Biopsy
- detect abnormalities of the cell
4. Myelogram
- test to identify spinal cord disorder
- such disorder often shows up in myelogram after a radiopaque liquid has been injected
into the spinal cord disorder
- such disorder often shows up in myelogram after a radiopaque liquid has been injected
into the spinal cord.
5. Angiogram
- various kinds of angiogram heart and circulatory diseases
a. cerebral angiogram
- involves the infusion of a radiopaque substance into the cerebral to the arterial system
- it provides important diagnostic information about the patency, size, irregularities, or
occlusion of the cerebral vessels
b. cardiac angiography
- used to visualize coronary arteries, aorta, pulmonary blood vessels, and the ventricles to
assess structural abnormalities in the blood vessels
6. By x-ray examination of the esophagus and stomach, we would be able to highlight details in the
upper and lower gastrointestinal tract.
7. CT ( Computed Tomography) or CAT ( Computed Axial Tomography ) – can ta
Can take highly detailed images of hard and soft tissues to detect very small tumors and other
disorders
8. Scinthigraphy
-uncovers metabolic diseases and other disorders
- this is a procedure in which a small amount of radioactive isotope is introduced in the
body.
9. Scintiscan camera
-also called gamma camera, it measures the uptake and concentration of the isotopes in
certain tissues such as the brain, kidney, or thyroid gland
10. Ultrasonography
-it is used to locate tumors of the lungs and abdominal cavity
- this device employs high frequency sound waves to form television of internal organs
11. Ultrasound
-high frequency sound waves produced by a hand-held device from the body tissues
detected by the same instrument, which transmits the signals to video monitor. The image
is called sonogram or ultrasonogram and may be still or moving and produces no
radiation. It is used during pregnancy to determine the size and position of the fetus.

12. ECG ( Electrocardiograph)

31
 -is useful for diagnosing heart conditions
-with electrodes taped to a person’s chest, the electrical activity of the heart can be
recorded
13. Pulmonary Test
-this measures the breathing capacity of lungs and airways and gives information on
respiratory functions
14. Fiber Optic Technology
-used to see parts of the body that previously could be seen only by performing surgery
-through this technology which uses fiber optic, we can examine small areas, up to areas
deep into the body cavity
-also used to examine colon and the bronchial tubes in the lungs
15. Pap Smear
-a vaginal examination that can determine cancer of the cervix
16. Mammography
-procedure that involves using special x-rays to produce an image of soft and hard tissues
of the breast
17. Pelvic Examination
-test to assess the general reproductive health of a woman
18. Skin Test
-used to diagnose hypersensitive conditions and allergies
19. Psychological Test
-used to diagnose learning and mental processes
20. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
-a technique of tomography based on the magnetic behavior of proton hydrogen nuclei
- indications for this procedure include the following: CNS malignancies, CNS
hemorrhage, cerebral infraction and spinal cord
- protons in tissues respond to a pulse radio waves while they are being magnetized, the
result of which is measured and the colored image is a 2 or 3-D print of cellular
chemistry
21. Electroencephalograph
-a graphic record of brain wave activity
-it provides important diagnostic data about abnormal electrical activity in the brain
22. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction or DSR
-highly sophisticated x-ray machine which produces moving 3-D, life size images from
any view
23. Digital Subtraction Angiography or DSA
-a computer compares a radiogram of a region of a body before and after a contrast dye
has been injected into a blood vessel
-tissues around the blood vessel in the first image can be subtracted from the second
image, leaving an unobstructed view of the vessel
24. Positron Emission Tomography ( PET )
-positrons are injected into the body, the collision of which produces gamma rays which
are similar with x-rays
- a computer receives signals from gamma cameras positioned around the patient and
constructs an image called PET scan
25. Cardiac catherization
-an invasive procedure that is used to visualize the heart’s coronary arteries, chambers,
valves and great vessels, it is used to measure pressure in the heart and blood vessels, to
assess left ventricular function, cardiac output and diastolic property of the left ventricle
to measure flow of blood through the heart and blood vessels, oxygen content of the
blood, status of the heart valves, blood vessels and conduction system, and to identify
exact location of septal and valvular defects

BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING

- is an engineering discipline whose objective is to apply engineering in science and technology to

device practical solutions to medical problems
- has a major impact on all aspects of medicine including monitoring of the patient’s condition and
diagnosis of disorders, surgery, or treatment to correct or alleviate disorders
- it is also used in rehabilitation of a disabled patient to participate fully in society and in
fundamental research to gain understanding of the nature of the living systems.

32
 - The success of biomedical engineering is primary due to the practical, result oriented emphasis of
engineering and to the diversified repertoire of tools and techniques which engineering can bring
to bear on medical problems

BIOENGINEERING ACHIEVEMENTS

1. iron lungs - respiratory

2. improved artificial limbs - prostheses
3. braces - orthoses
4. artificial kidney machines
5. cardiac peacemakers
6. external heart lungs machines –pumps/respirators
7. life support systems are now common in instrumented intensive care facilities that increasingly
improve chances of survival
8. Medical applications of technology permits better diagnosis or spectacularly save lives
9. Sanitary and environmental engineering have had profound impacts on the prevention of
disease and injury, an avoidance of loss of life or on the need for rehabilitation

PHARMACOLOGY BREAKTHROUGHS

1.ANTISEPTICS

John Lister (1827-1912) was a British surgeon who radically changed surgical practice with the
introduction of antiseptics. He reduced the risk of bacterial infection during surgery. Lister’s antiseptic
solutions of carbolic aced was used to clean wounds and surgical cuts and to scrub surgeons’ hands.
Lister believe that infection was caused by airborne dust particles so he also sprayed the air with carbolic
acid. The equipment was heated to a high temperature to make it bacteria free. His discoveries met with
initial resistance but had become widely accepted by the 1880s when he introduced antiseptic catgut
ligatures. Ligatures are strong threads used to sew surgical wounds together. He also devised new
operations and invented several surgical instruments.

2.INSULIN

Sir Frederick Grant Banting (1891-1941) and Charles Herbert Best (1899-1941) discovered
insulin, a hormone used to control the disease diabetes melitus. Diabetes usually results when the
pancreas does not produce insulin to use the sugar in the blood. al Hospital.

3.MAJOR HISTO COMPATIBILITY ANTIGENS

Swiss immunologist Rolf Zinkernagel discovered how the immune system recognizes virus in
cells, a finding that led to his receipt of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1996. He spent the
bulk of his career researching on this and other questions of immunology at the University of Zurich
Switzerland.

Peter Doherty, however, a music lover himself, did not seem to mind and they were made
research partners.

By the end of 1973, Zinkernagel and Peter Doherty made a discovery that was later to win them
a Nobel Prize. Through experiments conducted on cells with viruses, the scientists determined how the
immune system recognizes and attacks foreign materials on the human body.

4.EPINEPHRINE

Jacob Abel’s research was mainly biochemical in nature. In1895, scientists in London had
injected into animals an extract from adrenal glands found that it produced an instant rise in blood
pressure. between 1895 and 1905, Abel worked on isolating the active substance that was found in this
gland. In 1897, Abel announced that he had managed to isolate though not in its pure form, the active
substance, which he called.

5.ILOSONE

33
 Dr. Abelardo Aguilar was in the news recently. He is the Filipino doctor who helped discover a
widely-used antibiotic without receiving anything from the sale of the drug that earned billions of dollars
for a giant US drug firm (Ely Lilly of Indiana). The drug’s proprietary name is Ilotycin and Ilosone which
is commonly known by its generic name erythromycin. Ilotycin derived name from Iloilo province where
in 1952 Aguilar obtained soil sample that bore the Aspergillus species of fungi from which the antibiotic
was obtained.

6.PENICILLIN

Penicillin refers to any one of group of antibiotics derived from the fungus penicillium or created
by using partially artificial processes. The action of natural penicillin was first observed in 1928 by
British bacteriologist Sir Alexander Fleming. Ten years later, penicillin was concentrated and studied by
German-British biochemist Ernst Chain, Australian pathologist Sir Howard Florey and other Scientists.

Penicillin acts both by killing bacteria and by inhibiting their growth. It does not kill organisms in
the resting stage but only those growing and reproducing. Penicillin is effective against a wide range of
disease-bearing microorganisms including pneumococci, streptococci, tetanus, and the syphilis
spirochaetes. The drug has been successfully used to treat such deadly diseases as endocarditis,
septicemia, gas gangrene, gonorrhea and scarlet fever.

Alexander Fleming was born in a remote, rural part of Scotland.

7.SALVARSAN

In 1909, German chemist-physician Paul Ehrlich developed a chemical treatment for syphilis.
He had tried hundreds of compounds, and the six hundred and sixth worked. It was named salvarsan
(meaning “that which saves by arsenic”). The only previous treatments for this disease had been so toxic
as to often kill the patient. Ehrlich brought news of his treatment to London, where Fleming became one
of the very few. His work was taken over by a team of chemists and mold specialists, but was cut short
when several of them died or relocated. It took World War II to revitalize interest in penicillin, and
Howard Florey and Ernst Chain picked up the work.

In recognition of his contribution, Alexander Fleming was knighted in 1944. With Chain and
Florey, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1945.

8.NIACIN/PELLAGRA

Joseph Goldberger

In 1892, Joseph Goldberger had been fighting tropical fevers, typhus, typhoid and other
infectious outbreaks throughout the United States and the Caribbean. The surgeon general took note of his
energy and success and in 1914, appointed him to tackle the crisis of pellagra, a disease recently reaching
epidemic proportions in the South.

Goldberger died of cancer in 1929 before his questions were answered. In 1937, researcher Conrad
Elvehjem picked up Goldberger’s question, and after much experimenting found that nicotinic acid or
niacin, prevented and cured pellagra in dogs and in humans. The study and understanding of vitamins and
cell chemistry advanced markedly during the 1930s.

9.NYSTATIN

One of the most famous tales in the history of American medical science is the long-distance
collaboration of Elizabeth Lee Hazen and Rachel Fuller Brown, who developed and patented a wonder
drug of the 20th century: the world’s first successful fungus-fighting antibiotic.

Hazen and Brown invested all their royalties from Nystatin (over $13 million) in the nonprofit
Research Corporation, which had helped them earlier to obtain a patent for their drug. Their generosity
has provided for a great deal of further medical research. Their example has inspired many women to
pursue a scientific career.

10.CRYSTAL STRUCTURES OF DRUGS

Dorothy Crawford Hodgkin graduated from Oxford in 1932. She found a position in an x-ray
crystallography lab studying biological crystals. This technique helped ease out the structure of
molecules. Though diagnosed at age 24 with rheumatoid arthritis, she became one of the most skilled

34
crystallographers of her time. In Cambridge and later at Oxford, she always chose projects that no one
else thought would be quite possible. She ran into Ernst Chain one day, who was beaming from his recent
animal trials of penicillin. It took four years. But she cracked penicillin’s complex and misleading
structure in 1946. That knowledge would help manufacturers create semisynthetic penicillin. Ten years
later, she announced the structure of vitamin b12 and in 1964 won the Nobel Prize in chemistry, in 1969,
she finally solved the puzzle of the structure of insulin.

11.DIPTHERIA, ANTITOXIN, TRYPAN

The work on immunity of the German bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich (1854-1915), led to his co-
reception of the 1908 Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine. Ehrlich determined the dosages for the
diptheria, antitoxin of Emil Adolf von Behring. He then theorized that certain substances could act as
“magic bullets”, attacking only disease-causing organisms in the body and leaving the rest of the body
unaffected. His subsequent discovery of the effectiveness of trypan dye in treating African sleeping
sickness and his synthesis (1910) of Salvarsan which was used against beginning of chemotherapy.

12.POLIO VACCINE

Microbiologist Jonas Edward Salk (1914-1995) developed on June 23, 1995 the first vaccine
effective against poliomyelitis. Salk and his associates developed and inactivated virus vaccine that
provided immunity against polio.

After massive field tests in 1953 and 1954, the vaccines quickly came into wide use in 1955 and
helped to reduce the incidence of polio until an oral vaccine was introduced by Albert Bruce Sabin in
1960. Salk withdrew from biological research in 1985 but later returned to work on developments of a
vaccine against AIDS.

13.LASER

The word LASER means Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Although
the common usage today is to use the word as a noun – laser – rather than as an acronym – LASER.

A laser is device that creates and amplifies a narrow, intense beam of coherent light.

Schawlow and Townes Invented the Laser

The invention of the laser dates back to 1958 with the publication of the scientific paper. Infrared
and Optical Masers, by Arthur L. Schawlow, then Bell Laboratories researcher, and Charles H.
Townes, a consultant of Bell Laboratories. That paper, published in Physical Review, the journal
of the American Physical Society, launched a new scientific field and opened the door to
multibillion-dollar industry.

INDIGENOUS/TRADITIONAL HEALTHCARE PRACTICES

With the increasing costs of medicines and physicians’ professional fees, the use of indigenous
health care practices is advocated by the Department of Health and other sectors and organizations. This
includes the use of herbal medicines, acupressure, acupuncture, naturopathic medicines, homeopathy, and
chiropractic.

Republic Act No. 8423, known as Traditional and Alternative Medicine Act (TAMA) of 1997,
created the Philippines Institute of Traditional Alternative Health Care (PITAHC) to accelerate the
development of traditional and alternative health care in the Philippines, providing for a traditional and
alternative health care development fund and other purposes.

ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE

Alternative medicine is synonymous to healing alternatives affecting those whom modern

medicine has little to offer as far as giving relief to their sufferings is concerned. It is usually performed

35
by someone other than a licensed physician although some physicians learn and practice alternative
healing methods.
Alternative medicine is also considered as unconventional medicine and/or complementary
medicine. It is categorized into several areas:

1. Psychophysiologic
- supports the premise that mental state has a profound effect in the immune system. It
includes meditation, hypnosis, art therapy biofeedback, and mental healing.
2. Bioelectromagnetic Applications
- uses nonthermal, nonionizing radiation in bone repair and in treating osteoarthritis and
wound. It is also for nerve stimulation and immune system stimulation. It includes
ultrasound.
3. Touch and Manipulation
- use of hands and tactile methods to cure ailments. It includes chiropractic, osteopathy,
and massage therapy.
4. Alternative Systems of Medical Practice
- the use of differing views of disease causation. These includes acupuncture, ayurvedic
medicine, homeopathy, and naturopathy.
5. Pharmaco-biological Therapy
- refers to the use of animal products or parts as medicine. It includes the use of anti-
neoplastins from human blood and urine for AIDS treatment, honey bee products for
arthritis, and milk and placenta product for skin rejuvenation.
6. Herbal Medicines
- the use of plants and plant products for their medicinal effects such as the iscador from
mistletoe for tumors, and allium sativum or garlic oil as rubbing oil for lesion.

ALTERNATIVE SYSTEM OF MEDICAL PRACTICE

1.ACUPRESSURE
- is a form of alternative medicine which aims to maintain health, treat diseases, and
alleviate pain through application of pressure or massaging certain points on body
surfaces.
- Acupressure started some 5000 years ago when the wounded Chinese soldiers recovered
from their chronic illnesses through this procedure. acupressure/acupuncture points are
discovered by rubbing the pointed stones on the various parts of the body.
- Traditional Chinese medicine believes in the Qi or life energy. It enters a person when he
or she is born, and leaves when he or dies. Qi has two aspects, the YIN and YANG. YIN
is the negative and feminine force while YANG is the dominating, positive, and
masculine force. For the person to be healthy, there should be a balance between the
YIN and the YANG. Imbalance of the two forces results to illness.

2.ACUPUNCTURE
- Acupuncture is another alternative medicine, which aims to maintain or restore balance
in the body to ensure health. If follows the same principle of the YIN and the YANG.
acupuncture tends to stimulate the natural healing of the body through the insertion of a
needle to the various parts of the body. Special needles to the various invisible points of
the various internal organs into the skin or muscles of one or more meridians. Needles
vary in length from half an inch to several inches for use in different parts of the body.
From two to fifteen needles are used, and they rarely cause bleeding. The most
commonly used parts of the body are the hands, forearms, lower legs, feet, back,
abdomen, and ears.

3.CHIROPRACTIC

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 -
Chiropractic treatment is based on the belief that human diseases are related to
misalignment of the vertebrae of the spinal column. This results to compression of the
nerves. Chiropractors believe that the ability of the human body to work effectively lies
in the smooth functioning of the nervous system. They consider the spinal column as the
lifeline of the nervous system. therefore, any misalignment of this part causes disease. To
treat such disease, application of chiropractic is employed after diagnosis using an x-ray.
4. HOMEOPATHY
- Homeopathy is a comprehensive system of medicine developed by a German doctor,
Sameul Hahnemann in the late 1700s. The world homeopathy is derived from the
Greek word homoios, meaning “similar” and pathos, meaning “suffering/disease”.

- Hahnemann found that giving his patient tiny doses of substances that would cause the
symptoms of their illnesses in a perfectly healthy patient could, in fact, cure them. The
founding principle of his system, then, is to treat “like” with “like”, similar to the medical
theory underlying vaccination or immunization. This method of treatment is said to
stimulate the body’s own healing process to cure the particular ailment or overpower the
bacteria, rather than treating the symptoms themselves, which may suppress the problem
temporarily.
- Homeopathy is based on the Hippocrates Law of Similars which states that the use of
small doses of a substance that caused a disease could stimulate and infected organism to
heal. This method is an exceptionally safe form of medicine that uses natural substance
found in mineral. Plants, and animals.it can be used to treat a specific ailment or used for
maintenance of good health.

5.NATUROPATHY

- Naturopathy is the western equivalent of the traditional medicine of Ayurveda. The

Ayurvedan healing practice from India proffers that a disease is caused by imbalance in
movement structure and metabolism; hence, fasting, nutrition, and meditation ared to
cure diseases.
- This principle was also established in ancient Greece by Hippocrates, who taught that the
body has the power to heal itself, and illnesses are reactions to disharmony and
imbalance. Health could be regained, provided that the natural process of healing not
interfered with.
- Naturopathy is a treatment that goes by the belief that diseases occur when the natural
chemical substances in a person’s body have been abused. It used natural forces such as
light, heat, air, water, sunlight, natural food, vitamins and minerals, and herbs.
- The object the naturopathy is to help the body restore its natural balance rather than deal
with symptoms. Naturopathy seeks to treat and avert diseases by bolstering the body’s
defense system through a healthy diet and living sensible lifestyle.

6. OSTEOPATHY

- Osteopathy is the practice of medicine that uses all of the usual techniques of drugs,
surgery, and radiation, but looks more on the links between the organs, the muscle and
the skeletal system. Osteopathic physicians may correct structural problems by chasing
the position of bones in the treatment of health problems (Mosby’s Medical
Encyclopedia, 1997).

- The name osteopathy come from the Greek words osteon (bone) and pathos (to suffer),
so it literally means “suffering of the bone”. The name has created confusion, leading
people to think that an osteopath treats only conditions of the bone. However, Dr.
Andrew Still (1898 - 1917), a civil war surgeon who founded osteopathy, choose the
name because he recognized the importance of a properly functioning musculo-skeletal

37
 system for the total well-being of the individual. He based it on the principle that best
way to fight a disease was by naturally stimulating the body’s immune system.

UNIT VI – TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT: ISSUES AND IMPLICATIONS

I. INFORMATION AGE
- Is defined as a “ period starting in the last quarter of the 20th century when information became
effortlessly accessible through publications and through the management of information by
computer networks”
- Also called the Digital Age and the New Media Age because it was associated with the
development of computers
- Is a historic period in the 21st century characterized by the rapid shift from traditional industry
that the industrial revolution brought through, an economy based on information technology
- The digital revolution is also known as the Third Revolution, is the shift from mechanical and
analogue electronic technology to digital electronics which began anywhere from the late 1950s
to the late 1970s with the adoption and proliferation of digital computers and digital record
keeping that continues to the present day.
- According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of Information Age in 1982, “the
information Age is a true new age based upon the interconnection of computers via
telecommunications, with these information systems operating on both a real-time and as-needed
basis

II. ROBOTICS AND HUMANITY

Robotics – is a branch of engineering that involves the conception, design, manufacture, and operation of
robots

Robot
- A machine resembling a human being and able to replicate certain human movements and
functions automatically
- Are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration,
surgery, weaponry, laboratory research and mass production of consumer and industrial goods
Modern Robotics
- Commercial and Industrial robots are now widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or
greater accuracy than humans
Roles played by Robotics
- Robots play different roles not only in the lives of the people but also in the society as a whole
1. Service Robot
- Performs useful tasks for humans or equipment excluding industrial automation
application
2. Personal Service Robot
- Robot for personal use which is for a noncommercial task, usually by laypersons
- Examples: domestic servant robot, automated wheel chair persona; mobility assist robot,
and pet exercising robot
3. Professional Service Robot
- Used for commercial task, usually operated by a property trained operator
- Examples: cleaning robot for public used places, delivery robots in offices or hospitals,
firefighting robot, rehabilitation robot, and surgery robots in hospitals

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List of Misconceptions commonly attributed with Robots
1. Robots will still our jobs
2. Robots will take away our freedom and fun
3. They will turn us into fat, lazy couch potatoes
4. They are not safe
5. Robots will take over human

ADVANTAGES
1. Quality/Accuracy/Precision
2. Efficiency/Speed/production Rate

3. Freedom from human limitations like boredom

4. Reduce waste
5. Attract more customers
6. Work in environments that are inhospitable to humans

DISADVANTAGES:
1. Increasing unemployment
2. Cannot handle unexpected situation
3. The ROI of your business may suffer if your operation relies on too many robots
4. They are not as intelligent as human
5. Robots installed in workplaces still require labor attached to them
6. Robots have no sense of emotions or conscience or empathy
7. Robots operate on the basis of information fed to them through a chip.
8. Where a robot saves ties, on the other hand it can also result in a lag.
9. If ultimately robots would do all the work, and the human will just sit and monitor them, health
hazards will increase rapidly
10. High initial investment-typically require large upfront investments in hardware and software, as
well as the costs of workplace training and education.
11. Expertise is scarce: industrial robots need sophisticated programming, and while the number of
people with this skillset is growing, it is currently limited
12. Ongoing costs: while robots reduce some labor costs, they introduce other ongoing expenses,
such as preventive maintenance, troubleshooting and programming. Having those skills in house-
house would introduce costs that you’re not accustomed to seeing.

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OF ROBOTICS

1. Safety - Who should be blamed and who should be held accountable or responsible if such thing
happens
2. Emotional component - looking at how fast technology progresses nowadays, it is not completely
impossible for robots to develop emotions
3. Inequality – How do we distribute the wealth created by machine?
4. Robot rights-How do we define the humane treatment of AI?

III. NANOWORLD OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOOGY

- Is of great interest to governments, industries and academia

- the prefix “nano” denotes sizes of the order of one billionth of a meter.
- Nanostructure science and technology is a broad and interdisciplinary area of research
and development activity that has been growing explosively worldwide in the past few
years.
- It has the potential for revolutionizing the way in which materials and products are
created and the range and nature of functionalites that can be accessed.
- The two terms often used in the literature with reference to the world of nano materials

39
NANOMATERIAL
- Denotes divided matter
- “ As Rao ( 1999 ) said“ if you take a piece of a solid matter ( say a metal) containing an
Avogadro number of atoms and go on dividing it to smallest bits, you will reach a stage
of ultimately end up with an atoms of the substance. Before that, you will reach a stage of
very tiny particles containing 100 to 10,000 atoms, Such particles with diameter of 1-5-
nm are referred to as nanoparticles.
- Exhibit properties entirely different from bulk materials and constitute materials of the
future
-
NANOSCIENCE
- Refers to the scientific study of materials of nanometer size, e.i., one billionth of a meter
- It is a combination of developments in solid state chemistry, synthetic chemistry,
molecular biology, solid state physics and engineering, and scanning tunnelling
microscopy

NANOTECHNOLOGY
- Refers to the various technologies to produce materials of extra high precision and
dimensions on the scale of one-billionth of a meter
- Norio Taniguchi of Tokyo Science University is credited with coining the term
“nanotechnology” in 1974
- Implies the ability to generate and utilize structures, components, and devices with assize
range from about .1nm to about100 nanometer by control at atomic, molecular, and
macromolecular levels
- One of the interesting aspects in nanotechnology is building molecule by molecule
materials similar to those produced by biological self-assembly, selforganization and self-
regulation ( Carraher,Jr., 1994
- As Stoddard ( cited in the Royal Society,1994) described,” think of atoms as the
equivalent to letters, molecules as words, assemblages of molecules as sentence, and
supramolecular arrays as paragraphs”

NANOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATIONS

1. NANOCRYSTALS: formed by combining two or more molecules of inorganic substances,i.e,

silica and aluminium to form commercial grade heat and rust resistant coatings.

2. NANOTUBES: Carbon atom aggregates in various forms at nanoscale, for examples in shapes of
cylinders which are electrical conductors, can be mixed with special polymers to make nanofibers
and painted on rooftops as part of solar cells

3. QUANTUM DOTS: Size and arrangement of nanocrystals impact physical properties such as
color.For example,nanogold appears orange depending on the size and arrangement of gold
aggregates.Clear sunscreen containing nanosized Zinc Oxide particles allows visible light to pass
through and absorbs UV rays, hence appears colorless whereas bulk Zinc Oxide in regular
sunscreen scatter visible light resulting in white color

EXAMPLES OF NANOTECHNOLOGY
1. Pharmacology :Use nanomachines for site specific delivery of drugs, and useful in
chemotheraphy of targeted cells.

2. Molecular electronics: Use atomically precise molecular parts for molecular switches, circuits
and nanocells for creating miniaturized nanocomputers.

3. Scanning Tunneling Microscopy: useful for imaging conducting surfaces

ORGANIZATION
The National science and Technology Council ( NSTC ) Committee on Technology, The
Interagency Working Group on NanoScience, Engineering and Technology (IWGN) ( 1999) broadly
organized nanoscience and nanotechnology into four groups as follows:

40
 1. Dispersions and Coatings: ( e.g., functional nanocoatings, optical and thermal insulators, ink-jet,
recording devices)

2. High Surface Area Materials: e.g.,bacterial filters, molecular sieves, adsorption surfaces, energy
storage devices)

3. (e.g., biomedical sensors, nanotubes in color displays, DNA sizing and sequencing}. The
functional nanodevices have a large biological component compared to the other three
categories
4. Consolidated materials ( nanocomposite cement, ultra-high strength materials, soft magnets,
magnetic refrigerants)

NANOSCALE DIMENSIONS
The Royal Society and Royal academy of Engineering 2004) have categorized nanoscale into :
a. One dimension: includes thin films, layers and engineered surfaces. They provide large
surface support in catalyst useful for “on-site” manufacturing of pharmaceuticals in
smaller quantities.
b. Two dimension: consists of materials such as carbon nanotubes, inorganic nanotubes,
nanowires and biopolymers. Carbon nanotubes in the form of wires and tubes exhibit a
wide range of electrical and mechanical properties , inorganic nanotubes are potentially
useful as catalysts and lubricants
c. Three dimensions: includes nanoparticles, fullerenes, dendrimers and quantumdots.
Nanoparticles show optical properties, high chemical reactivity and are useful for
targeted drug delivery while fullerenes resembles miniatures ball bearings
Potential Uses
The joint Center for bioethics in Canada ranked potential uses of Nanosciences and
nanotechnologies with respect to development. The top ten uses:( BBC News, 2005).
1. Energy production, conservation and storage
2. Enhancement of Agricultural productivity
3. Treatment and remediation of water
4. Screening and diagnosing diseases
5. Systems for drug delivery
6. Processing and storing food
7. Controlling air pollution
8. Construction
9. Monitoring Health
10. Detecting and controlling pests

ISSUES:
The nanoworld is not without issues. The NSTC Committee on Technology in the US raised
concerns over the short term and long term health issues originating form nanotechnology products.
Certain types of single walled carbon nanotubes are water soluble and shown to enter T cells
(King,2005).carbon nantubes are pulmonary toxicants. The british government (2005) in a regulatory
effort required all new nano materials be treated with caution as new chemicals in terms of registration,
evaluation, authorization, and restriction.

The Nanoworld is perhaps the fastest growing world in the twenty-first century, Global
competition among nations in nanotechnology towards improving the quality of life are many. However,
disadvantages of nanotechnology especially related to human health and the environment are only
beginning to surface raising serious concerns, Systematic exploration, characterization, organization, and
regulation of the nanoworld are warranted to make the best use of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The
nanoworld will continue to influence Science and Technology.

IV. BIOTECHNOLOGY

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 - The use of microorganisms, cells, or cell components to make a product such as
commercial production of foods, vaccines, antibiotics, and vitamins.
- It encompasses tools and techniques including those of recombinant DNA technology,
the living organisms to be improved (plants, animals or microorganisms), the products
from these organisms which can be new or rare.
- Is the use of biological processes, organism, or systems to manufacture products intended
to improve the quality of human life
- The earliest biotechnologists were farmers who could developed improved species of
plants and animals by cross pollination or cross breeding
- The science of technology can be broken down into sub disciplines called

A. RED BIOTECHNOLOGY
- Involves medical processes such as getting organisms to produce new drugs, or using
stem cells to regenerate damaged human tissues and perhaps re-grow entire organs
C. WHITE
- also called Gray Biotechnology
- involves industrial processes such as the production of new chemicals or the development
of new fuels for vehicles
D. GREEN
- Applies to agricultural and involves such processes as the development of pest – resistant
grains or the accelerated evolution of disease-resistant animals
E. BLUE
- Rarely mentioned, encompasses processes in marine and aquatic environments, such as
controlling the proliferation of noxious water-borne organisms.

MODERN BIOTECHNOLOGY AIMS TO:

1. develop new precision tools and diagnostics;

2. speed up breeding gains and efficiency;
3. develop pest- and disease-resistant crops;
4. combat salinity, drought, and problems of agriculture;
5. enhance the nutritional quality of food;
6. increase crop varieties and choice;
7. reduce inputs and production costs, and
8. increase profits. (Bragdon et al., 2005)

ADVANTAGES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. It can improve health and reduce hunger simultaneously
2. It can create flexibility within the food chain.
3. It offers medical advancement opportunities.
4. It allows us to preserve resources.
5. It helps us minimize or eliminate waste products.
6. It can reduce infectious disease rates.

DISADVANTAGES OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
1. It creates an all-or-nothing approach.
2. It is a field of research with many unknowns.
3. It could ruin croplands.
4. It turns human life into a commodity.
5. It can be used for destruction.

The latter is made possible by inserting genes into cells by recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology
sometimes called genetic engineering.
IMPLICATIONS AND ISSUES

4 SOCIETAL CONCERN WITH BIOTECHNOLOGY

1. Harm to the environment

- This concern is perhaps the most widely cited by those opposed to GMOs. It is very
difficult to predict what will happen in an ecosystem where a new organism has been
introduced-whether genetically modified or not. Take weeds for example. If farmers

42
 introduce an herbicide-resistant marker into a plant, there is the possibility those traits
may be transferred to a weed, making it resistant to herbicides as well.

2. Bioterrorism
- Government are worried terrorists will use biotechnology to create new Superbugs.
Infectious viruses, or toxins for which we have no cures. According to the CDC,
bioterrorism happens when viruses, bacteria or other germs are released intentionally to
inflict harm on or kill people, plants or livestock. The agency says the most likely agent
to be used in an attack is anthrax-a serious disease caused by a bacteria found naturally in
soil.
- The use of viruses and diseases as a weapon in warfare has been well documented in
history. Native Americans were infected by the British army in the 1760s when they were
given blankets from a smallpox hospital. During World War II, Japan released bombs on
China containing fleas infested with diseases.
- In modern times, bioterrorists are able to transfer diseases and viruses through
explosives, food and water, and even aerosol sprays. But the use of biotechnology as a
weapon was banned by the Geneva Convention.
3. Laboratory/production safety
- It’s hard to protect yourself if you don’t know you’re working against. Some new
technologies, usually non-biological such as nanoparticles, make commercial production
lines before they have been sufficiently tested for safety. There is also concern about
technician safety in laboratories-even under secure conditions-when working with
organisms of unknown virulence.
4. Ethical Issues
a. The construction of genes from scratch means we might someday be able to create life
from a chemical soup which will most certainly go against the ethical or religious beliefs
of a significant number of people.

b. Ethical concerns including when scientists protect their subjects when they are ensure of
the results or side effects of any study

c. Activists are critical of the use of animals as test subjects in biotechnology. Scientists
may manipulate animal genes all for the benefits of human lives. The animal therefore
becomes nothing more than a piece of property, rather a living being.

A.GENETIC ENGINEERING/ RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

- A technique that allows genes and DNA to be transferred from one source to another.

- it is the artificial modification of an organism’s genetic composition.

- Typically involves transferring genes from one organism into another organism of a
different species to give the other specific traits of the former. The resulting organism is
called a transgenic or genetically modified organism, or GMO
- It leads to the production of living modified organisms or genetically modified
organisms.

IMPORTANCE:
1. used on microorganism help in the creation of new pharmaceuticals which cannot be made in
any other way.
2. it helps in the process of bioremediation which is the process of cleaning up waste and pollution
with the help of living organisms.
3. It has helped lower the overall usage of herbicides and pesticides
4. has help in the production of vaccines and other drugs in plants
5. .has produced very useful genetically modified breeds which can tolerate factory farming without
any suffering
6. used to treat genetic disorders and cancer and also helps in supplying body parts
7. Certain bacterial sequences are manipulated to transform waste into ethanol, so that it can be used
as fuel.

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) or Transgenic organisms

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 - A plant, animal, microorganisms, or other organism whose genetic makeup has been modified
using rDNA methods.
- The result of a laboratory process where genes from the DNA of one species are extracted and
artificially inserted into the genes of unrelated plant or animal.

Overview of Recombinant DNA Technology

GENETIC ENGINEERING/ RECOMBINANT DNA TECHNOLOGY

1. A gene must be isolated and well characterized before it can be used in genetic manipulation.
2. Isolation of plasmid and DNA containing gene of interest. The gene of interest is inserted into
the vector DNA in vitro.

Two major categories of enzymes involved:

a. Restriction endonucleases
- acts as scissors to cut DNA at specific sites.
b. DNA ligase
- acts as glue that joins 2 DNA molecules.
- In the figure, the vector is a plasmid.
Plasmids
- are circular pieces of bacterial DNA that often contain genes not related to basic life functions
but it provides bacteria with genetic advantages such as antibiotic resistance.

3. This recombinant vector DNA is taken up by a cell such as a bacterium, where it can multiply
and grown in culture to form a clone of many identical cells. Each of which carries copies of the
vector. DNA vectors are often called gene-cloning vectors.

ADVANTAGES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

1) It allows for faster growth rate
- Genetic engineering allows plants and animals to be modified so their maturity can occur
at a quicker pace. Engineering can allow this maturity to occur outside of the normal
growth conditions that are favorable without genetic changes as well.
2) It can create an extended life

44
 - Genetic modification can help to create resistance to common forms of organism death.
Pest resistance can be included into the genetic profiles modified to reduce the risks of
common health concerns that may affect the breed or species
3) Specific traits can be developed
- Plants and animals can have specific traits develop through genetic engineering that make
them more attractive to use or consumption. Different colors can be created to produce a
wider range of color, Animals can be modified to produce more milk, grow more muscle
tissue, or produce different coats so that a wider of fabrics can be created.
4) New products can be created
- With genetic engineering, new products can be created by adding or combining different
profiles together. One example of this is potato, and alter its profile so that it can produce
more nutrients per Kcal than w/o genetic engineering. This makes it possible for more
people to get what they need nutritionally. Even if there food access is limited, and this
could potentially reduce global food insecurity.
5) Greater yields can be produced
- It can also change the traits of plants and animals so that they can produce greater yields
per plant. More fruits can be produce per tree, which creates a greater food supply and
more profits for a farmer. Using modified organisms in multiple ways because there is
greater yield available. Modified corn, for example, can be used for specific purposes
such us animal feed, ethanol, or large cobs for human consumption,
6) Risk to the local water supply are reduced.
- Because farmers and growers do not need to apply as many pesticides or herbicides to
their cropland due to genetic engineering, fewer applications to the soil need to occur.
This protects the local water shed and reduces the risk of an adverse events occurring w/o
risking the yield and profitability that is needed.
7) It is a scientific practice that has been in place for millennia
- Genetic engineering just speed up this process and can predict an outcome with greater
regularity

RISKS RELATED TO THE USE OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: Dhan Prakash,

Sonika Verma, Ranjana Bhatia, and B. N. Tiwary, “Risks and Precautions of Genetically Modified
Organisms,” ISRN Ecology, vol. 2011, Article ID 369573, 13 pages, 2011.
https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/369573.

3. Genetic contamination / interbreeding

- Introduced GMOs may interbreed with the wild-type or sexually compatible relatives.
The novel trait may disappear in wild types unless it confers a selective advantage to the
recipient. However, tolerance abilities of wild types may also develop, thus altering the
native species’ ecological relationship and behaviour.

4. Introduced GMOs may interbreed with the wild-type or sexually compatible relatives.
- The novel trait may disappear in wild types unless it confers a selective advantage to the
recipient. However, tolerance abilities of wild types may also develop, thus altering the
native species’ ecological relationship and behaviour.

4. Ecosystem Impacts
- The effects of changes in a single species may extend well b beyond to the ecosystem.
Single impacts are always joined by the risk of ecosystem damage and destruction.

5. Horizontal Transfer of Recombinant Genes to Other Microorganisms

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) is the acquisition of foreign genes (via transformation, transduction, and
conjugation) by organisms in a variety

EXAMPLES OF GENETIC ENGINEERING

1. Mouse-ear cress
This is a small invasive species, and we know a great deal about its genes. This little plant helps us
understand the hereditary nature of numerous plant characteristics relating to drought, low nitrogen
requirements, low temperatures and freezing, high temperatures, light ( e.g. shade ), tolerance to UV

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 radiation, photosynthetic activity, low pH and aluminum in the soil, high pH, growth speed,
flowering period, greenness during maturation time, plant architecture, fertility, organ size,
ramification form, stem width, ozone, high carbon dioxide, high nitrogen, carbon/nitrogen, seed
morphology, biotic resistance, and the composition of seed oil, seed proteins, lignin and sterols. After
the genes for these characteristics are found in the mouse-ear cress, they can be used to modify
cultivated species.

2. Bananas
- In many countries around the world bananas are the main source of calories. According to
reports from Uganda, their production is compromised by the emergence of new diseases,
Ugandan scientist have successfully used a genetic modification, inserting a pepper gene into
bananas, which prevents the fruit from getting the disease.
3. Golden Rice
- On July 31st, Ingo Potryskus on the cover of Time magazine. The Swiss scientist and his
German colleague Peter Beyerhad produced a breed of rice which, unlike any other, also
contains provitamin A. the lack of this vitamin is especially harmful to the poorest and is
estimated to cause blindness among 250,000 – 500,000 children everyday year. Another two
million people a year die from other deficiency-related causes. So far, the measures taken to
introduce vitamin supplements have not yet reached those poor countries. Because of its
color, the product was first given the name golden rice, which remains the same to this day.
After concluding numerous tests, researchers from the International Rice Research Institute in
the Philippines have proven that even small amounts of the rice are sufficient, and that it is
absolutely safe. Unfortunately, partly due to the vandalism of “green” activists, the rice has
yet to reach its target group in 2011, which contains four times as much iron as the regular
one, and could therefore save more lives.
4. Carrots that help prevent osteoporosis
- In 2004, an American research team transferred a CAX1 gene mouse-ear cress into carrots so
that they contained larger amounts of organically bound calcium. In 2008, they performed a
study where such carrots were tested on mice and 30 volunteers, and the results showed that
humans absorbed 42% more calcium from the modified carrots than from regular ones. The
aim of this test was to help prevent osteoporosis, while the emphasis was on its biodiversity
in target tissues.
5. Drug producing Chicken
- A group of scientists at the Roslin Institute in Scotland, have developed a GM chicken that
lays eggs containing medicinal proteins. Egg-whites are naturally loaded with a protein called
ovalbumin. What the group of scientists did was introduced the gene for a foreign protein,
instead of the ovalbumin gene, in a set of chickens. Consequently, the eggs of these GM
chickens were loaded with the foreign protein .Although a bit bizarre, this attempt if
successful, will provide an easy way to generate large amounts of medicinal proteins useful
for treatment of anemia, certain cancers, haematological disorders, etc. The ultimate result
one may expect is availability of these drugs at comparatively lower prices.
6. Onions that do not make you cry
- In 2008, a New Zealand research team lead by Colin Eady produced an onion that does not
make you cry while cutting it. Interestingly, the insertion of a single gene which down
regulates the activity of the onion enzyme that make your eyes water, and secondly, they now
have even more health beneficial sulphur-containing substance than regular onions.
- of environmental situations. It occurs especially in response to changing environments
and provides organisms, especially prokaryotes, with access to genes other than those that
can be inherited.  HGT of an introduced gene from a GMO may confer a novel trait in
another organism, which could be a source of potential harm to the health of people or
the environment.

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CARTAGENA PROTOCOL ON BIOSAFETY
- An international agreement which aims to ensure the safe handling, transport, and use of
living modified organisms resulting from modern biotechnology that may have adverse
effects on biological diversity, taking also into account risks to human health.

IMPORTANCE OF GMO
I.GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

The center for Ecoenergetics and Environmental Health ( CEEH, 2013 ) identified the following
roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries:

1. Pest resistance
- genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.
- an example is Bt corn. The DNA ( genome) of the Bt Corn has modified with the gene of
Bacillus thuregensis, a soil bacterium that produces protein which is toxic to corn borers (
worm)

2. Virus resistance
- genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses
- an example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya
- The papaya ringspot virus ( PRSV)is known to be detrimental to papaya, The protein of
PRSV was introduced to the papaya plant through the plant tissue which turned out to be
resistant to the virus itself. The effect was like the vaccines humans have against measles
or influenza virus

3. Herbicide tolerance
- Tolerate herbicides
- An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds, was
introduced to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can spray
the herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans.
4. Fortification
- genetically modified plants fortified with certain minerals
- An example is golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was introduced
through biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with vitamin A.
5. Cosmetic preservation
- genetically modified plants resist natural discoloration
- An example is Arctic Apple, the apple variety was genetically modified to suppress the
browning of apple due to superficial damage

6. Increase growth rate

- a genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth than normal species
- An example is Aqua Advantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-like fish
was introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow faster than its
normal rate.

II.GMOs IN NON-FOOD CROPS AND MICROORGANISMS

1. Flower production
- GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color and extended vase life
- Examples are the so called “blue” roses, which are, in reality, lilac or purple, contained
cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, together with large amount of flavonols
2. Paper production
- Modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of paper production

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 -Examples are poplar trees ,Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that removed from wood
to make paper through kraft process, through inserting genes that code for ferulic acid in
young poplar trees, the lignin structure is modified, making lignin easier to breakdown.
3. Pharmaceutical productions
- Modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products
- Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle plants to
enhance the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to drugs for cancer
treatments like Hodgkin’s lymphoma

4. Bioremediation
- Use modified plants that can assist in the bioremediation of polluted sites
- An example is shrub tobacco, Nicotiana glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically modified
with phytochelatin TaPCSII, is used for bioremediation. It shows high level accumulation
of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron and produces high biomass.

5. Enzyme and Drug production

- Use of microorganisms that can produce enzyme for food processing and medicines
- One example of this is CGTase ( cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltransferase, an enzyme used
for food flavor enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by bacterium Bacillus which was
genetically modified with the gene of a thermophilic anaerobe, thermoanaerobacter,
carrying CGTase

6. GMOs in the medical field

- Genetic engineering is playing a significant role from diagnosis to treatment of human-
dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs, gene therapy, and laboratory
researches
- One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by Type 1
diabetes patients who are insulin-dependent, in the past, insulin is extracted from the
pancreases of pigs and cows that have caused allergic reactions to some diabetics using it.

BENEFITS OF GMOS
1. Higher efficiency in farming
2. Increased in harvest
3. Control in fertility
4. Increase in food processing
5. Improvement of desirable characteristics

OTHER DIRECT AND INDIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL RISKS CAUSED BY GMOS

1. Direct environmental risks:

a. may cause disruption of the natural communities through competition or interference
b. . the possibility of an unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environment if it escapes
its intended use and may post threats or become pest
c. . may cause harmful effects to the ecosystem process if GMOs interfere with the natural
biochemical cycles
d. The persistent of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause negative to the consumer
of GMO products

2. Indirect environment risk

a. Alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of GMOs to the
environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and weeds that became resistant to GMO
crops

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 b. May have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural practices
c. May have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and release in the
natural environment

POTENTIAL HUMAN HEALTH RISK CAUSED BY GMOS

1. May have adverse effects since it is not naturally or organically produced

2. May alter the balance of existing microorganisms in the human digestive system
3. Production of toxins may be detrimental to human health
4. Production of allergens may have adverse effects on human

Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food consumption. They encourage
people to boycott GMO products and to be vigilant in checking if the food they buy has GMO
ingredients. In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the use of Bt eggplant, another
genetically modified crop

OTHER POTENTIAL RISKS THAT RAISE MAJOR CONCERN ARE:

1. Human genome Project ( HPG)

- Mapping of human genes to provide framework for research and studies in the field of
medicine. It was feared that the ability to produce human genetic information would
create biases and give much power to people holding the information and to the
disadvantages of those who do not have the genetic information.
2. Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms
- Genetically modified bacteria and viruses may mutate to become more resistant or
virulent that may cause more dreadful diseases for human beings
3. Cloning
- The asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell through genetic engineering.
In February 24, 1997, the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from Scotland, was born through
cloning. With its celebrated success came the fear of human cloning. It emerge the ethical
issue of man “playing God”
The primary issue on GMOs presented in public debate it its unnatural production or what is termed to be
violation of nature. The creation of new organism, like GMOs, post moral issues on defiance to natural
laws< another concern is the potential risks to the environment and human health, to which so much is
unknown yet.

GMOS IN THE PHILIPPINE CONTEXT

Introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and controversies similar to other countries
with GMOs. there are, of course, proponents and opponents of these issues.

1990
- The GMO concern started with the creation of the National committee on biosafety of the
Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order no. 430 of 1990
1998
- The NCBP develop the guideline on the planned release of genetically manipulated organisms
(GMOs) and potentially harmful exotic species
2002
- The Department of Agriculture released Administrative Order No.8, the guideline for the
importation and release into the environment of GM plants and plant products
- The entry of GMO importation started
- The Philippines was marked to be the first country in Asia to approved commercial cultivation of
GMOs when GM corn planting was approved

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 - From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications approved by the DA for the
release to the environment, 62 GMOs of which are approved for food feed and processing and the
remaining 8 were approved for propagation
2001
- The Philippines was classified by International service for acquisition of agri-biotech applications
as one of the fourteen biotech-mega countries which grow 50,000 hectares or more of GMO crops
annually
- Juan Flavier authored a bill on the mandatory labeling of food and food products with GMOs but
the senate did not pass the bill
2006
- The Philippines became part of Cartagena protocol on biosafety
- EO No. 514 was issued to address the biosafety requirements of the Cartagena Protocol and the
establishment of the National Biosafety Framework (NBF)
2010
- The Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic agriculture than GMO-related
agriculture
- Prior to this act, Negros Occidental and Oriental which agreed to support organic agriculture and
there was establishment of the Negros Organic Island through a memorandum of Agreement
between the two provinces through provincial ordinance
- Similar to this case, Davao city ordinance helps he prevention of field testing of GM Bt eggplant
in the UP Mindanao Campus
2012
- Representative, Teddy Casino, together with other congressmen, filed a bill pushing for the
mandatory labeling of GM food and food products
- To date, there no Philippine biosafety law, only biosafety regulations formed under NBF
- A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that the existing regulation is
weak, which can be fixed through legislation such as a Republic Act

December 2015
- The Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field testing of GMO Bt eggplant and declared
Administrative Order No. 8, series of 2002 of the Department of Agriculture as null and void

March 7, 2016
1. Five government agencies:
1. Department of Agriculture ( DA )
2. Department of Environment and Natural resources (DENR)
3. Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)
4. Department of Health (DOH)
5. Department of Science and Technology (DOST)
Passed a joint Circular No. 1 series of 2016 on rules and regulations for the research and
development, handling and use, transboundary movement, release in the environment, and management
of genetically modified plants and plant products derived from the use of modern technology. This joint
department circular paves way to issuance of new permits for planting and importing GM crops in the
country

GENE THERAPY

- Is a technique that uses genetic material for the long term treatment of genetic disorders

- This may involve delivering a copy of a healthy or therapeutic gene, repairing a faulty gene,
and /or altering the degree to which a gene is turned “on” and “off”
- The insertion into an individual’s cells and tissues to treat a disease, and hereditary diseases
in which a detective mutant allele is replaced with a functional one
IMPORTANCE

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 1. Gene therapy is a novel treatment which utilizes genes or short oligonucleotide sequences as
therapeutic molecules, instead of conventional drug compounds.
2. Gene therapy could eventually target the correction of genetic defects, eliminate cancerous cells,
prevent cardiovascular diseases, block neurological diseases, even eliminate infectious pathogens.
TYPES OF GENE THERAPY

1. Somatic Gene Therapy

- The somatic cells of a patient are targeted for foreign transfer. In this case, the effects caused
by the foreign gene is restricted to the individual patient only

2. Germ Line Gene therapy

- The functional genes, which are to be investigated into the genomes, are inserted in the germ
cells. Targeting of germ cells makes the therapy heritable.
GENE THERAPY STRATEGIES

1. Gene Augmentation Therapy

- Addition of functional alleles to treat inherited disorder caused by genetic deficiency of a
gene product
2. Targeted killing of Specific Cells
- Involves utilizing genes encoding toxic compounds, or prodrugs to kill the
transferred/transformed cells. This is popular in cancer gene therapies
3. Targeted Inhibition of Gene Expression
- This is to block the expression of any diseased gene or a new gene expressing a protein which
is harmful for a cell. This is a particularly suitable for treating infectious disease and some
cancers
4. Targeted Gene Mutation Correction
- Use to correct a defective gene to restore its function which can be done at genetic level by
homologous recombination or at mRNA by using therapeutic ribozymes or therapeutic RNA
editing
APPROACHES OF GENE THERAPY

1. Replacing a mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene.
2. Inactivating or “knocking out” a mutated gene that is functioning improperly.
3. Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease.

ETHICAL ISSUES SURROUNDING GENE THERAPY

1. Because gene therapy involves making changes to the body’s set of basic instructions, it raises
many unique ethical concerns. The ethical questions surrounding gene therapy include:
a. How can “good” and “bad” uses of gene therapy be distinguished?
b. Who decides which traits are normal and which constitute a disability or disorder?
c. Will the high costs of gene therapy make it available to the wealthy?
d. Could the widespread use of gene therapy make society less accepting of people who are
different?

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 e. Should people be allowed to use gene therapy to enhance basic human traits such as height,
intelligence, or athletic ability?
2. Given the technology involved, it is obvious that this treatment will be expensive. It will be just
the rich who would be able to afford its benefits. This gives rise to increasing disparity between
the rich and the poor. The rich will become richer and the poor become poorer.
3. Genes are regions of DNA that code for proteins and failure to produce normal levels of
functional protein due to a defective gene can result in disorders.
B.CLONING
2. It is the process of creating an exact copy of a biological unit ( e.g. a DNA sequence, cell, or
organism from which it was derived, especially by way of biotechnological methods.
3. Could either be natural or artificial. The copied material, which has the same genetic makeup as
the original, is referred to as a clone.

IMPORTANCE OF CLONING

1. Advances in Medicine
a. important in making stem cells – maintain and repair the body throughout an individual’s
life, as these processes are naturally occurring they can be manipulated to repair damaged
or diseased organs and tissues

b. cloning stem from an individual with a disease lets scientists and researchers understand
the disease and develop a treatment for it

c. by using cloning, a person is able to find out if he or she has inherited a gene on a
chromosome from an affected parent by a procedure called genetic engineering

2. Producing livestock faster

a. instead of cloning livestock for consumption, livestock is cloned to make breeding stock.
This is a more time effective way to breed livestock. However, only cells from a high
quality carcass can be cloned to give to an animal that is able to pass its superior genes to
its offspring.

3. Improving crops
a. cloning can make plants resistant to herbicides, pest damage, infections and diseases
improving the quality of the crops we eat.

b. cloned plants such as wheat, rice, maize, soybean, potato and others have already been
produced and ready to be introduced into agriculture

4. Use by police
a. police also used cloning in investigations for identification, called genetic fingerprinting.
This process is done by extracting DNA from body fluid such as blood or saliva and
cutting the DNA with restriction enzymes.

THE LEGAL AND ETHICAL ISSUES OR IMPLICATIONS

1. Religious belief and control

- cloning goes against the basic belief of certain religions that only God has created life and its
various forms in nature. Humans cannot act as “God”

2. Relationship and individuality

- it creates a new human, yet strips him off his individuality. A man, along with his clone can
never be dignified as a single identity. The uniqueness attributed to humans for God might be
at stake. The replication of an individual is a major blow to his most distinct feature-his
identity.

3. Failure Rate

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 - physicians and doctors have a moral obligation to ensure and translate the safety of any
medical procedure to his/her patients. As of now, no one can guarantee that the child born
due to cloning would be a healthy one.

4. Altering gene pool

- if cloning becomes widespread, the genetic diversity of humans will go down. This would
result in the decrease in immunity of humans against diseases. Thus making humans
susceptible to epidemics and unknown diseases.

5. Illegal cloning and clones

- a cloned child having multiple doors might complicate parental right as well as inheritance
and marital eligibility issues. Another view suggests that there is a possibility of clones being
developed without the concerned individual’s consent. This will definitely create legal issues
not to mention violation of medical as well as moral ethics.

C.HYBRIDIZATION
- refers to the process of producing offspring by mating two parents of different varieties or
species.
- used synonymously with crossbreeding, which is defined as the process or the act of
producing offspring particularly mating two purebred individuals but come from different
breeds or varieties
- important especially in agriculture herein it is applied to come up with hybrid crop that is
both hardy and disease-resistant
- in animals, ligers and mules are example of a hybrid

IMPORTANCE

1. ants of the same species cross easily and produce fertile progeny
2. important in agriculture like crossing genetically different individuals to create new genotypes
3. two species can hybridize, and a few individual hybrids can give rise to a third species that is
distinct from the two parents and can coexist with it.
4. may influence evolution in a variety of ways. If hybrids are less fit, the geographicaly range of
ecologically divergent population may be limited, and prezygotic reproductive isolation may be
reinforced. If some hybrid genotypes are fitter than one or both parents, at least in some
environments, then hybridization could make a positive contribution
5. two species combine to form the best of the organism eliminating the unwanted qualities of
boththe parent species

EXAMPLES OF HYBRIDIZATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

1. Hybrid Lilies
- they are classified as Asiatic hybrids and Oriental hybrids. Oriental hybrid lilies have
large 6 to 8 inches, fragrant, pink, red, purole or white flowers.The flowers of the Asiatic
hybrids are smaller and usually have no fragrance.The flowers come in bright shades of
yellow, gold, rose,pink, white and orange. The Asiatic lilies naturally flower from late
spring to early summer.Hybrid lilies can easily be grown as potted plants when grown in
the right medium with proper light and watering.

2. Sweet Corn
- The vast majority of U.S. corn grown are hybrid varieties.The characteristics of these
varieties have made it easier for home garderners to grow and there are sweeter than the
past crops.
3. Pomato
- is a hybrid variety of potato and tomato. It is a small tomato-like fruit, with white flesh,
edible either raw or cooked. Pomato produces tomatoes on the top and potatoes
underground.

4. Rabbage
- Also known Brassicoraphanus
- A crossed between cabbage and raddish, and was developed successfully to self-propgate by
a Soviet agronomist named Georgi Dmitrievich Karpenchenko in the 1910s and ‘20s

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 - It has fallen out fashion, though, because the hybrid wasn’t quite as well-integrated as
consumers would like.
- The majority of these animals do not occur naturally in the wild and have been bred by
humans which has stirred much controversy and criticism. For most of theses animals, while
successfully crossed, the offspring tend to be infertile, meaning their continuation as a hybrid
is solely determined by human intervention.

5. Liger
- Is a hybrid cross between a mole lion ( panther leo ) and a tigress ( Panthera tigris ).Thus, it
has parents with the same genus but of different species. It is distinct from the similar hybrid
tiglion. It is the largest of all extant felines.

6. Grolar Bear
- A grizzly-polar hybrid ( also pizzly bear,prizzly bear, or grolar bear) is a rare ursid hybrid
that has occurred both in captivity and in the wild.
- In 2006, the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA for a
strange-looking bear that been shot near Sachs Harbour, northwest Territories on Banks
island in the Canadian Arctic motherless beings and could open the way to the creation of
beings that are effectively owned

7. Mule
- Is the offspring of a male donkey and a female horse. Horses and Donkeys are different
species, with different numbers of chromosomes. Of the two F! hybrids between these two
species, a mule is easier to obtain than a hinny ( the offpring of a male horse and a female
donkey). All male mules and most female mules are infertile.
8. Beefalo
- Are a fertile hybrid offpring of domestic cattle, Bos Taurus, and the American Bison
(generally called buffalo in the US). The breed was created to combine the characteristics of
both animals with a view towards beef production

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS OR ISSUES

“We believe,too that we are God’s partner in work of creation, both as innovators and as
protectors, and that this partnership obliges us to be guided by ethical principles.”

Arguments against hybridization

“… the creation of an animal-human being represents a natural border that has been
the most grave of violations.”
( Bishop Elio Sgreccia, president of Pontificial Academy for life, May 2007 )

 It blurs the distinction between human beings and other animals

 It violates human dignity
 It’s the start of a slippery slope that could lead to creating animal/human creatures capable of
independent life
 It’s wrong to create beings ( embryos ) that are solely at the disposable of scientists.It says that it
is acceptable to create motherless beings and could open the way to the creation of beings that
are effectively owned by whoever controls the medium in which the embryos develops.

D.STEM CELL
- is a cell with the unique ability to develop into specialized cell types in the body. In the future
they may be used to replace cells and tissues that have been damaged or lost due to disease.
- They can divide over and over again to produce new cells

ADVANTAGES:

1. Adult stem cells have low rejection rates.

2. Can be transform into pluripotent stem cells.
3. The current treatment options for stem cells are numerous.
4. . Because stem cells have regenerative properties, the potential is unlimited.
5. Embryonic treatments can be developed through stem cell research.
6. Abundant somatic cells of donor can be used.
7. Very useful for drug development and developmental issues.

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DISADVANTAGES
1. Embryonic stem cells can have high rejection rates.
2. Stem cell treatments are an unproven commodity.
3. Stem cell research is a cost process.
4. We do not know if there are long term side effects to worry about.
5. Adults have very few stem cells.
6. Current embryonic stem cell harvesting requires the death of an embryo.
7. Embryonic stem cells body recognises the cells as different and will reject them without the use
of drugs.
8. All stem cells may produce cancer cells instead of healthy cells.
9. ( adult )Currently there is no technology available to generate large quantities of stem cells in
culture.
10. (Adult ) Cannot be grown for long periods of time in culture
11. Viruses are currently used to introduce embryonic genes and has been shown to cause cancers in
mouse studies.

E.TISSUE CULTURE
- is the practice of growing tissues or cells in an artificial medium which is separate from
organism and done by using a liquid, semi-solid, solid growth medium, such as broth or
agar which can provide nutrition to the cells or tissues once they are removed from an
organisms’ body.
- Can be done to both plants and animals
- Is recognized as the growth of cells or tissues are taken from donor organism and
provided with nutrients and energy for the cells’ survival

IMPORTANCE

1. Important technique for the production of disease free and high quality plants with a short period
of time
2. It allows the production of a large number of plants having identical features to the parents
3. Adult plants can be produced within a short period of time
4. Many plantlets can also be preserved or conserved by this technique which is applicable for those
species which have difficulty in reproduction and facing extinction.
ADVANTAGES

1. Produce more copies of same plant with desired characters like big fruits, colorful flowers,
disease resistance etc. This allows us to produce a variety of plants through shorter period of
time.
2. Helps us produce plants which do not depend on seasonal changes of that area for particular
yield. This makes it possible to produce seasonal crops all year-round.
3. As seedlings are made available, planting is possible all through the year
4. All the plants developed by tissue culture are uniform at size, shape and their yield. They are
exact clones which resemble each other.
5. Time taken to obtain mature crop is very less.
6. Crops are almost pest and disease resistant since they are not exposed to the environmental stress
7. is useful which produce seeds insufficient amounts, or when plants are sterile and they do not
produce viable seeds or when seeds cannot be stored.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Extremely expensive since it requires specialized laboratories and equipment.

2. Same genetic material makes them all equally vulnerable to environmental factors, infections
and pests since there is no genetic variation.
3. As all the plants are genetically similar there is a reduction in genetic diversity.

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 4. Certain crops may not be easily grown in vitro.
5. There are no new traits or new genes introduced since all are clones of parent generation.
6. Tissue culture is not successful with all the plants species usually because of the growth medium
and some plants produce secondary metabolites that might kill the plants.
7. If precautions are not highly taken the whole stock may be contaminated and infected
8. There may e error in the identity of the organisms after culture.
9. The procedure needs special attention and diligently done observation.

ETHICAL IMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED WITH TISSUE CULTURE

1. Since tissues and cells are taken from a donor organism, one concern is that these may cause pain
to the organism especially if we are dealing with animal donors and suffer from disfigurement and death
if not properly handled.

7. With regards to tissue sourcing is the consent of the donor. Prior consent from a donor must first
be sought and this is possible for humans but not for other animals since they cannot speak for
themselves.
8. Animal cruelty may also be possible
9. In some cases, tissues may be taken from humans without them knowing that their tissue samples
had been used for research without their prior knowledge
10. Another deals with how life is created, more within the parameters surrounding cloning and
asexual reproduction. Tissue culture research and technology look for ways to create organs,
tissue, and possibly even life itself entirely within a lab which in some aspect is still considered as
controversial.

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY
- The variety of life on earth and the natural patterns it forms.
- The variability among living organisms from all sources including aerial, terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within
species, between species and of ecosystems.
- Includes all ecosystems –managed and unmanaged.
- Some biodiversity is presumed to be relevant feature of only unmanaged ecosystems, such as
wild lands, nature preserves, or national parks. This is incorrect, managed system be they
plantation, farms, croplands, aqualculture sites, rangelands, or even urban parks and urban
ecosystems have their own biodiversity.
- Is the foundation of ecosystem services to which human well-being is intimately linked

THREE LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

1. species diversity- the number and variety of organisms an ecosystem contain

2. genetic diversity- the genetic variety within a species
3. ecosystem diversity- the variety of ecosystems found on earth

Extinction-the death of a species occurs when the last individual member of a species dies.
Endangered species- a species in imminent danger of extinction throughout all or a significant part of its
range.

Threatened species- a species likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future, throughout all or a
significant part of its range.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES

1. having an extremely (localized) range
2. requiring a large territory
3. living on islands
4. having low reproductive success
5. needing specialized breeding areas
6. possessing specialized feeding habits

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WHY PROTECT BIODIVERSITY?
1. Aesthetic and Economics- source of beauty and pleasure; can provide economic benefits
2. Food, Pharmaceuticals, Scientific Information and Products
3. Protecting Free Services and Saving Money
- protecting natural systems helps preserve many ecological services such as flood
control and water pollution abatement

4. Ethics- Doing the Right Thing

CAUSES OF DECLINING BIODIVERSITY

1.Destruction or modification of habitat

- Habitat fragmentation- the breakup of large areas of habitat into small isolated segments
- Island- small patch of forest surrounded by agricultural and suburban land

2, Biotic pollution- the introduction of foreign species into an area where it is not native
3. Hunting
a. sport hunting
b. subsistence hunting
c. commercial hunting or harvesting
d. illegal hunting or poaching

4. Pollution
5. Population growth and over consumption
6. Climate change

INTERNATIONAL YEAR OF BIODIVERSITY- 2010

- focuses on boosting awareness of biodiversity’s importance by promoting actions to
foster biodiversity worldwide.

CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY

- an international legally-binding treaty with three main goals: conservation of
biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; fair and equitable sharing of the benefits
arising from the use of genetic resources.

INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE (IUCN)

- Its mission is to influence, encourage and assist global societies to conserve nature. To
ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable.
- IUCN Red List of Threatened Species -provides scientifically based information on the
status of species and subspecies at a global level.

CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES (CITES)

- aims to ensure that the international trade of plants and animals does not threaten the
survival of the species in its natural habitat.

WILDLIFE RESOURCES CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION ACT (RA 9147)

- to conserve and protect wildlife species and their habitats to promote ecological balance
and enhance biological diversity;
- to regulate the collection and trade of wildlife;
- to pursue, with due regard to the national interest, the Philippine commitment to
international conventions, protection of wildlife and their habitats; and
- to initiate or support scientific studies on the conservation of biological diversity.
CHANGES IN BIODIVERSITY
Alteration in any system could bring varied effects, A change in biodiversity could have erratic
effects only in wildlife or marine life but also to human beings

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
There are major threats to biodiversity that were identified by the United nations’ environment
Programme.

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 1. Habitat loss and destruction
2. Alteration in ecosystem composition
3. Over exploitation
4. Pollution and contamination
5. Global climate change

THE IMPACT OF BIODIVERSITY INTO THE SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, AND SOCIETY

SCIENCE

- We are at a critical moment for the Earth’s biodiversity, as direct result of human pressure,
Overcoming challenges will call for improvements in our knowledge of the mechanisms
producing and sustaining biological diversity and predict how ecosystems will respond to
man-made global change. The science of biodiversity aims to be inclusive and
interdisciplinary, combining knowledge of natural history.
- In short, in order to be able to predict and attenuate the effect of global change on
biodiversity and ecosystem services, the challenges is to understand the structure and
functioning of natural systems on temporal and spatial scales never seen before, something
which calls for a high level of cohesion across the international scientific community. Given
the speed at which species are disappearing, new strategies and tools need to be developed
with which to conduct an urgent inventory of biodiversity, particularly in tropical regions,
and extreme or little explored environments. Systems to monitor biodiversity on different
scales and organizational levels are needed in order to understand the factors exploding
changes in biota and identity regions particularly vulnerable to biodiversity loss. Together
these efforts should enable us to improve models predicting biodiversity changes in response
to human pressure and to make reliable quantitative projections that are useful to
governments when making management decisions
TECHNOLOGY

Advances in brain mapping may eventually be applied to technologies that can determine how
species perceive their environment. Such information could help identify and ameliorate stressors that
could be impediments to reproduction or survival. Such technologies are now within reach .Robots or
perhaps even cyborg animals could be used to enter areas that either cannot or should not be accessed by
humans, and to limit unwanted contact between humans and species targeted by protection, although
there are ethical issues to be considered with this latter approach.

Monitoring reproductive status and other physiological parameters in the wild can be facilitated
by broader deployment of biotelemetry devices and the use of mobile communication networks.

SOCIETY

“Loss of biological diversity due to species extinction is going to have major impacts on our
planet, and we better prepare ourselves to deal with them,” more biologically diverse ecosystems are
more productive. As a result, there has been growing concern that the very high rates of modern
extinctions-due to habitat loss, overharvesting and other human-caused environmental changes-could
reduce nature’s ability to provide goods and services like food, clean water and stable climate.

GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

GREENHOUSE EFFECT
- discovered by French mathematician Joseph Fourier in 1824; experimented on by Irish
physicist John Tyndall in 1858; and reported by Swedish scientist Svante Arrhenius 1896
quantitatively

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 - a naturally occurring process by which thermal radiation from a planetary earth’s surface is
absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions

GREENHOUSE GASES
- make up only about 1 % of the Earth's atmosphere, which regulate our climate by trapping
heat and holding it in a kind of warm-air blanket that surrounds the planet
- concentrations is determined by the balance between sources and sinks

MAIN GREENHOUSE GASES

1. Carbon dioxide (CO2) - product of the oxidation of carbon in organic matter, either through
combustion of carbon-based fuels or the decay of biomass.

2. Methane (CH4) - produced by anaerobic decay of organic material in landfills, wetlands, and rice
fields; enteric fermentation in the digestive tracts of ruminant animals such as cattle, goats, and
sheep; manure management; waste water treatment; fossil fuel combustion; and leaks from
natural gas transportation and distribution systems and abandoned coal mines.

3. Nitrous oxide (N2O) - produced by fertilizer use, animal waste management, fossil fuel
combustion, and industrial activities.

4. Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and perfluorocarbons (PFCs) - synthetic chemicals that are used in a
variety of industrial production processes such as semiconductor manufacturing. HFCs and PFCs
are replacing CFCs in applications such as refrigeration and foam-blowing for insulation.

5. Water vapor - most abundant greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. The surface warming caused by
human production of other greenhouse gases leads to an increase in atmospheric water vapor
because warmer temperatures make it easier for water to evaporate and stay in the air in vapor
form. This creates a positive “feedback loop” in which warming leads to more warming.

USES OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT

1. Burning of fossil fuel

2. Deforestation
3. Industries
- industry creates chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other halocarbons for use in various
products
- producing lime (calcium oxide) to make cement accounts for 2.5% of CO2 emissions from
industrial sources
4. Domestication of animals and rice cultivation
- most livestock-related methane emissions are produced by "enteric fermentation" of food by
bacteria and other microbes in the animals' digestive tracts; another source is the
decomposition of animal manure.
- livestock account for about one-quarter of the methane emissions from human activities,
totalling some 100 million tonnes a year.
- the nitrogen contained in many fertilizers enhances the natural processes of nitrification and
denitrification that are carried out by bacteria and other microbes in the soil.

CONSEQUENCES/IMPACTS OF GREENHOUSE EFFECT

1. Increase in average temperature
- Global warming refers to the increase in average temperature of the atmosphere. It is
caused by an increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
2. Increase in sea level
- Due to increase in temperature and excess of heat, melting of snow and ice takes place
which ultimately increase the level of seas and oceans.
5. Change in rainfall patterns

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 - The differential heating of layer in the atmosphere i s the main cause of pressure
difference, which govern the rainfall system and it`s quantity. The air moves from high
pressure to low pressure region, when it crosses the water body it become the source of
rain and vice versa. The increase of average temperature substantially affect pressure
region and so the wind direction and ultimately affect the rainfall pattern.
4. Changes in Seasonal Characters
- -Due to change in air temperature and rainfall patterns, it is observed that the seasonal
characters have been substantial changing/shifting a lot throughout the globe. At many
places the duration of winter has extended and at some place summer along with more
severity.
5. Expansion of Disease Carriers
- There would be expansion in the territory of diseases, either by moving to higher
elevations in mountainous areas or by expanding their territory farther from the equator.
6. Destruction of coral reefs
- As global temperatures rise, so too do average sea surface temperatures. These elevated
temperatures cause long-term damage to coral reefs.
6. Increase pressure on ground water supplies
- The resulting dry conditions will increase the pressure on groundwater supplies as more
is pumped to meet demand even as less precipitation falls to replenish it.

7. Disruption of food supplies

- Rising temperatures and the accompanying impacts of global warming including more
frequent heat waves, heavier precipitation in some regions, and more severe droughts in
others has significant implications for crop and meat production.

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