NUR112: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

ISU Echague – College of Nursing

Module 2
Cellular Organization and Function

Overview/Introduction

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life. Understanding the structure and
function of a cell helps you understand the behaviour of a tissue. In this module, we will be talking in
detail about the structures that are inside and outside of the cell and how their function helps in the
survival and adaptation of an organism. This module includes the behaviour of a cell in its environment
as well as cellular repair and reproduction. Cellular Transport is also an important study because this is
one important foundation in study of diseases.

3. Learning Outcome/Objective

After this module, you are expected to

1. Identify cellular organelles and their function
2. Describe the behaviour of cell in different tonicity of its environment
3. Trace the movement of materials that enters and exits the cell
4. Describe the events happening inside the cell during cell division
5. Compare and contrast mitosis from meiosis

4. Learning Content/Topic

CELLULAR ORGANELLES AND THEIR FUNCTION

The cell is organized in three general sections. The Cell Membrane, Cytoplasm and
Nucleus. The Cell membrane is the outermost covering of the cell. It separates the Cell from its
environment. Everything that enters and exits the cell must pass through the cell membrane. The
cytoplasm contains a lot of organelles which functions differently. The Nucleus contains the genetic
material of a cell in the form of DNA. This DNA is inherited by the person from each parent. Below is
a diagram of a cell

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Below are the Functions of a Cell

1. Metabolize and release energy
• chemical reactions that occur within cells
• release of energy in the form of heat helps maintain body temperature
2. Synthesize molecules
• cells differ from each other because they synthesize different kinds of
molecules
3. Provide a means of communication
• achieved by chemical and electrical signaling
4. Reproduction and Inheritance
• mitosis
• meiosis

The Cell Membrane

The cell membrane plays a dynamic role in cellular activity. It encloses the cell and it supports the cell
contents. It protects the cell contents by selectively regulating what goes into and out of the cell. The cell
achieves this function by means of the Membrane Gates and Channels. It also contains receptors in its surface
that receives chemical signals coming from the external environment. These receptors responds to hormones,
neuronal signals, drugs and enzymes making this module an important in the study of pharmacology and
diseases. Enzymes in the Cell Membranes speeds up chemical reactions helping in transport and metabolism in
the cell. The attachment proteins in the cell membranes helps materials like metabolic requirement and
byproduct, hormones, other cells and enzymes connect with the cell. The internal side of the cell, bounded by
the cell membrane, is called intracellular (intra- within, cellular –cell) while the external side of the cell is called
extracellular (extra- outside, cellular- cell). Fluids bounded by these compartments are named intracellular
fluids and extracellular fluids. Extra cellular fluids are again subdivided into intravascular fluids (inside the
blood vessels), interstitial fluids (between the cells), transcellular fluids (fluids in urinary bladder, gall bladder,
eye balls, etc.
The Cell Membrane is made of a
double layer of lipids with imbedded,
dispersed proteins. These proteins are the
marker molecules, attachment proteins,
transport proteins, enzymes, receptors and
gates discussed earlier. The bilayer consist
mainly of phospholipids and Cholesterl
(20%). Phospholipids have hydrophobic
(hydro – water, phobia –fearing) tails and
hydrophilic (hydro – water, philia – loving)
heads. The cholesterol in the other hand
gives the cell membrane added strength
and flexibility. You can imagine the cell
membrane like a basin with lots of
pingpong balls and other type of balls like
baseball, soccer ball, basket ball, volleyball,
tennis ball. They float and move pass with
each other.
Materials move pass through the
cell membrane through various methods
namely osmosis, diffusion, mediated
transport and vesicular transport. Diffusion
is the movement of a solute from an area of greater concentration to an area of lower concentration with a
solvent. The movement can be visible until the solvent is uniformly saturated with the solute. This state of

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uniform distribution of solute molecules within a solvent is called equilibrium. The mixture of liquids, gases or
solid in which the substances are uniformly distributed with no clear boundary between substances is called a
solution. The solute dissolves in a solvent to form a solution. The concentration difference between two points
is called the Concentration gradient. You can better appreciate this concept if you have a hot water in a
transparent cup and pour in a teaspoon of black coffee. The color of the water where you dropped the coffee
turns black until the coffee diffuses to the entire cup of hot water. Once the coffee reaches equilibrium, it looks
like the movement of coffee has stopped. Try it now.
Diffusion of substances across the cell mebranes behaves differently. Lipid-soluble molecules diffuse
directly through the plasma membrane, most non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions do not diffuse through
plasma membrane while some specific non-lipid-soluble molecules and ions pass through membrane channels
or other transport proteins.
The diffusion of a solvent (water) across a selectively permeable membrane via diffusion is called
osmosis. In diffusion, the solute moves (coffee in our previous example) while in osmosis, water will be the
one moving. Always remember that water follows where the solute (salt and sugar in most discussions later)
when placed in a selectively permeable membrane. The force required to prevent the movement of water
across a selectively permeable membrane. Given a two compartment with different osmotic pressures
bounded by a selectively permeable membrane, water will move to the area with greater osmotic pressure,
usually the one with greater concentration of solutes. You can observe this using a succulent fruit like papaya
or sayote. Try grating the fruit and pour salt into it and let it stay overnight. You will soon observe that the fruit
sagged and your container had a lot of water because salt has a high osmotic pressure and it attracted the
water inside the fruit. In the practice of nursing, you will soon be administer Intravenous Fluids and enemas to
your patient. You will also be rotated in the dialysis units. This concept of fluid balance is one of the most
important foundation in these practices. Isotonic or isosmotic (iso – same, tone- tonicity or concentration)
solutions have the same concentration of particles as a reference solution. Most of the fluids administered
intravenous (intra-within, venous – viens) are isotonic or isosmotic. Hyperosmotic or hypertonic (hyper- high)
solutions have a greater concentrations of solute particles than a reference solution. Hyposmotic or hypotonic
solutions have a lesser concentrations of solute particles than a reference solution. The blood responds
differently to different solutions. If the blood is bathed in a hypertonic solution, the solution will attract the
water molecules inside the blood thereby allowing the blood to shrink. If it was placed in a hypotonic solution,
the salt in the blood will attract the towards the blood making it swell or hemolyze (hemo-blood, lyze – lysis or
burst open

Mediated Transport
Mediated Transport is the process by which proteins mediate, or assist in, the movement of ions and
molecules across the plasma membrane. The transport system is specific, meaning each transport protein
moves only a specific type of molecule. There also exist a competition when similar molecules or ions compete
for a transport protein. If all the transport proteins are saturated, the rate of transport cannot increase
because all the transport proteins are in use. You can picture this when people are trying to ride a bus or train
during rush hours. There is only one door where people can enter the bus or train. If the door is already used,
other passengers cannot use it until the door is vacated. There are three general types of transport
proteins. Channel proteins are simple form of membrane channels. Some molecules can only enter a cell when

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they bind to a carrier proteins. Carrier proteins binds to molecules or ions and transports them. Examples of
Carrier proteins are uniport, symport and antiport. Uniport (Facilitiated diffusion) moves an ion or molecule
down its concentration gradient. Symport (Cotransport) moves two or more ions or molecules in the same
direction. Antiport (countertransport) moves two or more molecules in opposite directions.

The last type of Mediated transport are the ATP - Powered pumps where ions and molecules are moved
against their concentration gradients using the energy from Adenosine TriPosphate (ATP). These high energy
molecules changes configuration to the transport proteins to allow movement of molecules without regards
to concentration gradients. ATP are the energy used by most cells, and it came from the nutrients we take into
our body after being metabolized. A classic example of this is the sodium-potassium pump (additional reading)

Vesicular Transport (Mass Transport)

This is the transport of large particles and
macromolecules across plasma membrane.
Endocytosis is the movement of materials into the
cell by formation of a vesicle. Phagocytosis (Phage-
eating, cyto – cell), commonly called “cell eating”, is
the movement of solid materials into the cell. The
cell engulfs the material to be absorbed. This is the
common method how the White Blood Cells take in
bacteria or dead cells and viruses for disposal .
Pinocytosis (Pino-drink, cyto – cell) commonly
known as “cell drinking”, is the uptake of small
droplets of liquids and materials in them. Receptor
– mediated endocytosis involves plasma membrane
receptors attaching to molecules that are taken into
the cell. The secretion of materials from cells by
vesicle formation is called Exocytosis (exo- exit, cyto
– cell). This commonly happens when proteins are
formed and exits the cell to be distributed to the to
the different tissues of the body.

The Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the area between the cell membrane and the nuclear membrane (membrane
covering the nucleus) it consist of cytosol (cyto – cell, sol – liquid) and organelles (organ – functioning
structures, ---elles – small). The cytosol is fluid part where chemical reactions occur. It contains cytoskeletons
(cyto-cell, skeleton – support) and cytoplasmic inclusions. Cytoskeletons support the cell and enables cell
movements. These movements can be achieved because of the Microtubules (micro-small, tubules –rods)
which provides support and aids in cell division. The actin filaments support the plasma membrane and define
the shape of the cell while the intermediate filaments provide mechanical support to the cell. Cytoplasmic

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inclusions are aggregates of chemicals either produced by the cell or taken in by the cell. Usually these are raw
materials or materials produced of cellular metabolism.

The Organelles
Cytoplasmic organelles are specialized subcellular structures with specific functions. They are either
membranous or nonmembranous. Membranous organells are Mitochondria, Peroxisoes, Lysosomes,
Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus. Examples of nonmembranous organelles are centrioles and
ribosomes.

The Nucleus
The nuclear envelope consists of two separate membrares
with nuclear pores. This membrane encloses the jellylike
nucleoplasm, which contains essential solutes. Deoxyribonucleic
Acid (DNA) and associated proteins are found inside the nucleus.
DNA is the hereditary material of the cell and controls the activities
of the cell. It contains the genetic linrary with blueprints of nearly all
cellular components. It also dictates the kinds and amounts of
proteins to be synthesized. It is safe to say that most of the proteins
in the body is copied form the blueprint coming from the
information hidden in the DNA Understanding this concept in a
greater detail will help you understand the disease process of
mutation and cancer formation. (additional readings). The
information in the DNA is transcribed to (Ribonucleic Acid) RNA and
translated into a usable protein. Any damage in the DNA
information may lead to the formation of different protein and
could start a disease. (name substances that could cause damage to
the information stored in the DNA).
The nucleoli is a dark staining spherical body within an
nucleus. It consist of RNA and proteins and produces the ribosomal
RNA (rRNA). This is the site of ribosomal subunit assembly. The
Ribosomes are site of protein synthesis. These organelles come as
free ribosomes where they are not attached to other organelles.
They function as site of protein synthesis inside the cell. Attached
ribosomes are part of a network of membranes called Rough
Endoplasmic Reticulum. These ribosomes produces proteins that are secreted from the cell and sent to other
cells needing the proteins.

The Endoplastic Reticulum (ER)

These are series of membrane forming sacs and tubules that extend
from the outer nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm. The two types of
Endoplastic Reticulum are the Rough ER and Smooth ER. The rough ER
is studded with ribosomes and is the major site of protein synthesis.
The proteins synthesized in the rough ER are usually transported out of
the cell. The Smooth ER does not have ribosomes attached to it. It is
usually involved in lipid and cholesterol metabolism, break down of
glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxifying drugs. In testes, it is
responsible for the formation of the steroid based hormone
testosterone. In skeletal and cardiac muscles, it is called sarcoplasmic
reticulum and is involved in the storage and release of calcium used for
muscle contractions.

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The Golgi Apparatus

This organelle is a series of closely packed
membranous sacs that collects, package and distributes
proteins and lipids produced by the Rough and Smooth
Endoplasmic Reticulum. It packages the secretions into
small, membrane- bound sacs that transports material
from the Golgi Apparatus to the exterior of the Cell. The
process of transporting materials from the cell is called
exocytosis, mentioned earlier. Blue Print of DNA are
stored in the nucleus and transcripted into an RNA and
then transported to the rough ER for translation, these
proteins are then transported to the Golgi Apparatus to
packaged for exocytosis

Lysosomes
These are membranous bags containing digestive
enzymes. Its main function is to digest bacteria, viruses
and toxins. It also degrades non-functioning organelles.
Lysosones helps the body metabolism by breaking down
glycogen to produce glucose and releases thyroid
hormones. None useful tissues and cells are also broken
down. Lysosomes are also important in bone remodelling
because it breaks down bones to release Calcium ions.
Most of these organelles are found in white blood cells
and immune cells. Lysosomes can be formed by the
endoplasmic reticulum and buds off from the Golgi
Apparatus

Mitochondria
The body metabolism and activity requires energy.
This energy comes from the food a person eats. These foods
comes in the form of Carbohydrate, Protein and Fats. These
food products are absorbed in the intestines and transported
by the blood to the cells. It then is transformed into an
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) inside the Mitrochondria.
The mitochondria is the major site of ATP production via
aerobic respiration. Aerobic respiration is a type of
metabolism that requires Oxygen. This in turn is the reason
why we have to breath oxygen. There is another type of
metabolism called anaerobic (an-basence, aero – air)
metabolism where oxygen is not needed. The Mitochondria
have a smooth outer membrane and an inner membrane
that is infolded to produce cristae. It contains its own DNA
and can produce some of their own proteins. It can also
replicate independently of the cell

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Peroxisomes

These are membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases and functions to breakdown fatty acids, amino
acids and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). They detoxify harmful substances and neutralize dangerous free radicals.
Free radicals are highly reactive chemicals with unpaired electrons like Oxigen Free radicals and Hydroxil
Radicals (OH). A common household substance related to this is the “Agua Oxinada” or some Brands of bleach
that is made of hydrogen peroxides. (look at your activity). When you wipe an wound with cotton bathed with
Agua Oxinada, you can observe bubbles forming out. This is because the peroxidase in your peroxisomes are
neutralizing the Hydrogen Peroxides forming Oxigen gas bubbles. This is an effective disinfectant because we
as humans have peroxidases while bacteria, viruses and fungi don’t have these peroxidases. Hence, Hydrogen
Peroxide cant harm us while becoming toxic to microbes.

Centrioles and Spindle Fibers

Centrioles are cylincdical organelles located in

the centrosome. They are Pinwheel array of
nine triplets of microtubules (micro-small,
tubules-tubes). The cytoplasm has a specialized
zone called centrosome where the site of
microtubule is formed. Microtubules called
spindle fibers extend out in all directions from
the centrosomes. This is evident during cell
division and is prominent in the flagella of
sperms, cilia and microvilli of other special
cells.

Cilia, Flagella and Microvilli.

Flagella is a whiplike structure at the posterior end of a sperm . they function in propulsion and
locomotion of the spern so that it could reach the egg for fertilization (union of sperm and egg) to occur. Cilia is
a broom like structure at that helps propel materials along the cell surface. Examples of these structures are
found in the airway of the respiratory system. These cilia brushes mucous and inhaled dusts towards the
throat so that it will be moved for the person to cough out or swallow. Microvilli are finger like projection in
the cell membrane and functions in increasing the surface area of for absorption. This can be found in the
intestines where absorption of nutrients happen. Do not confuse yourself with the “villi” from microvilli. The
villi are extensions of the intestinal wall while microvilli are extensions of intestinal cells, though their function
are both for increasing the surface area for absorption of nutriens

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
Proteins are either structural or enzymatic. Structural proteins are important for repair of damaged
tissues and for growth. Enzymatic proteins are important in improving the chemical reaction process in the
body. These proteins are formed inside the cell where the DNA serves as master blueprint. The DNA is made of
Nucleic Acid base pairs of purine and pyrimidine. The DNA controls enzyme production and cell activity. The
DNA contains segments, called genes, carrying instructions for a polypeptide (poly – many, peptide- bonds
forming proteins) chains. These genes are read in triplets of nucleotide bases forming a genetic library. Each
triplet specifies coding of an amino acid.
Proteins Synthesis is a two step process. During Transcription, the cell makes a copy of the gene
necessary to make a particular protein, the Messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA then travels from the nucleus

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to the ribosomes where the information is translated into a protein. During Translation, the mRNA enters the
ribosomes and a Transfer RNA (tRNA) brings the amino acid necessary to synthesize the protein carried by the
mRNA. (watch the uploaded video for a visual explanation).

Here is a step by step overview of protein synthesis.

1. DNA contains information necessary to produce produce proteins. During the Transcription, one DNA strand
results in mRNA, which is a complementary copy of the information in the DNA strand needed to make
protein.
2. The mRNA leaves the nucleus and goes to a ribosome
3. Amino acids, the building blocks of proteins, are carried to the ribosomes by tRNAs
4. in the process of translation, the information contained in mRNA is used to determine the number, kinds
and arrangement of amino acid in the polypeptide chain

1. Teaching and Learning Activities

Library work (supplemental topics)

Study of Anatomy and Physiology has its unique vocabulary. Medical Terminologies used are very
dynamic such that root words, prefixes and suffices are used. In addition to the directional terms and
regional terms used in this module, list as many terms using the table below as a format

Term Root word Prefix/Suffix Meaning

Example
Adrenal Renal (Kidney) Ad (above) An organ above the kidney

Tachycardia Cardia (heart) Tachy (increased) Increased heart rate

Hyperventilation Ventilation Hyper (increased) Increased depth and rate of breathing
(Breathing)

Experiential learning
Write your experience about the following activities.
1. Using a thermometer, measure your temperature and describe how you feel
2. Wear two sweaters and jog stationarily for 1 minute.
3. Describe how you felt and experience before, during and after the activity.

6. Flexible Teaching Learning Modality (FTLM) adapted

You will be given Edmodo problem sets after completion of this module
Watch my lecture about this chapter in my YouTube Channel (MARK GALING CHANNEL) and then like,
comment and subscribe.

7. Assessment Task
1. Using your own language or dialect, define Anatomy and Physiology and describe their
relationship
2. Arrange the organization of human body from smallest to biggest
3. Match the body system with their function (matching type)
4. Supply the regional terms that matches each landmark
5. Identify the characteristics of life that is being described
6. Give examples of positive and negative feedback mechanism

8. References (Copyrighted within the last 10 years)

Geb, Elaine N. (2019), Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology, 8th Edition

Philip (2009), Seely’s Principles of Anatomy and Physilogy, McGraw Hill Publications

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