Southwest Jiaotong University
Department of Geotechnical Engineering
Foundation Engineering
Jun Feng, Ph.D.
Associate Professor
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Chapter 2. Performance Requirements
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Contents
Design Loads
Allowable Stress Design vs LRFD
Performance Requirements
◼ Strength Requirements
◼ Serviceability Requirements
➢ Total Settlement
➢ Differential Settlement
◼ Constructibility Requirements
◼ Economic Requirements
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2.1 Design Loads
Foundation Loads
• Normal load, designated by the variable P for
unfactored load or Pu for factored load.
• Shear load, designated by the variable V for
unfactored load or Vu for factored load.
• Moment, designated by the variable M for
unfactored load or Mu for factored demand.
• Torsion, designated by the variable T for
unfactored load or Tu for factored load.
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Types and sources of loads
ASCE,1996a: Minimum Design Loads
for Buildings and Other Structures
➢ Dead loads (D) are those caused by the weight of the structure,
including permanently installed equipment.
➢ Live loads (L) are those caused by the intended use and occupancy.
These include loads from people, furniture, inventory, maintenance
activities, moveable partitions, moveable equipment, vehicles, and other
similar sources.
➢ Roof live loads (Lr) are live loads applied to the roof of a structure.
➢ Snow loads (S) and rain loads (R) are a special type of live load
caused by the accumulation of snow or rain. Sometimes rain loads due
to ponding (the static accumulation of water on the roof) are considered
separately.
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Types and sources of loads
ASCE,1996a: Minimum Design Loads
for Buildings and Other Structures
➢ Earth pressure loads (H) are caused by the weight and lateral
pressures from soil or rock, such as those acting on a retaining wall.
➢ Fluid loads (F) are those caused by fluids with well-defined pressures
and maximum heights, such as water in a storage tank.
➢ Flood loads (Fa) are those caused by both static and dynamic action of
water during flood events.
➢ Earthquake loads (E) are the result of accelerations from earthquakes.
➢ Wind loads (W) are imparted by wind onto the structure.
➢ Self-straining loads (T) are those caused by temperature changes,
shrinkage, moisture changes, creep, differential settlement, and other
similar processes.
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2.2 ASD VS. LRFD
(1)Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
➢Sum loads
➢Consider direction
➢Use one global factor of safety
Load Combinations
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(2)Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
➢ Use factored loads (factors almost always >1)
➢ Apply strength reduction factors (factors <1)
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ANSI/ASCE and AISC Codes
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2.3 Performance Requirements
2.3.1 Strength Requirements
⚫ Geotechnical Strength Requirements are those that address the ability of the soil or
rock to accept the loads imparted by the foundation without failing. The strength of
soil is governed by its capacity to sustain shear stresses, so we satisfy geotechnical
strength requirements by comparing shear stresses with shear strengths and
designing accordingly.
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⚫ Structural strength Requirements address the foundation’s structural integrity and
its ability to safely carry the applied loads. Typical structural ultimate limit states
that must be checked during design include compressive failure of axially loaded
members and flexural or shear failure in beams.
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Transcona Grain Elevator Canada (Oct. 18, 1913)
31m high, 23m wide, raft foundation. After the foundation is destroyed, the west side
sinks 8.8m, the east side rises 1.5m, and inclines 27 degrees. After that, it was
corrected by 388 50T jacks, but the position was 4m lower than before. Reasons: It
is not known in advance that there is a 16m thick soft clay layer under the
foundation.
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Failure of a Bridge Foundation
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2.3.2 Serviceability Requirements
• Settlement—Nearly all foundations experience some downward movement as a
result of the applied loads. This movement is called settlement. Keeping settlements
within tolerable limits is usually the most important foundation serviceability
requirement.
• Heave—Sometimes foundations move upward instead of downward. We call this
upward movement heave. The most common source of heave is the swelling of
expansive soils.
• Tilt—When settlement or heave occurs only on one side of the structure, it may
begin to tilt. The Leaning Tower of Pisa is an extreme example of tilt.
• Lateral movement—Foundations subjected to lateral loads (shear or moment)
deform horizontally. This lateral movement also must remain within acceptable limits
to avoid structural distress.
• Vibration—Some foundations, such as those supporting certain kinds of heavy
machinery, are subjected to strong vibrations. Such foundations need to accommodate
these vibrations without experiencing resonance or other problems.
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Structural Response to Settlement
Modes of settlement:
(a) uniform;
(b) tilting with no distortion;
(c) distortion.
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(1)Total settlement
⚫ The response of structures to foundation settlement is very complex, and a
complete analysis would require consideration of many factors. Such analyses
would be very time consuming, and are thus not practical for the vast majority of
structures.
⚫ we simplify the problem by describing settlement using only two parameters: total
settlement and differential settlement.
The total settlement is
the change in foundation
elevation from the
original unloaded
position to the final
loaded position
Total settlement in a spread footing foundation
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Problems duo to excessive total settlements
• Connections with existing structures—
Sometimes buildings must join existing structures.
In such cases, the floors in the new building must
be at the same elevation as those in the existing
building. However, if the new building settles
excessively, the floors will no longer match,
causing serious serviceability problems.
• Utility lines—If the structure settles excessively,
the utility connections can be sheared or distorted.
This is especially troublesome with gravity flow
lines, such as sewers.
• Surface drainage
• Access
• Aesthetics
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Allowable total settlement
Typical design values for the allowable total settlement
• Adjust the foundation design
⚫ If δ is greater than δa • Use a more elaborate foundation
⚫ Measures • Improve the properties of the soil
• Redesign the structure so it is more
tolerant of settlements
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Palacio de las Bellas Artes, Mexico City,Built 1932-1934
2m
4m
The soil layer under Mexico City : the surface layer is a hard shell layer of artificial fill and sand
with pebbles, with a thickness of 5m, and underneath it is ultra-highly compressible silt formed by
volcanic ash, with a natural void ratio as high as 7~12, a moisture content of 150~600%, and a
layer thickness of tens of meters. The settlement of the art palace is as high as 4m and causes the
adjacent highway to sink by 2m. 25
(2)Differential Settlement
s2
s
s1
s
The differential settlement, δD, is the difference in total settlement
(a)沉降量
between two foundations or between two points on a single foundation. (b)沉
l=6~10m
s2
s1
s2
This wood-frame house was built on an improperly compacted fill, and thus
b
experienced excessive differential settlements. The resulting distortions
produce drywall cracks up to 6 in (15 mm) wide, as shown in this photograph,
along with additional cracks in the exterior walls and floor slab.
(c)倾斜 (d)局
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ALLOWABLE ANGULAR DISTORTION
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(3)Tilt
⚫ Excessive tilt is often a concern in tall, rigid
structures, such as chimneys, silos, and water
towers.
⚫ To preserve aesthetics, the tilt,ω, from the
vertical should be no more than 1/500 (7 min
of arc).
⚫ Greater tilts would be noticeable, especially
in taller structures and those that are near
other structures.
⚫ In some cases, stricter limits on tilt are
appropriate, especially for exceptionally tall
structures. For comparison, the Leaning
Tower of Pisa has a tilt of about 1/10.
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Leaning Tower, Pisa, Italy, Built 1173-1370
Leaning Tower
1370
1370
咋斜
了呢 1360
? 8 layers 55m, marble
1278
Problems:
⚫ The settlement difference
1272
1178
between the north and south
ends is 1.8m.
⚫ The top of the tower deviates
from the center by 5.27m.
1173
⚫ Overall tilt 5.5 degrees
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Excavation and rectification of the leaning
⚫ Reason: the foundation Tower of Pisa
soil layer is weak and
N
uneven, and the
钻孔机
foundation produces
20m
uneven settlement.
⚫ Measures: Foundation 北侧 南侧
treatment, at a cost of US 套管
较厚
钻孔管和螺旋钻
$25 million, oblique
without collapse
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Design Loads for Serviceability Analyses
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2.3.3 CONSTRUCTABILITY REQUIREMENTS
The foundation must be designed such that a contractor can build it
without having to use extraordinary methods or equipment.
Pile foundations are installed using a pile
driver, such as this one. The pile is lifted into
the vertical section, which is called the leads,
then driven into the ground with the pile
hammer. Thus, the pile driver must be slightly
taller than the pile to be installed.
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Do not design on paper what you have to wish into the ground.
——Karl Terzaghi
As part of a seismic retrofit project,
a design engineer has called for
installing 450 mm diameter, 9 m
long prestressed concrete pile
foundation to be installed beneath
the basement of an existing
building. This pile foundation
design is unbuildable because the
required pile-driving equipment
would not fit in the basement, and
because there is not enough room to
set the pile upright.
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2.3.4 ECONOMIC REQUIREMENTS
⚫ Foundation designs are usually more
conservative than those in the
superstructure.
⚫ An overly conservative design can be
very expensive to build, especially with
large structures where the foundation is a
greater portion of the total project cost.
⚫ Achieving the optimum balance between
reliability (safety) and cost is part of good
engineering.
⚫ Designs that minimize the required
quantity of construction materials do not
necessarily minimize the cost.
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Thanks!
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