Electronic Measurement

and
Instrumentation
 Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation
EI-203T, III Sem, Branch EC, EI
Unit -1: Measurement & Measurement Systems: Methods of Measurement, Direct and Indirect types of measurement systems;
Mechanical, Electrical and Electronic Instruments; Classification of Instruments- Null and Deflection type; Modes of Operation- Analog
and Digital. Characteristics of Instruments: Static and Dynamic Characteristics, Noise, Linearity, Hysteresis, Threshold, Dead Time &
Dead Zone, Input & Output Impedance, Loading Effects due to Shunt Connected Instruments, Loading Effects due to Series Connected
Instruments.
Unit-2: Errors in Measurement: Types of static errors-gross errors, systematic errors & random errors; Sources of errors. Dynamic Response
of Instruments & Measuring Systems: Dynamic response, First order system, Second order system.
Unit-3: Ammeter: DC Ammeter, Multirange Ammeter, Aryton Shunt or Universal Shunt, Requirement of a Shunt, Extending of Ammeter
Ranges. Voltmeter: DC Voltmeter, Mutirange Voltmeter, Extending Voltmeter Ranges; Digital Voltmeter (DVM)-Ramp type DVM, Dual
slope Integrating type DVM, Successive Approximation DVM. Multimeter: Introduction, Display (No. of Digit), Range, Resolution,
Accuracy; Use of Multimeter as Micro-ammeter, DC Ammeter, DC Voltmeter, AC Voltmeter and Ohmmeter. Measurement of Power &
Wattmeter: AC & DC Current and Voltage Probes, Power in DC & AC Circuit, Electrodynamometer Wattmeter, Measurement of Power
in 3 Phase circuit, 3 Phase Wattmeter, Measurement refractive power.
Unit-4: Bridges: DC Bridge-Wheatstone Bridge, Kelvin Bridge, Measurement of Low & High Resistance; AC Bridge-General equation of bridge
balance, General form of AC Bridge, Maxwell’s Bridge, Hay’s Bridge, Anderson’s Bridge, Wein’s Bridge, Schering Bridge.
Potentiometers: DC Basic Circuit, Laboratory type, Standardization of Potentiometers; AC: Drysdale polar potentiometers, Gall-Tinsley
AC Potentiometer (Working & Construction both).
Unit-5 :Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO): Block diagram of oscilloscope, Observation of waveform on CRO, Measurement of Phase &
Frequency of CRO (Lissajous Patterns). Waveform Analyzer: Frequency selective wave analyzer, Heterodyne wave analyzer,
Applications of wave analyzers. Q-Meter: Principle of working, Circuit of a Q-meter, Applications of Q- Meter.

Reference Books:
1. Electrical & Electronics Measurements and Instrumentation, A K Sawhney, Dhanpat Rai & sons Publication
2. Electronic Instrumentation, H. S. Kalsi, TMH Publication
3. Modern Electronic Instrumentation and Measurement Techniques, Cooper D & A D Helfrick, PHI.
4. Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements, David A Bell, PHI / Pearson Education
Electronic Measurement and Instrumentation
EI-203T, III Sem, Branch EC, EI
Unit-5 :Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO):
Block diagram of oscilloscope, Observation
of waveform on CRO, Measurement of
Phase & Frequency of CRO (Lissajious
Patterns). Waveform Analyzer: Frequency
selective wave analyzer, Heterodyne wave
analyzer, Applications of wave analyzers. Q-
Meter: Principle of working, Circuit of a Q-
meter, Applications of Q- Meter.
 INTRODUCTION:
 The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a multipurpose display
instrument used for the observation, measurement , and analysis of
waveforms by plotting amplitude along y-axis and time along x- axis.
 CRO is generally an x-y plotter; on a single screen it can display
different signals applied to different channels. It can measure
amplitude, frequencies and phase shift of various signals. Many
physical quantities like temperature, pressure and strain can be
converted into electrical signals by the use of transducers, and the
signals can be displayed on the CRO.
 A moving luminous spot over the screen displays the signal. CROs are
used to study waveforms, and other time-varying phenomena from very
low to very high frequencies.
 The central unit of the oscilloscope is the cathode-ray tube (CRT), and the
remaining part of the CRO consists of the circuitry required to operate
the cathode-ray tube.
 TYPES OF THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPES
The categorization of CROs is done on the basis of whether they are digital or
analog. Digital CROs can be further classified as storage oscilloscopes.
 1. Analog CRO: In an analog CRO, the amplitude, phase and frequency
are measured from the displayed waveform, through direct manual
reading.
 2. Digital CRO: A digital CRO offers digital read-out of signal information,
i.e., the time, voltage or frequency along with signal display. It consists of
an electronic counter along with the main body of the CRO.
 3. Storage CRO: A storage CRO retains the display up to a substantial
amount of time after the first trace has appeared on the screen. The
storage CRO is also useful for the display of waveforms of low-frequency
signals.
 4. Dual-Beam CRO: In the dual-beam CRO two electron beams fall on a
single CRT. The dual-gun CRT generates two different beams.
 These two beams produce two spots of light on the CRT screen which
make the simultaneous observation of two different signal waveforms
possible. The comparison of input and its corresponding output becomes
easier using the dual-beam CRO.
Block diagram of a cathode-ray oscilloscope:
COMPONENTS OF THE CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE:

The CRO consists of the following:

(i) CRT
(ii) Vertical amplifier
(iii) Delay line
(iv) Horizontal amplifier
(v) Time-base generator
(vi) Triggering circuit
(vii) Power supply
CATHODE-RAY TUBE:
• The electron gun or electron emitter, the deflecting system
and the fluorescent screen are the three major components of
a general purpose CRT. A detailed diagram of the cathode-ray
oscilloscope is given in Figure
 Electron Gun
 In the electron gun of the CRT, electrons are emitted,
converted into a sharp beam and focused upon the
fluorescent screen.
 The electron beam consists of an indirectly heated cathode,
a control grid, an accelerating electrode and a focusing
anode.
 The electrodes are connected to the base pins. The cathode
emitting the electrons is surrounded by a control grid with a
fine hole at its center.
 The accelerated electron beam passes through the fine
hole.
 The negative voltage at the control grid controls the flow of
electrons in the electron beam, and consequently, the
brightness of the spot on the CRO screen is controlled.
Deflection Systems
Display waveform on the screen:
 Figure shows a sine wave applied to vertical deflecting plates and a
repetitive ramp or saw-tooth applied to the horizontal plates.
 The ramp waveform at the horizontal plates causes the electron beam to be
deflected horizontally across the screen.
 If the waveforms are perfectly synchronized then the exact sine wave
applied to the vertical display appears on the CRO display screen.
Measurement of Phase & Frequency of CRO
(Lissajious Patterns)

Same amplitude but different frequencies

Waveform Analyzer: Frequency selective wave analyzer,
Heterodyne wave analyzer, Applications of wave
analyzers.
 The electronic instrument used to analyze waves is called wave analyzer.
It is also called signal analyzer, since the terms signal and wave can be
interchangeably used frequently.
 We can represent the periodic signal as sum of the following two terms.
• DC sinusocomponent
• Series of idal harmonics
 So, analyzation of a periodic signal is analyzation of the harmonics
components presents in it.
Basic Wave Analyzer
 Basic wave analyzer mainly consists of three blocks − the primary detector,
full wave rectifier, and PMMC galvanometer.
 The block diagram of basic wave analyzer is shown
in below figure −

The function of each block present in basic wave analyzer is mentioned

below.
 Primary Detector − It consists of an LC circuit. We can adjust the values of
inductor, L and capacitor, C in such a way that it allows only the desired
harmonic frequency component that is to be measured.
 Full Wave Rectifier − It converts the AC input into a DC output.
 PMMC Galvanometer − It shows the peak value of the signal, which is
obtained at the output of Full wave rectifier.
Types of Wave Analyzers

Wave analyzers can be classified into the following two types.

 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

 Superheterodyne Wave Analyzer

 Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer
 The wave analyzer, used for analyzing the signals are of AF range is called
frequency selective wave analyzer. The block diagram of frequency selective
wave analyzer is shown in below figure.
 Frequency selective wave analyzer consists a set of blocks. The function of
each block is mentioned below.
 Input Attenuator − The AF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied
to input attenuator. If the signal amplitude is too large, then it can be
attenuated by input attenuator.
 Driver Amplifier − It amplifies the received signal whenever
necessary.
 High Q-filter − It is used to select the desired frequency and reject
unwanted frequencies. It consists of two RC sections and two filter
amplifiers & all these are cascaded with each other. We can vary the
capacitance values for changing the range of frequencies in powers
of 10. Similarly, we can vary the resistance values in order to change
the frequency within a selected range.
 Meter Range Attenuator − It gets the selected AF signal as an input
& produces an attenuated output, whenever required.
 Output Amplifier − It amplifies the selected AF signal if necessary.
 Output Buffer − It is used to provide the selected AF signal to output
devices.
 Meter Circuit − It displays the reading of selected AF signal. We can
choose the meter reading in volt range or decibel range.
 Superheterodyne Wave Analyzer
The wave analyzer, used to analyze the signals of RF range is called
superheterodyne wave analyzer. The following figure shows the block
diagram of superheterodyne wave analyzer.
 The working of superheterodyne wave analyzer is
mentioned below.
 The RF signal, which is to be analyzed is applied to
the input attenuator. If the signal amplitude is too
large, then it can be attenuated by input attenuator.
 Untuned amplifier amplifies the RF signal whenever
necessary and it is applied to first mixer.
 The frequency ranges of RF signal & output of Local
oscillator are 0-18 MHz & 30-48 MHz respectively.
So, first mixer produces an output, which has
frequency of 30 MHz. This is the difference of
frequencies of the two signals that are applied to it.
 IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency (IF)
signal, i.e. the output of first mixer. The amplified IF signal is
applied to second mixer.
 The frequencies of amplified IF signal & output of Crystal
oscillator are same and equal to 30MHz. So, the second
mixer produces an output, which has frequency of 0 Hz.
This is the difference of frequencies of the two signals that
are applied to it.
 The cut off frequency of Active Low Pass Filter (LPF) is
chosen as 1500 Hz. Hence, this filter allows the output
signal of second mixer.
 Meter Circuit displays the reading of RF signal. We can
choose the meter reading in volt range or decibel range.
Q-Meter: Principle of working, Circuit
of a Q-meter, Applications of Q-
Meter.
 Q meter- The “Q” meter is also known as RLC meter, LCR Meter,
or Quality meter which was developed in 1934 by William D.
Loughlin.
 This is used to measure the quality factor of coils and the
resistance, capacitance and inductance of an electric circuit at
radio frequency.
 Quality factor is also known as storage factor, and it is the ratio
of inductive reactance to the effective resistance of the coil.
Q = XL / R