GE 102

READINGS IN PHILIPPINE HISTORY

HISTORY deals with the study of past events. Individuals who write about history are
called HISTORIANS. They seek to understand the present by examining what went before.
They undertake arduous historical research to come up with a meaningful and organized
reconstruction of the past. But whose past are we talking about? This is a basic question that a
historian needs to answer because this sets the purpose and framework of a historical account.
Hence, a salient feature of historical writing is the facility to give meaning and impart value to a
particular group of people about their past. The practice of historical writing is called
historiography. Traditional method in doing historical research focuses on gathering of
documents from different libraries and archives to form a pool of evidence needed in making a
descriptive or analytical narrative. However, modern historical writing does not only include
examination of documents but also the use of research methods from related areas study such as
archaeology and geography.
SOURCES OF HISTORY
    Basic to historical research is utilization of sources. There are diverse sources of history
including documentary sources or documents, archaeological records, and oral and video
accounts. To date, most of our historical sources are documents. These refer to handwritten,
printed, drawn, designed, and other composed materials. These include books, newspapers,
magazines, journals, maps, architectural perspectives, paintings, advertisements, and
photographs. Colonial records such as government reports and legal documents form a
significant part of our collection of documents here and abroad, particularly in Spain and the
United States. In the 20th century and up to now, memoirs or personal accounts written by
important historical personages constitute another type of documents. Philippine presidents such
as Emilio Aguinaldo, Manuel Quezon, and Diosdado Macapagal wrote their memoirs to
highlight their roles as nation-builders. 
On the other hand, ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORDS refer to preserved remains of
human beings, their activities, and the environment where they lived. In the Philippines, the most
significant excavated human remains include the Callao Man’s toe bone (dated 67 000 BCE) and
the Tabon Man’s skullcap (22 000 BCE). Aside from human remains, other archaeological
records are generally categorized as fossils and artifacts. Fossils are remains of animals, plants,
and other organisms from the distant past, while artifacts are remnants of material culture
developed by human beings. These include clothing, farm implements, jewelry, pottery and stone
tools. 
ORAL AND VIDEO ACCOUNTS form the third kind of historical source. These are
audio-visual documentation of people, events, and places. These are usually recorded in video
and audio cassettes, and compact discs. Aside from scholars, media people also use oral and
video accounts as part of their news and public affairs work.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SOURCES

 There are two general kinds of historical sources: primary and secondary. PRIMARY
SOURCES refer to documents, physical objects, and oral/video accounts made by an individual
or a group present at the time and place being described. These materials provide facts from
people who actually witnessed the event. SECONDARY SOURCES on the other hand, are
materials made by people long after the events being described had taken place. 
Most historical narratives today are so reliant on documentary sources due to the plethora
of written records and the lack of archaeological records and oral/video memoirs. Although
having several documents about an event allows for easier counterchecking of facts history
researchers are confronted with one basic challenge with regard primary sources- their ability to
read and understand texts in foreign languages.
Many of our untapped archival documents here and abroad are written in Spanish. A
good knowledge of Spanish is a huge advantage. But this skill is unusual among today’s
historians who prefer to read translations of Spanish texts such as the 55-volume. The Philippine
Islands, 1493- 1898 (1903-1909) edited by Emma Blair and James Robertson, which is the most
cited collection of primary sources about the Philippines before the advent of the American
colonial regime. The collection includes translations of portions of 16th - century chronicles such
as Antonio Pigafetta’s Primo Viaggio intorno al mundo (1524), Miguel Loarca’s Relacion de las
Yslas Filipinas (1582), and Juan de Plasencia’s Relacion de las Islas Pilipinas (1592). 
Filipino historians, such as the father-daughter tandem of Gregorio Zaide and Sonio
Zaide, have also compiled and translated colonial documents. They published the 10- volume
Documentary Sources of Philippine History (1994).
 Aside from reading the Spanish originals documents or translated words, another
daunting task for Filipino historians is to discern the cultural context and historical value of
primary sources because most of these primary documents were written by colonialists and
reflected Western cultural frames. For examples, derogatory terms used to Label Filipinos such
as “pagan,” “uncivilized,” “wild,” and “savage” abound in these colonial documents. Uncovering
myths and misconceptions about Filipino cultural identity propagated by the Spanish and
American colonizers is extra challenging for contemporary Filipino scholars.
 If the key function of primary source documents is to give facts, secondary source
documents, on the other hand, provide valuable interpretations of historical events. The works of
eminent historians such as Teodoro Agoncillo and Renato Constantino are good examples of
secondary sources. In his interpretation of the Philippine Revolution, Agoncillo divided the
revolution into two phases: the first phase covers the years from the start of the revolution in
August 1896 to the flight of Emilio Aguinaldo and company to Hong Kong as a result of the Pact
of Biak-na-Bato, while the second phase spans from Aguinaldo’s return to Manila from Hong
Kong until his surrender to the Americans in March 1901. 
However, Constantino refuted Agoncillo’s leader-centric scheme of dividing the
revolution into two phases by stressing that Agoncillo’s viewpoint implied that the revolution
came to a halt when Aguinaldo left the country. Constantino disputed the soundness of
Agoncillo’s two-phase scheme by asserting that the war of independence continued even without
Aguinaldo’s presence in the country. 
 Aside from the issue on Philippine Revolution, there are other contending issues in
Philippine history such as the venue of the first Christian mass in the country and the question of
who deserves to be named national hero. By and large, interpretations serve as tools of
discernment for readers of historical sources, but they should be cautious of frames of analysis
used for biased, discriminatory, and self-serving ends. 
HISTORICAL CRITICISM
Many documents have primary and secondary segments. For instance, examining a
newspaper as a historical source entails a discerning mind to identify its primary and secondary
components. A news item written by a witness of an event is considered as a primary source,
while a feature article is usually considered as a secondary material. Similarly, a book published
a long time ago does not necessarily render it as a primary source. It requires a meticulous
reading of the document to know its origin. 
To ascertain the authenticity and reliability of primary sources to be used in crafting a
narrative, a historian needs to employ two levels of historical criticism, namely, external
criticism and internal criticism. EXTERNAL CRITICISM answers concerns and questions
pertinent to the authenticity of a historical source by identifying that composed the historical
material, locating when and where the historical material was produced, and establishing the
material’s evidential value.
INTERNAL CRITICISM, on the other hand, deals with the credibility and reliability of
the content of a given historical source. This kind of criticism focuses on understanding the
substance and message that the historical materials want to convey by examining how the author
frame the intent and meaning of a composed material. 
LOCATING PRIMARY SOURCES
There are substantial primary sources about the Philippines here and abroad. In the
country, government institutions such as the National Library and the National Archives are
major repositories of documentary sources.
 The National Library has complete microfilm copies of the Philippine Revolutionary
Records (1896-1901), a compilation of captured documents of Emilio Aguinaldo’s revolutionary
government, and Historical Data Papers (1952-1953), a collection of “history and cultural life”
of all towns in the country spearheaded by public school teachers during President Elpidio
Quirino’s term. The Manuscript’s Section of the National Library’s Filipiniana Division contains
the presidential papers of different administrations from Manuel Quezon to Joseph Ejercito.
Search aids such as the “Checklist of Rare Filipiniana Serials (1811-1914),” “Filipiniana Serials
in Microfilm,” and several registers of Philippine presidential papers are provided for faster and
easier way to look for historical materials.
 The National Archives, on the other hand, holds a substantial collection of catalogued
and uncatalogued Spanish documents about the Philippines composed from 1552 to 1900. These
consist of 432 document categories such as Administration Central de Rentas y Propiedades
(Central Administration of Rentals and Properties), Administration de Hacienda Publica
(Administration of Public Finance), Aduana de Manila (Customs Office of Manila), Almacenes
Generales (General Stores), Asuntos Criminales (Criminal matters), Ayuntamiento de Manila
(Town Council of Manila), Colera (Cholera), Padron General de Chinos (General register of
Chinese), and Presos (Prisoners). For local historians, valuable materials from the National
Archives include Cabezas de Barangay (Heads of Barangay), Ereccion de los Pueblos
(Establishment of Towns), Guia Oficial (Official Guide), and Memorias (Official Reports of
Provincial Governors), Aside from Spanish sources, the National Archives is also the repository
of 20th -century documents such as civil records, notarial documents, and Japanese wartime
crime There are also some sources written in Tagalog such as the documents pertinent to
Apolinario de la Cruz, the leader of the Coonfradia de San Jose in the 19th century.
 Academic institutions such as the University of the Philippines in Diliman, Ateneo de
Manila University in Quezon City, University of Santos Tomas in Manila, Silliman University in
Dumaguete City, and University of San Carlos in Cebu City have also substantial library and
archival holdings. The Media Services Section of the UP Main Library has microfilm copies of
Philippine Radical Papers, a compilation of documents relevant to the Partido Komunista ng
Pilipinas (PKP) and its allied organizations as well a People’s Court Proceedings, a collection of
court proceedings against Filipino leaders who corporate with the Japanese during their short-
lived occupation. The Ateneo de Manila’s Rizal Library houses the American Historical
Collection that consists of vital documents relevant to the American experience such as the
Reports of the Philippine Commission (1901-1909), Annual Reports of the Governors-General of
the Philippine Islands (1916-1935), and records of the Philippine legislature from 1907 to 1934. 
Privately owned museums and archives, such as the Ayala Museum in Makati and Lopez
Museum in Pasig City, have also considerable historical resources. Religious congregations such
as the Augustinians, Dominicans, Jesuits, and Recollects also have extensive archival holdings
that remain untapped. 
Outside the Philippines, there are several documents about the country found in Spain
and the United States. The bulk of Spanish documents are found at the Archivo General de
Indias in Sevilla, Spain. Important American sources are available at the Manuscript Division of
the United States Library of Congress, Harvard University’s Houghton Library, United States
National Archives, and the University of Michigan’s Bentley Historical Library. 
In this age of Internet, there are open access online archives on Filipino history and
culture, such as the extensive digital Filipiniana collection of the University of Michigan, which
consists of manuscripts and photographs of the early part of 20th century Philippines. Another
rich online source of primary documents is the University of Illinois at Chicago Field Museum. It
houses the extensive photographic collection of Dean Worcester, the secretary of Interior of the
American colonial government in the country from 1901 to 1913.                         
REFERENCE: Torrentia , Readings in Philippine History Course Module.

   
SPIRITUAL BELIEFS OF THE EARLY FILIPINOS
 When the primitives speak of the creation of the world, the term “world” is usually
understood to mean the earth primarily, and, specifically, their native earth or place or island.
Also, everything that can be found in their place or supports its lap: the trees, the stones, the
rocks, the springs, rivers, lakes, mountains, sky, flowers, caves, shadows etc.  This conception of
the earth has been characterized by Eliade not as chthonian or as earth known to the
agriculturists, but as cosmic. Earth is known to the earlier layer of mankind; who were on the
level of food-gatherers and in a number of folktales and myths, the animals are already in
existence before the “earth” was made. The birds like the eagle, the ducks, the turtle, and the
toad are often responsible for securing the pre-existing materials which the creator (s) used to
form the earth. And lastly, the winds, the sky, and the ocean are also presupposed as existing
prior to the formation of the earth. In this connection one should add that in the stories of the
formation of the earth there is always a struggle between two hostile forces. It is the struggle that
looms large in the story. The creation of the earth happens only as a sort of accident. With the
formation of the earth comes also the creation of the first man and woman.
There is a story that was found in Gaspar de San Agustin’s Conquista de las Islas
Filipinas. It tells the origin of the island of Bohol, and of the first sky-woman to settle on that
island. She was the daughter of a chief in heaven. She fell through a hole in the sky, and was
salvaged by ducks. Here also is the theme of the earth-divers which has been compared with and
found very similar to the North American Indian (Iroquois) earth diver tale. 
Translation of the tale by Bacil Kirtley:
“The people were living beyond the sky. One day, the chief’s daughter fell sick. The
medicine men of the barangay said, ‘The cure is in the roots of the wild balete tree.... Dig
around it and let her arms touch the roots. They dug around the root and they placed the
sick girl in the trench, when suddenly,the woman fell through the hole in the sky. Below the
sky was big water. The gakits (wild ducks) saw the woman fall. They caught her lightly on
their backs where she rested.
The gakits found Big Turtle. When Big Turtle saw the woman, he called a council of
all swimming animals. They said, ‘we must save the woman and make her a house, the
leader commanded the frog: ‘Dive and bring up dirt from the tree roots.’ The frog tried
and failed. The mouse tried also and failed. Finally, the Big Toad volunteered: ‘I will try.’
At this, all animals jeered and laughed except Big Turtle who said, ‘You do well to try.
Perhaps you will be lucky.
 “The Old Toad took a long breath and went down, down. At last, a bubble of air
came up and the Old Toad followed. In her mouth she carried a few grains of sand which
she spread around Big Turtle’s shell. Then an island grew on Big Turtle’s back, and it
became Bohol Island, and the woman lived upon it.”

From the reports of early chroniclers, we know that the ancient people of the
Philippines had a notion of a powerful being (or beings) that was responsible for the
creation of the earth and of everything on it, the trees, the animals, and man. The name of
the creator-god (or gods) varied with the various tribes: Laon or Malaon for the “Indios”
or Bisayan; Makapatag again for the Bisayan, Makaobus for the Ibabao Bisayan,
Bathala Maykapal for the Tagalog, Gugurang for the Bikol, Batala for the Moro,
Eugpamulak Manobo for the Bagobo with aliases: Manama and Kalayagan,
 Bulalakaw for the Negritos of Panay Island and so on. The following points must be
borne in mind when one considers creation among the early Philippine people. First,
there is no question of creation in the strict theological sense as production or “the
bringing of something into existence from non-existence, not only as regards itself but
also as regards the material out of which it came to be.” In other words, it is a creation
which the early people in the Philippines knew also the primitive people of the past and
of the present. Also, it refers to what is known by theologians as “second creation.” This
conception presupposes a pre-existing matter or substratum out of which the earth was
made.
The supernatural beliefs of ancient Filipinos can be gleaned from the writings of
Spanish conquistadores, historians, and missionaries. At the time of colonization, the
population of the Philippines was estimated to be 700,000–based on the census of tributes
implemented by Governor Gomez Perez Dasmariñas whose term of office only lasted
three years from 1590-1593. According to Fr. Pedro Chirino, Antonio de Morga and
other Spanish writers, the ancient Filipino believed in a supreme being called Bathala,
the creator of heaven and earth, and all living things. Under this all-powerful god was a
pantheon of lesser gods like the Visayan goddess of harvest and fire Lalahort; the
Bagobo god of war Darago, and Apolaki, the Pangasinan god of war. Pre-Spanish
Filipinos also worshipped the spirits of their ancestors called anitos. They carved wooden
or stone idols to represent their gods and anitos, which they kept in their homes and
propitiated with food, animals and other sacrifices to bring about success in war, a
bountifuI harvest, or a happy marriage. However, not all anitos were benevolent. Bad
anitos existed in the shapes of the spirits of dead tribal enemies.

In a Short History of the Philippines; Nicolas Zafra states:

“Besides the Supreme God, there were lesser gods or spirits. They were called anitos.
There was an anito of the forests and mountains. They prayed to him whenever they went out
to those places to hunt or get timber. There was an anito of the planted field who they invoked
for good harvest. There was an anito of the seas. They prayed to him for good luck in their
fishing expeditions and in their voyages. There was an anito of the house, too. They invoked
him when someone was sick or when a child was born.”

Concerning the religious beliefs of early Filipinos another Filipino historian, Gregorio
Zaide, in his book History of the Filipino People, notes: 

Being superstitious, they read omens in the appearance of crows, crocodiles, and birds.
Comets they believed to be a harbinger of bad luck like famine, epidemic, or war. Likewise, the
howling of a dog or the falling of a tree at night was an omen of death. Sneezing before the start
of a journey also foretold death or an accident along the way. To quote Zaide once again:

 
 
The pagan priests and priestesses were called katalonas and babaylanas, respectively.
They officiated in ritual sacrifices, aside from serving as physicians, soothsayers and prophets.
The highest priest, akin to a bishop, was called a sonat. It was he who appointed the priests and
priestesses. The sacrificial ritual was performed either inside or outside the house, and usually
ended in feasting and merry-making. 
Our ancestor subscribed to the concept of life after death. They believed that each
individual has an immortal soul that travels to the other world. The souls of good and brave men
go to a heaven called Kalualhatian, whereas the souls of evil men are flung into a hell known as
Kasamaan.
 
To prepare the dead for his journey to the underworld, his relatives placed food, wine,
gold, weapons, and other personal effects and provisions in his grave. When a datu died, his
slaves were killed and buried with him, to serve his needs in the afterlife. In terms of burial
practices, the corpse was embalmed, placed in a coffin made of hard wood or a burial jar, and
eventually buried in a grave or a cave.
 
Miguel de Loarca, a conquistador, gives a graphic description of the supernatural beliefs
and religious practices of ancient Filipinos in Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas, a treatise on the
Philippine islands that was published in Arevalo, Spain, in June 1582. Fr. Juan de Plasencia, a
Franciscan missionary who came to the Philippines in 1577, also dwelt on the same matter
extensively in Dos Relaciones, which saw printing in 1589.
 
Miguel de Loarca reports, regarding the belief of ancient Filipinos in the destiny of souls:
They say that there is in the sky another god called Sidapa. This god possesses a very tall tree on
mount Mayas. There he measures the lives of all the newborn, and places a mark on the tree;
when the person’s stature equals this mark, he dies immediately. It is believed that at death all
souls go directly to the infernal regions but that, by means of the manganitos, which are the
sacrifices and offerings made to the god Pandaque in sight of the mount of Mayas, they are
redeemed from Simuran and Siguinarugan, gods of the lower regions.
 
EARLY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY AND CULTURE

 
Philippine society is a unique blend of diversity and homogeneity. Francisco Colin
(1592-1660), one of the most prominent Jesuit missionary and historian of the early colonial
period discussed the physical appearance, clothing, marriage, eating pattern, song and dance of
Filipinos. He also discusses the customs and traditions of the Philippines, Southeast Asia such as
Sumatra and Moluccas.

BARANGAY
Barangay is used to be the form of government of early Filipinos. The name barangay is
originated from Balangay, a Malay word for sailboat. It may compose of about 30-100 families,
and is ruled by either a Datu, or Maginoo. There were no king or rulers worthy of mention
throughout this archipelago but there were many chiefs who dominated others less power.
According to William Henry Scott, a social Hierarchy existed among Tagalog and Visayans,
who claimed that Filipinos are classified according to classes.
  
 
THREE SOCIAL CLASSES:
 Maginoo (Tagalog) Datu (Visayans) – the highest class
 Maharlika (Tagalog) Timawa (Visayans) – second class
 Alipin (Tagalog) Oripuen (Visayans) – bottom class

LAWS
Written laws are made by the Datu together with the council of the elders as his advisers.
Unwritten laws are spoken laws that are passed by of course the word of mouth, and may be
passed through generations; it may be written or not. Their laws and policy which were not very
barbarous for barbarians consisted wholly of traditions and customs. 
However, how can one be a Datu? It may be inherited, either by a man or a woman (the
eldest child) or may be chosen by the community according to the following characteristics
(bravest, wealthiest or the wisest). The Timauas in the visayans and in Tagalog are the
Maharlikas, on the other hand are called Freemen; they are the commoners. They can own their
own land and don’t have to pay regular tribute. These are intermediate class of men who had
enough land, those who rendered services to the rulers and do not work on fields. Lastly, people
on the bottom class are classified as slaves. Slavery is a system where humans are treated as
property.
REASONS FOR SLAVERY:
1. Inherited status  
2. Captured by the enemies in war
 3. Those who cannot pay their debt 
4. Punishment of the crime committed 
 5. Sold to become a slave by forcing them to do work for their masters  
Except from Relacion De las Islas Pilipinas by Miguel De Loarca

SUB CLASSES OF SLAVES:

AYUEY The ayueys are worth among these people two gold taes the equivalent of
twelve pesos. These slaves’ works three days for the master and one day
for themselves.  
TUMARANPO The value of tumarapoques is same in ayuey.They live in their own
C houses and there are obligated to go to work for their master one day out
of four day having three days for themselves, if they fail to work for their
master, in
order to cultivate their own fields, they give the master each year ten
chicubites of rice each chicubite being equal to one fanega.
TOMATABANS These work in the house of the master only when there is some banquet or
revel. On such occasions they bring small gift and share in the drinking.
when slave dies, the property left by the slave is share with his children by
the master

DOWRY

A dowry is the transfer of parental property to a daughter as her inheritance at her marriage
rather than at the owner's death. This establishes a type of conjugal fund, the nature of which
may vary widely. A gift turned over by the groom to the bride’s parents for all practical purpose
in exchange for the bride. Dowry can range from carabao, piece of lands, jewelries, cash, brass
gongs etc.
FIVE KINDS OF DOWRY:
 1. Sambon- a dowry given to the girl’s relatives.
2. Himaraw- sum of money to be given to the parents as a reimbursement for the amount
spent in feeding the girl during her infancy. 
3. Bigay-suso- bride given to the wet-nurse who fed the bride during her infancy with milk
from her own breasts. 
4. Panghimuyat- certain amount of the money given to the bride to be’s parents as a
payment for the mothers’ effort s in rearing the girl to the womanhood. 
5. Bigay-kaya- consist of land, gold or dependents. Any valuable article will do in the
absence of these. 
Once he had settled all of the above requirements, he brings his parents to meet with the
bride-to-be’s parents to haggle and make the final arrangements; this is called pamamalae or
pamamanhikan or pamumulungan in order to win the hand of his lady, the man has to show
his patience and dedication to both the lady and her parents. Courtship usually begins with
paninilbihan. During the wedding ceremony, uncooked rice is thrown on the couple after the
event; weddings are officiated by the priestess or babaylan.
BRIEF HISTORY ON FILIPINO TATTOO TRADITIONS

Indigenous groups throughout the Philippine islands have been practicing the art of
tattooing for centuries. But after the arrival of the Spanish, the Americans and the advent of
Christianity, traditional practices such as tattooing were evidently on the verge of extinction.
When the Spaniards first arrived in the Visayan Islands in 1521, they labelled the natives
of this region as "pintados", meaning "painted people" or "painted ones", as most of their entire
bodies were covered in tattoos leaving only their hands and feet bare. One of the prominent
tattooed men is "Prince Giolo", a tattooed native known to be from a southern island (Miangas).
 
In Luzon, the largest island of the Philippines is inhabited by a number of indigenous
groups. More popular for their extensive tattoos and rituals are the northern mountain tribes’
people of the Cordillera Region, collectively known as "Cordillerans" or "Igorots".
Several of these tribal groups customarily practiced headhunting, being one of the main
reasons behind tattooing. They believed tattoos possessed spiritual powers and magical qualities
which gave them strength and protection. They were also used to distinguish or reward a warrior
after a successful headhunt expedition and marked their social status within their community.
Women were also tattooed; to enhance their beauty, for fertility and to serve as means of
clothing. First four images are the tattoos of Cordilleran women and the last two are leg tattoos
of a Banwa-on tribeswoman from Mindanao.
Clothing

To the men, these painting serve as clothing and although they usually go around naked
and wear nothing on the body; except a cotton cloth two fathom (six feet-approximately 1.8cm)
around the waist and between the legs so as to cover their private parts. This cloth they called it
“Bahaque”. Also, they have another type of clothing, which consists of the cotton blankets that
they used it into morning wear; they called it kanggan (sleeveless jacket) their head also have
some very fine multi colored head scarfs, they called it “Purones”. Aside from that they also
wear strips of gold.
While the garments and dresses of Bisayan women consist of some blankets with diverse
colored stripes made of cotton and other are made from a plant. They have some plain tafetta and
damask that came from china. The women wear crown and garlands on their head made of tinsel
imported from China, female attire consisted of baro(pezeielo) or camisa(chemise) (jacket with
sleeves) and saya or patadyong (a long skirt) but some women wore a piece of red or white
cloth on top of their skirt called tapi. 
FILIPINO CUSTOMS AND TRADITIONS
Our culture is a big reflection of our great and complex history. It is influenced by most
of the people we have interacted with. A blend of the Malayo-Polynesian and Hispanic culture
with the influence from Chinese, Indians Arabs, and other Asian cultures really contribute to the
customs and traditions of the Filipinos. Filipino culture is unique compared to other Asian
countries, and beliefs apply every day in the life of the Filipinos and reveal how rich and blessed
the culture the people have.

HOSPITABLE
 In the Philippines, you may find people who are very welcoming. Foreign visitors in the
country are treated with the utmost respect. This trait is usually seen during fiestas and holidays
where many Filipinos are giving their best to entertain their visitors well.
CLOSE FAMILY TIES
It is one of the outstanding cultural values that Filipinos have. The family takes care of
each other and are taught to be loyal to family and elders by simply obeying their authorities.
This is one of the unique characteristics of Filipinos. Having fondness for family reunions during
secular and religious holidays such as Christmas, New Year’s Eve, All Saints’ Day, Holy Week,
Fiestas, homecomings, birthdays, weddings, graduations, baptisms, funerals etc. is evidence that
Filipino people valued not only our cultural tradition but the spirit of our family. As Filipinos, we
are blessed to have been brought up with strong family ties.
BAYANIHAN

It is the spirit of communal unity or effort to achieve a particular objective. A famous example of
this is the neighbors carrying a hut or house to a new location. People nowadays use it to
describe an outpouring of community spirit-as people give their all to the common good, without
expecting recognition or personal gain.
COURTSHIP

We Filipinos are very romantic when it comes to heart affairs. Serenading or Harana in
Tagalog is one of the most popular forms of courtship to show that a man is very serious with his
intentions to a woman. A serenade would require the young man to sing a love song in front of
the young lady's house. Normally, he is accompanied by his male friends who act as back-up
singers. The man himself or his friend played the instrument, usually a guitar, which provides the
background music to his song.
RELIGION
The Philippines is one of two predominantly Roman Catholic nations in Asia-Pacific. Their habit
of going to church and often praying reflects that Filipinos have a deep faith and belief when it
comes to religion. They are very devoted to religions that sometimes many take the risk of their
lives just to touch the Black Nazarine (in Quiapo Manila). For many, it is just a choice between
their faith and fears. Filipinos believe that having a strong devotion may lead to a better life and
their guidance to face everyday life.
SUPERSTITION
In the Philippines, superstitious beliefs have grown throughout the country. These beliefs
have come from the different sayings and beliefs of our ancestors that aim to prevent danger
from happening or to make a person refrain from doing something in particular.
 

THE PHILIPPINE BECOMES A SPANISH COLONY

THE 3GS OF COLONIAL HISTORY

When the Philippines is under the Imperial Spain, its discovery was propelled by God,
Gold and Glory.
GOD 
The Power of Faith
 Spanish missionaries and friars were able to spread Christianity in Luzon and Visayas but
Mindanao was very resistant during that time. Friars became people with high political positions
and social classes were implemented. Aside from the Catholic faith the Spaniards influenced,
there are certain things and customs that were carried up to this generation. One of those
traditions is the belief in relics, idols and images of the saints.

Today, The Philippines is approximately 85 percent Christian (mostly Roman Catholic),

10 percent Muslim, and 5 percent 'other' religions, including the Taoist-Buddhist religious beliefs
of Chinese and the 'indigenous' animistic beliefs of some peoples in upland areas that resisted
300 years of Spanish colonial rule.

GOLD
Trade under Colonialism

The Inclusion of Asian trade to that of Europe led not only to the flow of economic
products and the wealth of Asia to European societies but also to the dynamic interaction of
cultures.
    The tremendous profits European trade brought to nation states particularly Portugal and
Spain, intensified European rivalries for the fabled source of Oriental products
On March 16, 1521 the European ships reached the Philippines and soon after the Spice
Islands, effectively establishing the first westward spice trade route to Asia.
Making the food more palatable to the most discriminating medieval tastes triggered the
search for spices of all sorts: pepper, cinnamon, cloves, nutmeg and ginger which were
indigenous to the East.
Paete woodcarvers stood out during the 19th century for products they produced. Along
with these Filipinos are wealthy of native products produced all over the country,
The Spaniards closed the ports of Manila to all countries except Mexico. Thus, the
Manila–Acapulco Trade, better known as the "Galleon Trade" was born. And because the
Spaniards were so engrossed in making profits from the Galleon Trade, they hardly had any time
to further exploit our natural resources.

GLORY
 Trace of Colonization

Construction of the defensive walls was started by the Spanish colonial government in
the late 16th century to protect the city from foreign invasions. Intramuros served as the capital
of the Spanish East Indies the center of commerce, education, government, and religion in
Spain's most distant imperial possession.
    One of the most popular paintings in the Philippines is the masterpiece Spolarium by Juan
Luna. It depicts the 19th century horror experience by Filipinos. It emphasized the violation of
Human Rights, Forced Labor and how the Spaniards terrorize Filipinos in their own land.

THE VOYAGE OF MAGELLAN TO THE PHILIPPINES 

Magellan was a Portuguese who served under the flag and King of Spain began travelling
in 1519 from Spain to make the first voyage around the world. Magellan's exploration consists of
five ships called San Antonio, Santiago, Concepcion, Victoria, and Trinidad with 264 sailors.
Ferdinand Magellan’s voyage to the Philippines was one of the accomplishments of Spain in
early modern times; it was an event during the reign of Charles I (1516-1556). It ranks in
historical importance with Columbus’ voyage to the New World in 1492 and Vasco da Gama’s
voyage in India in 1498. These voyages were the prelude to the great event of early modern
times which history writers refer to as the Commercial Revolution.
From the standpoint of Spanish national history, the voyages of Columbus and Magellan
were the sequel of important event which took place in Spanish Peninsula in the later Middle
Ages. This was the union through marriage of two of the leading states in the Peninsula. Under
Ferdinand and Isabella (1474-1516), frequently referred to by the Spanish writers as Los Reyes
Catolics, the new Spain, following the example of Portugal, embarked upon the task of finding a
new trade route to the countries of the Far East. The need for such route was keenly felt at that
time throughout Western Europe. 

Pope Alexander VI’s Bull “Inter Caetera”

Columbus’ achievement gave rise to misunderstanding and controversy between Spain
and Portugal; it was believed then that the world was much smaller than its actual size and that
Columbus had reached islands off the eastern coast of India. Portugal contended that Columbus
had gone into regions which at that time were being discovered by their own navigators.
 To settle the controversy between Spain and Portugal, Pope Alexander VI issued in 1493
a papal bull establishing a line of demarcation between the areas assigned for discovery and
exploration to the rulers of these states which was called the Inter Caetera, and was
promulgated on May 4, 1493. 
Treaty of Tordesillas
King John of Portugal did not find quite satisfactory the arrangement established by the
Pope. He felt that the demarcation line established by the Papal Bull was not far enough to the
west to include regions which, by reason of prior discover and exploration by Portuguese
demand was taken up in a conference of Portuguese and Spanish commissioners held in
Tordesillas in 1494.

THE MAGELLAN EXPEDITION

The Treaty of Tordesillas gave Spain the right to venture into the unexplored regions of
the South Seas as the Pacific Ocean was then called. Spain, however, did not make use of this
right until many years later. In 1519, Spain launched their expedition to the East. That year,
Ferdinand Magellan left the port of San Lucas de Barrameda on a voyage of discovery which
eventually took him to the Philippines.
The story of Magellan’s expedition is told into two important source documents:
Pigafetta’s account that was published in Italian in 1800 under the title, “Primo viaggio intorno
al globo terracqueo”; and a letter written in Latin in 1522 by Maximilianus Transylvanus
entitled, “De Moluccis Insulis”.
The following is an excerpt of the story of Magellan’s expedition as told by Pigafetta:
  16 march 1521
th

    Magellan arrived at the Archipelago of San Lazaro or Islas de San Lazaro (a term given by
Magellan to the Philippines). Since the Spaniards did not yet know that they had crossed the
International Date Line, the date was extended by one day and made March 17th.

Arrival at the Philippines

“At dawn on Saturday, March 16, 1521, we came upon a high land at a distance of
three hundred leguas from the island of Latroni, an island named Zamal (Samar). The
following day the captain-general desired to land on another island which was
uninhibited and lay to the right of the above-mentioned island order to be more secure
and get water and have some rest... On Monday afternoon, March 18, we saw a boat
coming toward us with nine men in it. Therefore, the captain-general ordered that no one
should move or say a word without his permission. When those men reached the shore,
their chief went immediately to the captain-general giving signs of joy because of our
arrival... The captain-general seeing that they were reasonable men, ordered food to be
set before them, and gave them red caps, mirrors, combs, bells, ivory, bocasine, and
other things. When they saw the captain’s courtesy, they presented fish, a jar of palm
wine, which they call uraca (arrack), figs more than one palmo long (bananas), and
others which were smaller and more delicate, and two coconuts..”

 Homonhon
    Magellan first went to the island of Homonhon in Samar. Meanwhile, Magellan was able to
talk to the natives through Enrique, a Malay who served as an interpreter who was said to be
Magellan's slave. Enrique had been with Magellan since 1511 after the Portuguese conquered
Malacca. Pegaffeta called him Hinrich (in Portuguese). According to Pegaffeta, Hinrich or
Enrique was a native of Sumatra.
At Limasawa
“On Thursday morning, March twenty eight, as we had seen a fire on an island
the night before, we anchored near it. We saw a small boat which natives call boloto with
 eight men in it, approaching the flagship. A slave belonging to the captain-general, who
was a native of Zamatra (Sumatra); which was formerly called Trapobana spoke them.
They immediately understood him, came alongside the ships, unwilling to enter but
taking a position at some little distance. The captain seeing that they would not trust us,
threw them out a red cap and other things tied to a bit of wood. They received them very
gladly 
and went away quickly to advise their king.”

 31 March 1521
st

    The Spaniards reached Limasawa in Leyte and held the first mass in the archipelago led by
Father Pedro de Valderrama. The incident is based, according to Antonio Pegaffeta, but based on
another group, it is said to have been held in Masao, Butuan. which was in Agusan del Norte in
Mindanao. After the mass, the Spaniards built a cross on top of a hill. It was witnessed by Rajah
Kolambu, leader of Limasawa and his brother Rajah Siaui, leader of Butuan.
Easter Sunday Mass at Limasawa
“Early on the morning of Sunday, the last of March, and Easter day, the captain-
general sent the Easter day, the captain-general sent the priest with some men to prepare
the place where mass was to be said; together with the interpreter to tell the king that we
were not going to land in order to dine with him, but to say mass. Therefore, the king
sent us two swine that he had killed. When the hour for mass arrived, we landed with
about fifty men, without body armor, but carrying our other arms; and dressed in our
best clothes... Before we reached the shore with our boats, six pieces were discharged as
a sign of peace.”

 5 April 1521
th

    When Magellan arrived in Cebu, they built a cross on the shore, which means that they
claimed the territory on behalf of Spain.
 7th April 1521
    The Spaniards came to Cebu. They were accepted by Rajah Humabon, the leader of Cebu.
Arrival at Cebu
“At noon on April seven, we entered the port of Zubu passing many villages,
where 1ve saw many houses built upon logs. On approaching the city, the captain-
general ordered the ships to fling their banners. The sails were lowered and arranged as
if for battle and all the artillery was fired, and action which caused ereat fear to those
people. The captain-general sent a foster-son of his as ambassador to the king of Zubo
and an interpreter. The king told him that he was welcome.”
  14 April 1521
th

    The baptism of the natives of Cebu was performed. Rajah Humabon and his wife Hara
Amihan were also baptized. Magellan gave the image of Santo Ninio as a gift to Hara Amihan.
After his baptism, Rajah Humabon was given a new name, Carlos, in honor of King Charle V of
Spain while Hara Amihan was named Juana, the wife of Charles V.
 27 April 1521
th

    The battle took place in Mactan where Magellan was killed. Lapu-Lapu, the leader of Mactan,
refused to recognize the power of Spain. The Spaniards were defeated in battle because Magellan
did not plan well in the invasion this is probably because they underestimated the ability of the
natives to fight. They also did not think that their cannons would not be useful because they
could not get close to the shore because of the coral reefs. When Magellan died, Duarte Barbosa
and Juan Serrao succeeded him as head of the expedition, but were later assassinated by Rajah
Humabon, who had doubts about his alliance with foreigners.
ALVARO DE SAAVEDRA CERON
    He is was one of the Spanish explorers in the Pacific Ocean. The next expedition to the Far
East was fitted to the East was lifted out in Mexico by Hernando Cortes on orders from the
Spanish colonizer, King Charles I. Cortes, famous as the conqueror of the Aztec Empire in
Mexico, was the viceroy of that Spanish colony. He appointed a cousin of his, Alvaro de
Saavedra, to command the expedition. 
    The first to the Far East to be lifted out on Mexican soil consisted of the three ships: the
Florida, the Santiago, the Espiritu Santo and it had 120 men. 
The Saavedra Expedition’s Goal
    The expedition has four (4) goals. First, is to see what might have happened to the survivor of
the Magellan expedition. Second, is to look for Trinidad which had not been heard from. Third,
is to inquire about what became of the Cabot expedition; and lastly, to see what happened to the
Loaisa Expedition.
The Saavedra Expedition
     The expedition left port of Zihuatanejo, Mexico on November 1 1527. Saavedra carried a
letter from Cortes addressed to the King of Cebu. In his letter, Cortes solicited friendship of the
Cebuanos, asked to be allowed to trade with them, offered pay a ransom for any Spaniard who

might be a prisoner in Cebu.

    In his expedition, a violent storm in mid-pacific sank two of the ships. With only one ship
remaining, the expedition reached Guam on December 29 and took possession of Yap Island in
the name of the King of Spain.

    Early in 1528, the ship reached Mindanao, where the men rescued two survivors of the
Magellan expedition. Saavedra ransomed the 70 dollars in Mexican gold. 

    From Mindanao, Saavedra steered his ship to Cebu, but unfavourable winds drove it to Tidore,
in present day Indonesia, where they found the survivors of the Loaisa expedition. 

    Saavedra tried to return to Mexico twice but failed. He died in the sea on October 9, 1529.
Before his death, he instructed his men to return to Tidore in case the weather did not permit
them to sail for Mexico.
    The survivors of his expedition together with Loaisa’s men landed at tidore bute were captured
there by the Portuguese. A few escapes and the others returned to Europe on board Portuguese
ships.

THE VILLALOBOS EXPEDITION

    On November 1, 1542, Roy Lopez de Villalobos started his expedition to the Philippines from
Barra de Navidad, New Spain or Nueva España (now Mexico). He was the brother-in-law of
Antonio de Mendoza, then viceroy of New Spain, who appointed him to commander the
expedition.
   
Villalobos reached Mindanao on February 2 of the following year, the first Spaniard to
make explorations in that Island. It was he who bestowed upon these islands the
name "Felipinas" in honor of the Crown-prince, Don Felipe of Spain, who later became King
Felipe II. He conferred this appellation sometime in 1543. Dr. Jose Rizal in his annotation to
Morga's 1609 Philippine History, said that Villalobos initially gave the name "Felipinas" to one
of the southern islands, Tandaya, now perhaps Leyte, and this name later was extended to the
entire archipelago.
    Pablo Pastells, S.J., said that the name "Felipinas" was confirmed by King Felipe II in a
decree dated at Villadolid, Spain and directed to the (by now) viceroy of Nueva España, Don
Luis de Velasco, on September 24, 1559.

    Meanwhile, the Portuguese, then already established in the Moluccas, opposed any attempt of
the Spaniards to settle in the neighboring islands and treated Villalobos as an enemy.
After two years of hardships and struggles, he was obliged to place himself in the hands of the
Portuguese. He departed for Spain in one of their ships and was seized by a malignant fever
which terminated his life at Amboina (Maluku) on Good Friday of 1546.

A Letter of Fray Geronimo Santisteban to the Viceroy of Spain    

THE LEGAZPI EXPEDITION

The failure of Villalobos expedition had quite a sobering effect upon Charles I’s colonial
ambitions. Since none of the expedition after Magellan from Loaisa to Villalobos had succeeded
in taking over the Philippines, King Charles I stopped sending colonizers to the
Islands. However, when Philip II succeeded his father to the throne in 1556, he instructed Luis
de Velasco, the viceroy of Mexico, to prepare a new expedition – to be headed by Miguel Lopez
de Legazpi, who would be accompanied by Andres de Urdaneta, a priest who had survived the
Loaisa mission. 
13 February 1565
th

    Legaspi's expedition landed in Cebu Island. After a short struggle with the natives, he
proceeded to Leyte, then to Camiguin and to Bohol. There Legaspi made a blood compact with
the chieftain, Datu Sikatuna as a sign of friendship. Legaspi was able to obtain spices and gold in
Bohol due to his friendship with Sikatuna.
27 April 1565
th

    Legaspi returned to Cebu; destroyed the town of Raja Tupas and establish a settlement. On
orders of the King Philip II, 2,100 men arrived from Mexico. They built the the port of Fuerza
de San Pedro which became the Spanish trading outpost and stronghold for the region.
8 May 1565
th

    Martin de Goiti arrived at Manila and they were welcomed by the natives and formed an
alliance with Rajah Suliman, their Muslim king but as the locals sensed the true objectives of the
Spaniards, a battle between the troops of Suliman and the Spaniards erupted. Because the
Spaniards are more heavily armed, the Spaniards were able to conquer Manila. Soon after
Miguel Lopez de Legazpi arrived to join Goiti in Manila. Legaspi built alliances and made peace
with Rajahs Suliman, Lakandula and Matanda. In 1571, Legaspi ordered the construction of the
walled city of Intramuros and proclaimed it as the seat of government of the colony and the
capital of the islands. In 1572, Legaspi died and was buried at the San Agustin Church in
Intramuros. In 1574, Manila was bestowed the title "Insigne y Siempre Leal Ciudad de España"
(Distinguished and ever loyal city of Spain) by King Philip II of Spain.
INTRODUCTION OF COLONIAL INSTITUTIONS

The Spanish colonial policy was virtually designed not only to keep Philippines under
control but also to exploit her rich natural resources. The onerous system of taxation, the
arbitrary and unjust forced labor, the monopolistic galleon trade and stringent trade and
agricultural policies, consequently brought about a distorted and unbalanced economy.
Taxation is the power of the state to impose and collect revenue for public purpose to
promote the welfare of the people of the particular society. One of the laws promulgated by the
Indies promulgated by the Spanish crown was to require conquered inhabitants to pay tribute in
recognition of the Spanish sovereignty. For so many years, the Filipinos paid tribute amounting
to eight reales or one peso. In 1589, it was increased to ten reales and to twelve in 1851, but
finally, abolished in 1884 and was replaced with a personal cedula tax. 
The Bandala System was a system implemented by Spanish authorities in the
Philippines that required native Filipino farmers to sell their goods to the government. In
bandala, natives were coerced to sell their harvest to the government at very low price.
 Force Labor (Polo y servicio or polo) is the dehumanizing labor; where the Spanish
government required all male healthy and physically able between ages 16- 60 to render service
for forty days.
Polistas, the natives who rendered forces labor, could be placed on any project the
Spanish wanted, despite hazardous or unhealthy conditions. They were not paid daily wages and
food ration during their working days. 
One could be exempted from polo by paying the falla, a daily fine of one and a half real.
Falla is a fee given to Spaniards to become exempted in rendering labor force.
THE TOBACCO MONOPOLY OF BASCO
Established by Jose Basco Y Vargas in 1781the increase in revenues of the government
through the cultivation of tobacco became a profitable venture that leads to Mexico to be
independent. The cultivation of tobacco was confined to Nueva Ecija, Cagayan Valley,
Marinduque, and Ilocos Provinces. The tobacco monopoly brought a considerable profit but the
situation of Philippines didn’t change. Instead, it brought so much problem and hardness in life

of every Filipinos.

THE GALLEON TRADE (Manila-Acapulco)

Long before the Spaniards came into the Philippines, the Filipinos had been trading with
different countries, by virtue of the doctrine of mercantilism; the Spanish authority closed trade
relations with other countries and allowed only two countries, China and Mexico. 
Obras Pias is a foundation where money from trade was invested and appropriated to be
given to charitable institutions. Obras Pias (literally means pious works) was a charitable
institution in the Philippines which was created by the Spaniards on February 3, 1827. The
Galleon Trade provided most of the funds which were used for public benefits.
The Obras Pias established branches in different parts of the country. It also expanded its
activities to include insurance as well as other financial matters like providing funds for
entrepreneurs. Due to lack of proper auditing, the organization went bankrupt.

THE ENCOMIENDAS
The encomienda was the right extended by the King upon a Spaniard who had helped to
facilitate the settlement of the territory. By implication, it was a public office and the person was
preferred to as encomiendero, a holder of encomienda and empowered to collect taxes from the
people under his jurisdiction. In return, under the laws of the Indies, he was obliged to protect
and defend the people under him against aggression and danger and helped to convert the natives

to Catholicism. 
The Encomienderos abused their right by way of forcing the natives to pay tribute
beyond what the law prescribed. The thunderous and public outcry against the behavior of
encomienderos led to some humane ecclesiastical officials to inform the king about these
unlawful practices. The clergy were Domingo Salazar, first bishop of Manila and Martin de
Rada, superior of the Augustinians in the Philippines. They condemned these encomienderos
and held them responsible for the various violence and atrocities committed against the natives.

THE ECONOMIC RETROGRESSION

On the economic retrogression of the colony, the Spaniards blamed the indolence,
which was inherent of the Filipino character, their inability for learning, and their perceived
congenital inferiority of the Indios. Nevertheless, this was promptly debunked by Fathers Pedro
Chirino and Antonio De Morga, about the allegation of the Spaniards by attesting to the
marked growth and development of agriculture, trade and industry, skill and ingenuity of the
natives. The economic retrogression was the government’s imposition of numerous taxes and its
utter insensitiveness to render service upon which taxes were extracted.
THE ABOLITION OF SLAVERY
This was considered as one of the administrative accomplishments had done by Spain for
the people of the colony. This move was affected by Bishop Domingo Salazar and various
heads of religious orders to ask the King to abolish slavery. The bishop and other religious orders
signed a document accusing the Spaniards in the Philippines about the maltreatment of the
Filipinos as slaves in the hands of the colonizers which was directly contrary to the law of God
and the laws of the Indies. King Philip II, after hearing and evaluating the document, issued the
Royal Decree of August 9, 1589, emancipating all slaves in the colony.
CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT
Filipino Culture embraced language, art and religion. Only the wealthy and educated
middle class Filipinos learned to write and speak in Spanish. Philippine Literature was
predominantly religious in tone, character and moral quality. Among the Filipinos who
distinguished themselves in the fields of Philippine literature were Jose Dela Cruz (Husing Sisiw
1746- 1829) and Francisco Baltazar (1789-1862). The Florante at Laura’s “awit” allegorically
exposed the Spanish wrong doings in the archipelago. 
 The early Filipino printers were engravers and at the same time who were trained by
Spanish missionaries. Among them was Tomas Pinpin of Mabatang, Abucay, Bataan, Siete
Infantes and Bernardo Carpio. The first printing press was introduced by friars in Manila in
1593 and in the same year, printed the first book in the Philippines, the Doctrina

Christiana. 
On visual arts like painting and architecture interests also focused on religion. Felix
Resurrection Hidaldo, won a silver medal for his Christian Virgins Exposed and Juan Luna
received his first gold medal for his Spolarium as their entries for Madrigal Exposition of Fine
Arts. 
RELIGION
On Religion With the help of the soldiers, the missionaries easily conquered territories of
the colony and converted the natives to Christianity. The various missionaries who used their
religious influence to facilitate the teaching of Gospel and propagation of Catholic Christian
faith were the Augustinians (1565), the Franciscans (1577), the Jesuits (1581), the

Dominicans (1587), and the Recollects (1606). 

The following is an excerpt of the bull of Pope Gregory XIII creating the diocese and
Cathedral Church of Manila:
“... Moreover by the aforesaid authority and tenor, we erect and establish forever the
town of Manila into a city, and its church into a cathedral, under the title of the “the Concepcion
of same Blessed Mary Virgin,” to be held by one bishop as its head, who shall see the
enlargement of its’ buildings and their restoration in the style of a cathedral church.”
SOCIAL RESULTS
The Filipino conversion to Christianity inevitably meant the adoption of fiesta as a socio-
religious event celebrating the feast day of the patron saint of the Catholic town as an occasion of
thanksgiving for a bountiful harvest and other blessings.
ARCHITECTURE
The Spaniards introduced western architecture with some modifications to suit the
prevailing conditions. Many Philippine churches show influence of the baroque style, having
massive walls and thick buttress and spiral motifs, ornate sculpture façade and graceful, curving

balustrades.

EDUCATION
Education in the Philippines during the Spanish era was not open to all Filipinos. The
Spanish government had absolutely no intention of training the natives for eventual
independence and self- government. During this period, some schools were exclusively
established for education of some Spanish nationals in the archipelago. They were open only for
the people belonged to the upper social and economics class of society
Schools in the Philippines that were established by the Spaniards:
 Assumption Convent- 1892
 College of La Concordia- 1869 
 Colegio De Sta. Isabel- 1632  
 Colegio De Sta. Potentiana- 1589 
 Colegio De San Juan De Letran- founded in 1601 
 University of Santo Tomas- oldest pontifical university in the Philippines founded by
Dominicans in 1611 
In 1863, the Spanish government enacted and implemented an educational reform
primarily designed to improve the state of education throughout the archipelago. The decree
provided for the establishment of at least one school for boys and one for girls in every
town. The decree also provided for the establishment of a normal school for male teachers
under the supervision of the Jesuits and created a commission of eight members headed by
the Governor General. Instruction in the primary level for both boys and girls were free and
the teaching of Spanish is Compulsory. A few years later, the Spaniards developed the fear
that the natives will understand the value of education in relation to truth and fairness and
they may turn in foment rebellion. This move from the Spanish authority literally negated the
philosophy of education.
Excerpt from the Important Provisions of the Decree of 1863:
“In each of the villages, there shall be at least one school of primary instruction for
males, and another for females. Instruction herein shall be free to the poor and attendance
shall be compulsory. Art 3 and 4.”
ECONOMY
The abolition of Galleon trade in 1815 and the separation of Mexico from Spain made it
necessary for the Spanish Government to engage in trading relations with other countries. The
government also allowed foreign investors to establish residence in the Philippines. Spain
opened its ports in Manila and other parts of the country. Foreign banking institutions and other
lending and credit facilities were open. Roads and bridges were built, shipping lines, inter islands
and overseas were improved and communication system were upgraded.
The opening of the Philippines to world trade and with the emergence of multifarious
forces, e.g., scientific and technological, industrial, economic, social, and political resulted in
economic changes and prosperity that improved the quality of life of the Filipinos.
EARLY FILIPINO REVOLTS

Although the Spain had conquered the Philippines, the liberty loving people never gave
up their dream of independence. They were Christianized and Hispanized, but they retained their
fighting spirit and their love for freedom. To prove their aspiration for freedom and to resist
Spanish abuses, they rose in more than 100 revolts.
CAUSES OF REVOLTS:
1. Our love for freedom and independence
2. Abuses of Spanish encomenderos
3. Tribute (residence tax)
4. Forced labor (polo)
5. Land gathering by the friars
6. Basi (wine) Monopoly
7. Religion
REVOLT OF LAKANDULA AND SULAYMAN (TAGALOG REVOLT 1574)

It was the first Filipino revolt against the Spanish rule that was led by Lakan Dula of
Tondo and his nephew, Raha Sulayman of Manila. This Revolt was caused by losing Sulayman
and Lakan Dula's kingdom when they were defeated by Miguel Lopez de Legazpi to accept the
Spanish sovereignty on the promise that they would be well-treated by the Spaniards and would
still retain some of their royal and political powers. When Governor General Lavezaris
replaced Legazpi, he revoked their exemptions from paying tribute and confiscated their lands.
Angered by the broken Spanish promise, Lakan Dula and Sulayman rallied their warriors to
overthrow Spanish rule. Lavezaris sent Father Geronimo Martin and Capt. Juan de Salcedo to
convince Lakan Dula and Sulayman to abort the revolt and promised to grant their privileges.

TONDO CONSPIRACY OF 1587-88 (CONSPIRACY OF THE MAHARLIKAS)

The Tondo Conspiracy or the Conspiracy of the Maharlikas, of 1587-1588, was a

secret conspiracy organized in Tondo to regain Filipino freedom from Spain. It was led by
Agustin de Legazpi, nephew of Lakandula, his first cousin, Martin Panga and Magat Salamat,
son of Lakan Dula. A Christian Japanese, Dionisio Fernandez, also joined the secret conspiracy.
They made a secret agreement with a Japanese sea Captain, Juan Gayo, to furnish them with
arms and Japanese warriors. For many months, the Filipino patriots held secret meetings. But
before they could strike for freedom’s sake, the uprising failed when they were betrayed by
Antonio Surabao (Susabau) of Calamianes, Palawan. The leading members of the libertarian
movement were arrested, tried in court, and condemned. Some of them were executed and the
others were exiled in Mexico and other islands in the Philippines.

DAGOHOY’S REBELLION (1744-1829)

 In 1744 in what is now the province of Bohol, what is known today as the Dagohoy
Revolt was undertaken by Francisco Dagohoy and his followers. This revolt is unique since it is
the only revolt completely related to matters of religious customs, although unlike the Tamblot
Uprising before it, it is not a complete religious rebellion. After a duel in which Dagohoy's
brother died, the local parish priest refused to give his brother a proper Catholic burial, since
dueling is a mortal sin. The refusal of the priest eventually led to the longest revolt ever held in
Philippine history: 85 years. It also led to the establishment of a free Boholano government. 

Twenty governors-general, from Juan Arrechederra to Mariano Ricafort Palacin y

Abarca, failed to stop the revolt. Ricafort himself sent a force of 2,200-foot soldiers to Bohol,
which was defeated by Dagohoy's followers. Another attack, also sent by Ricafort in 1828 and
1829, failed as well. Dagohoy died two years before the revolt ended, though, which led to the
end of the revolt in 1829. Some 19,000 survivors were granted pardon and were eventually
allowed to live in new Boholano villages: namely, the present-day towns of Balilihan, Batuan,
Bilar (Vilar), Catigbian and Sevilla (Cabulao).

SILANG’S REBELLION (1762-64)

Diego Silang and his wife, Gabriela Silang led the famous revolt in Ilocos. This revolt
happened during the British invasion. Diego Silang proclaimed the independence of his people
and made Vigan the capital of Free Ilocos. The British invaders in Manila heard of Silang’s
revolt. They tried to get help in fighting their enemy, the Spaniards. But Silang was killed by an
assassin. The Spaniards paid his friend, Miguel Vicos, to shoot him in the back. Silang died in
the arms of his wife Gabriela.
After his death, his wife continued the revolt. Because she won many battles, Gabriela
Silang was called “Joan of Arc of Ilocos”. But Gabriela was defeated later. She was executed in
Vigan. This ended the Silang revolt in the Ilocos. 
THE PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT 

Propaganda Movement, reform and national consciousness movement that arose among
young Filipino expatriates in the late 19th century. Although its adherents expressed loyalty to
the Spanish colonial government, Spanish authorities harshly repressed the movement and
executed its most prominent member, José Rizal.

RIZAL AS A PROPAGANDIST 

    Among the Filipinos who carried on the nationalistic campaign in the last decades of the
Spanish period, Dr. Jose Rizal was unquestionably the most influential in the arousing the spirit
of nationalism in the Philippines. Through his writings, he gave a powerful impetus to the
nationalistic movement. With his versatility, his intense love of country, his unfailing courtesy,
and his lofty ideals of liberty and nationalism, he made a deep impression among his
countrymen. 

    In the Exposicion Nacional de Bellas Artes held in Madrid in 1884, Juan Luna and Felix
Resurreccion Hidalgo won signal honors – Luna with his “Spoliarium”, and Hidalgo with his
“Virgenes Cristianas”. To honor these artists, the Filipino community in Madrid organized a
banquet. Rizal was the main speaker at the banquet. His speech on that occasion was significant.
It was Rizal’s initial effort to call public attention in Spain to the conditions and needs of the
Philippines. It was the opening shot in the Propaganda Campaign. 

    Rizal’s speech read in the part as follows:

   
     Of Rizal’s writings, the Noli Me Tangere is, by general consent, Rizal’s greatest work as a
propagandist. W. E. Retana, Rizal’s Spanish biographer, called it the New Gospel, the New
Bible, of the Filipino people.

    Rizal’s other novel, El Filibusterismo, was dedicated to Fathers Burgos, Gomez, and Zamora.
The dedicatory reads as follows:

LA SOLIDARIDAD
 
In 1888 Filipino expatriate journalist Graciano López Jaena founded the newspaper La
Solidaridad in Barcelona. Throughout its course, La Solidaridad urged reforms in both religion
and government in the Philippines, and it served as the voice of what became known as the
Propaganda Movement. One of the foremost contributors to La Solidaridad was the precocious
José Rizal y Mercado. Rizal wrote two political novels—Noli me tangere (1887; Touch Me Not)
and El filibusterismo (1891; The Reign of Greed)—which had a wide impact in the Philippines.
López Jaena, Rizal, and journalist Marcelo del Pilar emerged as the three leading figures of the
Propaganda Movement, and magazines, poetry, and pamphleteering flourished.
While López Jaena and Pilar remained abroad, in 1892 Rizal returned home and founded
the Liga Filipina, a modest reform-minded society that was loyal to Spain and breathed no word
of independence. As with the Cavite mutiny, the Spanish authorities overreacted to a perceived
threat to their rule. They promptly arrested and exiled Rizal to a remote island in the south.

LA LIGA FILIPINA
    It was during his brief stay in Manila that Rizal founded the Liga Filipina. According to Le
Roy “in 1891, Rizal set out for Hong Kong, where he organized the first branch of his LIGA
FILIPINA...”
    A monument was erected near the spot where the Liga Filipina was organized. The inscription
on the monument stated that the Liga Filipina was founded in a house on Ilaya Street, Tondo, on
the 3 of July, 1892. The persons who formed the board of directors of the Liga were:
rd
    Including among the members of the Liga were Andres Bonifacio, Mamerio Natividad,
Domingo Franco, Noises Salvador, Numeriano Adriano, Jose A. Dizon, Apolinario Mabini,
Ambrosion Rianzares Bautista, Timoteo Lanuza, Marcelino de los Santos, Paulino Zamora,
Juan Zalueta, Doroteo Ong-junco, Arcadio del Rosario, Timoteo Paez. 

    The aims of the Liga Filipina, as enumerated in its constitution, were:

1. Union of the whole Archipelago into one compact, vigorous and homogeneous
body.
2. Mutual protection in every want and necessity.
3. Defense against all violence and injustice.
4. Encouragement of education, agriculture and commerce.
5. Study and application of reforms.

The LIGA FILIPINA died almost at its birth, though revived secretly during the
following year.
THE 1896 REVOLUTION

1872 CAVITE MUTINY: SPANISH PERSPECTIVE

    Jose Montero y Vidal, a prolific Spanish historian documented the event and highlighted it as
an attempt of the Indios to overthrow the Spanish government in the Philippines. Meanwhile,
Gov. Gen. Rafael Izquierdo’s official report magnified the event and made use of it to implicate
the native clergy, which was then active in the call for secularization.
In particular, Izquierdo blamed the unruly Spanish Press for “stockpiling” malicious
propagandas grasped by the Filipinos. He reported to the King of Spain that the “rebels” wanted
to overthrow the Spanish government to install a new “hari” in the likes of Fathers Burgos and
Zamora. The general even added that the native clergy enticed other participants by giving them
charismatic assurance that their fight will not fail because God is with them coupled with
handsome promises of rewards such as employment, wealth, and ranks in the army. Izquierdo, in
his report lambasted the Indios as gullible and possessed an innate propensity for stealing.

THE FILIPINO VERSION OF THE INCIDENT

    Dr. Trinidad Hermenigildo Pardo de Tavera, a Filipino scholar and researcher, wrote the
Filipino version of the bloody incident in Cavite. In his point of view, the incident was a mere
mutiny by the native Filipino soldiers and laborers of the Cavite arsenal who turned out to be
dissatisfied with the abolition of their privileges. Indirectly, Tavera blamed Gov. Izquierdo’s
cold-blooded policies such as the abolition of privileges of the workers and native army members
of the arsenal and the prohibition of the founding of school of arts and trades for the Filipinos,
which the general believed as a cover-up for the organization of a political club.
    Tavera believed that the Spanish friars and Izquierdo used the Cavite Mutiny as a powerful
lever by magnifying it as a full-blown conspiracy involving not only the native army but also
included residents of Cavite and Manila, and more importantly the native clergy to overthrow the
Spanish government in the Philippines. It is noteworthy that during the time, the Central
Government in Madrid announced its intention to deprive the friars of all the powers of
intervention in matters of civil government and the direction and management of educational
institutions. This turnout of events was believed by Tavera, prompted the friars to do something
drastic in their dire desire to maintain power in the Philippines.
THE KATIPUNAN
  Meanwhile, within the Philippines there had developed a firm commitment to
independence among the somewhat less privileged class. Shocked by the arrest of Rizal, these
activists formed the Katipunan under the leadership of Andres Bonifacio, a self-educated
warehouseman. The Katipunan was dedicated to the expulsion of the Spanish from the islands,
and preparations were made for armed revolt. There had been many Filipino rebels throughout
the history of Spanish rule, but now for the first time they were inspired by nationalist ambitions
and possessed the education needed to make success a real possibility.

THE DISCOVERY OF KATIPUNAN

    For over four (4) years after its establishments, the Katipunan organization thanks to the
precautionary measures it adopted to guard and preserve its secrets, remained undetected. But up
to middle of August 1896, the Spanish colonial officials could find no concrete and conclusive
evidence to substantiate such rumors and dismissing all such reports of an impending revolt
brought to Governor Blanco from various sources. The Katipunan might have continued carrying
on its subversive activities strictly according to its plans, undetected and unmolested by the
Spanish authorities, had it not been for the betrayal by a member of the Katipunan who revealed
to Father Mariano Gil, curate of Tondo, some important secrets of the Katipunan.
    According to Father Mariano Gil, on the 19 of August, a resident named Teodoro Paterno, an
th

employee of the printery of the newspaper “Diario de Manila” told his sister all that he had heard
from his fellow workers in the “Diario” printing office about the conspiracy which was coming
to a head. 
    News of the discovery of the Katipunan and of the arrests of the Katipunan suspects which
followed created no little consternation in the ranks of the Katipunan. Andres Bonifacio,
realising the imminent danger that confronted him and the other leaders of the Katipuan,
precipitately left Manila and went hiding in the neighboring town of Caloocan.
    The next few days saw momentous events in the history of the Katipunan. The most
memorable of these was that which is popularly known as the “Cry of Balintawak” that took
place on August 26, 1896. It was the opening event for the “Philippine Revolution”. 

THE CRY OF BALINTAWAK

On August 26, 1896, Bonifacio issued the Grito de Balintawak (“the Cry of
Balintawak”), calling for an armed uprising against the Spanish. The centre of the revolt was
in Cavite province, where Filipino independence leader Emilio Aguinaldo first came into
prominence. Spain sent reinforcements until there was an army of 28,000, along with a few loyal
regiments of Filipino soldiers. A stiff campaign of 52 days brought about the defeat of the
insurgents, but the Spanish once again endeavored to work against their own interests. Although
Rizal had no connection to the uprising or Katipunan, the Spanish military arrested him and,
after a farcical trial, found him guilty of sedition. He was executed by a firing squad in Manila on
December 30, 1896.

PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION 

The execution of Rizal breathed new life into the insurrection, and the Philippine
Revolution spread to the provinces of Pangasinan, Zambales, and Ilocos. With the destruction of
the U.S. battleship Maine on February 15, 1898, in the harbour of Havana, Cuba, and the
subsequent wave of public indignation, hostilities erupted between Spain and the United States.
The exiled Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines on May 19 and announced renewal of the
struggle with Spain. The Philippines declared independence from Spain on June 12 and
proclaimed a provisional republic with Aguinaldo as president. With the conclusion of the
Spanish-American War, the Philippines, along with Puerto Rico and Guam, were ceded by Spain
to the U.S. by the Treaty of Paris, on December 10, 1898. The Filipino struggle for independence
would continue through the Philippine-American War and would not be achieved until
after World War II.

THE TREATY OF PARIS

August 12, 1898 
Article III of the Peace Protocol signed at Washington on August 12, 1898, provided: 
 The United States will occupy and hold the city, bay and harbor of Manila,
pending the conclusion of a Treaty of Peace which shall determine the control,
disposition, and government of the Philippines.  

October 1, 1898
    The first meeting with the Spanish Commissioners was held in Paris. President William
McKinley had finally decided that the United States must take possession of the Philippines. The
matter was finally swallowed up and lost sight of in the agreement to give Spain a lump of 20
million for the archipelago. Archbishop Chapelle was in Paris at the time of these negotiations.
He afterwards told the writer in Manila that he got that 20 million put in the Treaty of Paris. The
Church preferred that the title should be a title of purchase and not a conquest.
December 10, 1898
And that is how that twenty million found its way into the treaty—not forgetting the
prayers and other contemporaneous activities of Archbishop Chapelle. After the tremendous
eight weeks' tension had relaxed, and before the final reduction to writing of all the details, we
see this dear little telegram, from Secretary of State Hay, himself a writer of note, come bravely
paddling into port, where it was cordially received by both sides, taken in out of the wet, and put
under the shelter of the treaty:
Mr. Hay to Mr. Day: In renewing conventional arrangements do not lose sight of
copyright agreement.
Mr. Day to Mr. Hay: Treaty signed at 8:50 this evening.
THE BENEVOLENT ASSSIMILATION

PROCLAMATION 
        The Pandora box of the Philippine woes, The Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation, was
signed on December 21, 1898. It was issued by President McKinley and was announced in the
Philippine on January 4, 1899. The proclamation stated the U.S. “altruistic” mission in obtaining
the Philippines.
         In response, the Philippine Republic was declared on January 1 with Emilio Aguinaldo y
Famy as its president, but the United States refused to recognize it as the legitimate government. 
January 27, 1899
     In reaction to this non-recognition, the Filipino government proclaimed its constitution. 
February 4, 1899
    The Republic of the Philippines declared war against the United States after three Filipinos
were killed by the U.S troops. 

ADDRESS ADOPTED BY THE ANTI-IMPERIALIST LEAGUE 

    The Anti-Imperialist League was formed in June 1898 to oppose the war of the United States
with Spain over Cuba's fight for independence from Spanish rule. United States also wished to
expand its influence in the Caribbean and across the Pacific and so annexed the Philippine
Islands and Puerto Rico. United States also wished to expand its influence in the Caribbean and
across the Pacific and so annexed the Philippine Islands and Puerto Rico.

Two days later, Filipinos led by Emilio Aguinaldo, were fighting Americans. In
protesting the treaty, the 1899 Platform of the League stated: "We hold that the policy known as
imperialism is hostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our
glory to be free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and Lincoln
to reaffirm that all men, of whatever race or color, are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of
happiness. We maintain that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the
governed. We insist that the subjugation of any people is 'criminal aggression' and open
disloyalty to the distinctive principles of our Government. We earnestly condemn the policy of
the present National Administration in the Philippines. . . . We denounce the slaughter of the
Filipinos as a needless horror. We protest against the extension of American sovereignty by
Spanish methods." Andrew Carnegie offered to buy the Philippines from the United States to
give the islands their independence. Instead, American troops killed between 250,000 and
600,000 Filipinos, probably most of them civilians, and captured Aguinaldo in February 1902, at
which time President Roosevelt pronounced that the war was over.
The Anti-Imperialist League continued to challenge American intervention abroad until
1920, but it was largely isolated from the peace movement and had lost most of its impact.

PRIMARY SOURCE ON THE PHILIPPINE AMERICAN WAR

Primary Source Document 1
    Emilio Aguinaldo, “True Version of the Philippine Revolution” (1899)
    I, Emilio Aguinaldo—though the humble servant of all, am, as President of the Philippine
Republic, charged with the safeguarding of the rights and independence of the people who
appointed me to such an exalted position of trust and responsibility—mistrusted for the first time
the honour of the Americans … no other course was open to me but to repel with arms such
unjust and unexpected procedure on the part of the commander of friendly forces.
Primary Source Document 2
    Private William Grayson, “Aguinaldo: A Narrative of Filipino Ambitions”
    About eight o’clock, Miller and I were cautiously pacing our district. We came to a fence and
were trying to see what the Filipinos were up to.
Suddenly, near at hand, on our left, there was a low but unmistakable Filipino outpost
signal whistle. It was immediately answered by a similar whistle about twenty-five yards to the
right. Then a red lantern flashed a signal from blockhouse number seven. We had never seen
such a sign used before. In a moment, something rose up slowly in front of us. It was a Filipino.
I yelled Halt! and made it pretty loud, for I was accustomed to challenging the officer of
the guard in approved military style. I challenged him with another loud halt! Then he shouted
halto! to me. Well, I thought the best thing to do was to shoot him. He dropped. If I didn’t kill
him, I guess he died of fright. Two Filipinos sprang out of the gateway about fifteen feet from us.
I called halt! and Miller fired and dropped one. I saw that another was left. Well, I think I got
my second Filipino that time….
Primary Source Document 3
    President William McKinley, “Decision on the Philippines” (1900)
    “When next I realized that the Philippines had dropped into our laps, I confess I did not know
what to do with them. I sought counsel from all sides-Democrats as well as Republicans-but got
little help. I thought first we would take only Manila; then Luzon; then other islands, perhaps,
also.
I walked the floor of the White House night after night until midnight; and I am not
ashamed to tell you, gentlemen, that I went down on my knees and prayed to Almighty God for
light and guidance more than one night. And one night late it came to me this way-I don’t know
how it was, but it came:
That we could not give them back to Spain-that would be cowardly and dishonorable;
That we could not turn them over to France or Germany, our commercial rivals in the Orient-
that would be bad business and discreditable; That we could not leave them to themselves-they
were unfit for self-government, and they would soon have anarchy and misrule worse then
Spain’s was; and That there was nothing left for us to do but to take them all, and to educate the
Filipinos, and uplift and civilize and Christianize them and by God’s grace do the very best we
could by them, as our fellow men for whom Christ also died.
And then I went to bed and went to sleep, and slept soundly, and the next morning I sent
for the chief engineer of the War Department, and I told him to put the Philippines on the map of
the United States, and there they are and there they will stay while I am President!”
The Suppression of Filipino Nationalism and the Filipinization of the
Government

 ACT NO. 277 OR THE LIBEL LAW OF 1901 

    Act no. 277 or the Libel Law was enacted on October 24, 1901. In the section 1 of the Libel
Law states that A libel is a malicious defamation, expressed either in writing, printing, or by
signs or pictures, or the like, or public theatrical exhibitions, tending to blacken the memory of
one who is dead or to impeach the honesty, virtue, or reputation, or publish the alleged or
natural defects of one who is alive, and thereby expose him to public hatred, contempt, or
ridicule.

 ACT NO. 292 OR THE SEDITION LAW OF 1901

    This law was enacted on November 4, 1901. With the intent of forbidding Filipinos from
advocating for separation from the United States or for their independence. Even if the means
that would be used were peaceful, it was prohibited and even was punishable by death or
imprisonment. It was passed by the Second Philippine Commission, also known as the Taft
Commission because it was led by William Howard Taft. This commission was started by U.S.
President William McKinley and functioned as a bicameral legislature until 1916 when the Jones
Act created an elected legislature. They labeled sedition as being anything that was in the spirit
of hated or enmity against the American people. Even things such as displaying the Philippine
flag, singing the national anthem and plays that advocated independence were banned.

 ACT NO. 1696 OR THE FLAG LAW OF 1907 AND THE ACT NO. 518 OR THE
BRIGANDAGE LAW OF 1902
    An Act to prohibit the display of flags, banners, emblems, or devices used in the Philippine
Islands for the purpose of rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States and
the display of Katipunan flags, banners, emblems, or devices, and for other purposes.

 PHILIPPINE ORGANIC ACT OF 1902 OR THE COOPER ACT

    The Philippine Organic Act was enacted by the United States Congress on July 1, 1902. It was
also known as the Philippine Bill of 1902 and the Cooper act. The approval of the act coincided
with the official end of the Philippine-American War. 
    The Cooper Act provided creation of an elected Philippine Assembly after the following
conditions were met:
 1. The cessation of the existing insurrection in the Philippine islands;
2. Completion and publication of a census; and
3. Two years of continued peace and recognition of the authority of the United States of
America after the publication of the census.
As a result of the act, the Catholic Church agreed to gradually substitute Spanish priests with
Filipinos and to sell its land. It refused to send friars back to Spain.

 THE PHILIPPINE AUTONOMY ACT OF 1916 OR JONES LAW

    The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916, announcing the intention of the United States
government withdraw their sovereignty over the Philippines as soon as there is a stable
government can be established. One of the significant sections of this act replaced the
Commission with elective Senate and with property qualifications and extended to all literate
Filipino males. And the act also incorporated with a bill of rights
    In the year 1921, end of Harrison’s term, Filipinos had taken charge of the internal affairs of
the Philippines. 
    The Jones Act remained in the Philippines until it was replaced by the Tydings-Mcduffie Act
of 1934. It’s promised of absolute independence set the course for future American policy in the
Philippines. 

 PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE ACT OF 1934 OR TYDINGS-MCDUFFIE ACT

    The Tydings-McDuffie Act of 1935 was also known as the Philippine Commonwealth and
Independence Act. The United States statute the Philippine independence to take effect on July 4,
1946 after a 10-year transitional period of Commonwealth government. 
    United States President Franklin Roosevelt signed the bill on March 24, 1934 and was sent to
the Philippines Senate approval. 
    Filipinos elected delegates held a constitutional convention on July 10 following the terms of
independence act and Roosevelt approved the Philippine constitution on March 23,1935
    The Commonwealth government inaugurated under the presidency of Manuel Quezon in
November of the same year and for the next 10 years, the Philippines remained U.S territory.

 1935 PHILIPPINE CONSTITUTION

    The 1935 Constitution of the Philippines which created the Commonwealth government of the
islands was based on the principle of separation of powers among three branches of government:
  Executive Power was vested on the President of the Philippines. The President is the
Head of the government and functions as the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces of
the Philippines.
 Legislative Power was vested on the Philippine Congress and they are authorized to
make laws, alter and repeal them. 
 Judicial Power was vested in the Supreme Court of the Philippines and lower courts that
was established by the law. It holds the power to settle controversies involving rights that
are legally demandable and enforceable. 

THE JAPANESE OCCUPATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

December 8, 1941
    Japan invaded the Philippines. Clark Air Base in Pampanga was first attacked and also the
Nichols Field outside Manila. 

December 22, 1941

    The Japanese forces landed at the gulfs of Lingayen and continued their way to Manila. To
avoid destruction of the city of manila, General Douglas MacArthur declared Manila an open
city on the advice of the Commonwealth President, Manuel L. Quezon. 

January 2, 1942
    The Japanese occupied Manila. MacArthur retreated with his troops to Bataan while the
Commonwealth government withdrew to Corregidor Island. 

April 9, 1942
    The joint American and Filipinos Soldiers in Bataan surrendered. MacArthur escaped to
Corregidor then proceeded to Australia. The 76 000 captured soldiers were forced to take the
infamous Death March for more than 100 kilometers north to a prison camp. An estimated 10
000 prisoners died due to thirst, hunger and exhaustion.

The Huks
    In the midst of chaos, some farmers of Pampanga banded and created local platoon for their
protection. Luis Taruc, Juan Feleo, Castro Alejandrino and other leaders of organized farmers
held a meeting. 

INDEPENDENCE AND THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW REPUBLIC

Recognition of the Philippine Independence

    The United States of America granted the independence of the Philippines on the 4 day of
th

July 1946 in accordance to Tydings-Mcduffie Act which states that the United States statute the
Philippine independence to take effect on July 4, 1946 after a 10-year transitional period of
Commonwealth government. 
The Change in the Independence Day
The Philippines celebrates the Independence Day on June 12, the anniversary of Emilio
Aguinaldo’s declaration of independence from Spanish in 1898. But the declaration was not
recognized by the United States. 
    On May 12, 1946, President Diosdado Macapagal issued Presidential Proclamation No. 28
proclaiming June 12, 1962 as a special public holiday throughout the Philippines.

THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NEW REPUBLIC

 THE ROXAS ADMINISTRATION (1946-1948)
    Manuel Roxas was born on January 1, 1892 and died on April 15, 1948, was the first president
of the Independent Republic of the Philippines
    Roxas was elected president of the Commonwealth in 1946 as the nominee of the liberal wing
of the Nacionalista Party (which became the Liberal Party), and, when independence was
declared on July 4, he became the first president of the new republic.
    His administration was marred by graft and corruption; moreover, the abuses of the
provincial military police contributed to the rise of the left-wing Hukbalahap (Huk) movement in
the countryside. His heavy-handed attempts to crush the Huks led to widespread peasant
disaffection. Roxas died in office in 1948 and was succeeded by his vice president, Elpidio
Quirino.
 THE QUIRINO ADMINISTRATION (1948-1953)
    Elpidio Quirino was born Nov. 16, 1890 and died Feb. 28, 1956, is a political leader and the
second president of the Independent Republic of the Philippines. 
    President Quirino’s administration faced a serious threat in the form of the Communist-
led Hukbalahap (Huk) movement. Though the Huks originally had been an anti-Japanese
guerrilla army in Luzon, the Communists steadily gained control over the leadership, and, when
Quirino’s negotiations with Huk commander Luis Taruc broke down in 1948, Taruc openly
declared himself a Communist and called for the overthrow of the government. By 1950 the
Huks had gained control over a considerable portion of Luzon, and Quirino appointed the
able Ramon Magsaysay as secretary of national defense to suppress the insurrection.
 THE MAGSAYSAY ADMINISTRATION (1953-1957)
    Ramon Magsaysay was born Aug. 31, 1907 and died March 17, 1957, was best known for
successfully defeating the communist-led Hukbalahap (Huk) movement.
Magsaysay remained a close friend and supporter of the United States and a vocal
spokesman against communism during the Cold War. He made the Philippines a member of
the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization, which was established in Manila on Sept. 8, 1954.
Before the expiration of his term as president, Magsaysay was killed in an airplane crash; he was
succeeded by the vice president, Carlos P. Garcia.
 THE GARCIA ADMINISTRATION (1957-1961)
    During his organization, he followed up on the Bohlen–Serrano Agreement which abbreviated
the rent of the US Bases from 99 years to 25 years and made it sustainable after at regular
intervals. 
He was notable when he practiced the Filipino First strategy during his term in office.
This arrangement vigorously preferred Filipino financial specialists over unfamiliar speculators.
He was likewise answerable for changes in retail exchange which significantly influenced the
Chinese money managers in the nation. He likewise made a program zeroed in on frugality. 
Toward the finish of his subsequent term, he ran for re-appointment in the Election 1961
in November 1961, however was crushed by Diosdado Macapagal, who filled in as Vice-
President under him, yet had a place with the restricting Liberal Party — in the Philippines the
President and the Vice-President are chosen independently.
 THE MACAPAGAL ADMINISTRATION (1961-1965)
    In the 1961 official political decision, Macapagal ran against Garcia and crushed the
officeholder president by a 55% to 45% edge. Looking to animate financial turn of events,
Macapagal accepted the guidance of allies and permitted the Philippine peso to glide on the free
cash trade market. His change endeavors were impeded by the Nacionalistas, who ruled the
House of Representatives and the Senate around then. In any case, his administration
accomplished development and flourishing for the nation.
Among the most critical accomplishments of Macapagal as president were the
cancelation of tenure and going with land change program in the Agricultural Land Reform Code
of 1963. He additionally changed the date of festivity of Philippine freedom from July 4 to June
12, the last date having been the day when in 1898, Emilio Aguinaldo pronounced autonomy
from Spain). Afterward, Macapagal told creator Stanley Karnow that the purpose behind the
change was that American Embassy festivities were visited more than the Filipino gathering on
the July 4 American Freedom Day.
Macapagal was crushed for re-appointment in 1965 by Senate President Ferdinand
Marcos, a previous Liberal Party partner who deserted to the Nacionalista gathering to challenge
the officeholder President.
AGRARIAN REFORM
    According to the Republic act No. 6657 Section 3 the definition of agrarian reform states that
the  reform implies the rearrangement of grounds, paying little heed to harvests or natural
products created to ranchers and customary farmworkers who are landless, independent of
tenurial game plan, to incorporate the entirety of elements and backing administrations intended
to lift the financial status of the recipients and all different courses of action option in contrast to
the actual reallocation of terrains, for example, creation or benefit sharing, work organization,
and the appropriation of portions of stocks, which will permit recipients to get a simply portion
of the products of the terrains they work.
History of Agrarian Reform
 Pre-Spanish Period
        The system of land ownership during the pre-Spanish period was already being done
wherein the Datu will be the foremost proprietor of the land while the Maharlika and the timawa
were entitled to own a part of the land. The alipin are the workers of the community.

 Spanish Colonial Period 

        During the Spanish time frame, the Spanish authorities considered all grounds as open space
paying little mind to social traditions. The lord of Spain was additionally at freedom to disperse
bundles of land as remunerations to faithful Spanish military and regular folks. Because of this,
private responsibility for turned into the pattern during the Spanish pioneer time frame.
 American Period
        When the Americans conquered the Philippines, 93 percent of the lands was being held by
the American government. The Land Registration Act of 1902 provides a comprehensive
registration of land titles under the Torrens. Throughout the American period, other important
legislations were passed like the Public Land Act of 1903 that introduced the Tenancy Act of
1933.
 Japanese Occupation
        During this time, the Hukbalahap controlled whole Luzon area. The landlords that
collaborated with the Japanese lost their lands to the peasants. The peasants and tenants
recognized abuses from the landlords who did not give them enough shares. This caused for
many peasants to be part of the Hukbalahap.
The New Republic
 President Diosdado P. Macapagal (1961-1965)
        Enacted the Republic Act No. 3844 of August 8, 1963 which states that the abolished share
tenancy, institutionalized leasehold, set retention limit at 75 hectares, invested rights of
preemption and redemption for tenant farmers, provided for an administrative machinery for
implementation, institutionalized a judicial system of agrarian cases, incorporated extension,
marketing and supervised credit system of services of farmer beneficiaries.
 President Ferdinand E. Marcos (1965-1986)
        President Marcos enacted the Presidential Decree No. 27, October 21, 1972 which states that
the confined land change extension to rented rice and corn terrains and set as far as possible at 7
hectares.
 President Corazon C. Aquino (1986-1992)
        On June 10, 1988, previous President Corazon C. Aquino endorsed into law Republic Act
No. 6657 or also called the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law (CARL). The law got viable
on June 15, 1988.