Part I
Z-Transforms
1.1 Introduction:
In this chapter, we shall discuss a new type of transform, Z-transform.
The progress of communication engineering is based on discrete analysis.
Z-transform plays an important role in solving difference equation which
represents a discrete system. Thus, the study of Z-transform is necessary
part for engineers and scientists. Z-transform has many properties like
Laplace transform but Z-transform operates on sequences {un } of discrete
integer-(½) valued arguments (k = 0, ∓ 1, ∓ 2,.. . . .) and Laplace
transform operates on a continuous function that is the main difference
between these transforms.
1.2 Z -Transform definition:
Let {x k } be a sequence defined for discrete values k = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...... then,
the Z-transform of sequence {x k } is denoted by Z(xk ) and defined s:
œ œ
xk
Z( xk ) = Σ xk z – k = Σ k=X z
( ) … … (1)
k =– œ k =– œ z
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Provided the infinite series (1) is convergent and X is a function of
complex number z.
For k < 0, x k = 0; the Z-transform is defined as:
œ œ
xk
Z ( x k) = Σ xk z – k = Σ k
… … (2)
k=O k=Oz
As this is an infinite summation it will not always converge. The set of
values of Z for which it exists is called the region of convergence. The
sequence, xO, x1, x2 , …, x n , …, is a function of an integer, however, its Z-
transform is a function of a complex variable z. The operation of taking
the Z-transform of the sequence x k is represented by:
Z{x k } = F(z).
1.3 Sequences:
Example 1.1:
Find the Z-transform of the unit impulse sequence {ðk} = {1,0,0,… …, }
Solution:
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Example 1.2:
Find the Z-transform of the unit step sequence {Uk } = {1,1,1, … …, }
Solution:
Example 1.3:
Find the Z-transform of the causal sequence { a k } = {1, a, a 2 , a 3 ,… … }
Solution:
Example 1.4:
Find the Z-transform of the finite sequence 1, 0, 0.5, 3.
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Solution:
1
We multiply the terms in the sequence by z = z – k , where k = 0, 1, 2, . .
and then sum the terms, giving:
0 0. 5 3
F( z) = 1 + ( ) + ( 2 ) + ( 3 ) + ⋯
z z z
Example 1.5:
Find the Z-transform of the sequence { x k } = { k} = {0, 1, 2, 3,… … }.
Solution:
expression in Z as :
In general;
d …… (3)
Z ( k n ) = −z dz [ Z(k n– 1 ] , n∈N
Proof:
By the definition, we have:
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œ
Z( kn) = Σ kn z – k
k=O
œ
And; Z(k n–1 ) = Σ k n– 1 z – k by replacing (n) by ( n − 1) … (4)
k=O
Differentiating (4) w.r.t. z, we get:
d d œ œ
n– 1 n – 1
[ Z(k ] = [ Σ k z ] = Σ k n – 1 (−k)z –
– k
dz k – 1 dz
k=O
k=O
œ
= −z – 1 Σ k n z – k = −z –1 [ Z ( k n )]
k=O
Thus; d pror ed
Z ( k n ) = −z dz[ Z(k n–1 ] ,
Example 1.6:
Find Z-transform for k 2 .
Solution:
Taking n = 2 in (3), we get:
2
d d z 1. (z − 1)2 − 2z(z − 1)
Z (k ) = −z dz [Z(k ] = −z [ 2 ] = 4
dz (z − 1) (z − 1 )
z(z − 1)
=
(z − 1)3
1.4 Table of Z-Transform:
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1.5 Properties of Z-Transform:
1.5.1 Linearity:
Example 6:
Find Z-transform for 3k − 5e – 2 k .
Solution:
1.5.2 First shifting theorem (Shifting to the
left):
Example 1.7:
Find
Z(4k+3).
Solution:
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Example 1.8:
Find Z(k + 1).
Solution:
1.5.3 Second shifting theorem (Shifting to the
right):
Example 1.9:
Find Z(x k –
3 ). Solution:
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1.5.4 Translation:
Example 1.10:
Find Z(2 k k).
Solution:
1.5.5 Final value theorem:
Example 1.11: k
1
( ) .
Find limk→œ 2
Solution:
z 2z
F ( 1 )k = =
2 z−
1 2z
−1 2
Example 1.12:
Using the final value theorem to find the final value of the sequence with
the following Z-transform:
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F(z) = 10z2 + 2z
(z − 1)(5z − 1)2
Solution:
1.5.6 The initial value theorem:
Example 1.13:
Find the initial value of the sequence ( a k ) .
Solution:
1.5.7 The derivative of the
transform:
Example 1.14:
Prove that;
az
F ( ka k) =
(z − a ) 2
Solution:
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Part II
Inverse Z-transforms
1. Introduction:
There are many times when, given the Z-transform of a sequence, it is not
possible to immediately read off the sequence from the Table of
transforms. Instead some manipulation may be required and, as with
Laplace transform.
2. Inverse Z- Transform definition:
2.3 Method of manipulation:
2.3.1 By partial fractions:
Example 1:
Find the sequence { x k } for the following Z- transform:
z
F(z) =
z 2 − 5z + 6
Solution:
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Example 2:
Find the sequence { x k } for the following Z- transform:
5z
F( z) =
( z2 − 4z + 4)(z + 2)
Solution:
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2.3.2 Convolution Theorem:
If Z – 1 F ( z ) = x k and Z – 1 G( z) = g k , then:
k
Z – 1 [F(z). G(z)] = Σ xm . g k – m = xk ∗ g k
m=O
Where, the symbol ∗ denotes the convolution operation.
Proof:
We have; œ œ
Z{ xk } = F(z) = Σ x k z – k and Z { g k } = G( z) = Σ gk z– k
k=O
œ œ m=O
∴ F ( z) . G ( z) = Σ xk z – k . Σ gk z– k
k=O m=O
= (xO + x 1 z – 1 + x 2 z – 2 + x 3 z – 3 + … … + x k z – k )
× ( gO + g 1 z – 1 + g 2 z – 2 + g 3 z – 3 + … … +
gk z– k )
œ
= Σ( xO gk
+ x1 gk – 1 +
x2 gk – 2 +
… … + xk – 1
g 1 + x k gO )
z– k
k=O
=
Z( xOgk
+ x1 gk – 1
+ x2 gk –
Z–1 [ ] by conrolution tℎeorem
2 + …… ( z − 2)2
+ xk – 1
Solution:
g1 + xk
We have;
gO 2)
kz
–1
Z [ ] = 2k
= (Σz − x2m) .
∴ gZk– –1m[ z 2 ] = Z – 1 [( z ) ( z )]
m=O(z − 2)2 (z(− 2)
Hence; z − 2)
k
Z – 1 [F(z). G(z)] = Σ x m . gPages
k–m
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m=O
k k
= Σ 2 m . 2 k – m = 2k Σ
2 m . 2 – m = 2 k (1+ k)
m=O m=O
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Part III
Recurrence Relation
(Difference Equation)
3.1 Introduction:
= 1, is of order (2), because the maximum shift
x k+2 – x k+1 − x k
between terms in the relation is (2), that is form k to k +
2.
3.2 Initial terms:
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3.3 Solving of recurrence relation:
If the sequence { x k } satisfies a recurrence relation with given initial
conditions then the general term of the sequence can be found by using
the Z-transform where F { x k } = F( z) , this referred to as solv ng the
recurrence relation.
Example 3.1:
Using the Z-transform, Solve: x k+2 – 3xk+1 + 6x k = 1, with:
xO = 0, x1 = 1 for k = 0, 1, 2,. . . .. .
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Solution:
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Example 3.2:
Using the Z-transform, Solve: xk+2 – x k = 1, with:
xO = 0, x1 = −1 for k = 0, 1, 2,. . . .. .
Solution:
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SUMMERY:
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Supplementary Problems:
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