UNIT – I: Fundamentals of Electronic
Measurements
1.Qualities of Measurement:
● SI system of units: The International System of Units (SI) is
the standard system of measurement used in science and
engineering. It provides a consistent and coherent framework
for expressing physical quantities.
● Specifications of instruments: Instruments used for
measurements have specific characteristics and specifications
that determine their performance and capabilities. These
specifications include accuracy, precision, resolution, range,
sensitivity, and response time.
● Static and dynamic characteristics: Instruments have static
characteristics that describe their behavior under steady-state
conditions, such as accuracy, linearity, and repeatability.
Dynamic characteristics refer to their response to changing
inputs, including frequency response, rise time, and settling
time.
● Error types: In measurement, errors can occur due to various
factors. Gross errors are significant mistakes or faults in the
measurement process. Systematic errors are consistent
biases that affect measurements in a predictable manner.
Absolute error is the difference between the measured value
and the true value. Relative error is the absolute error divided
by the true value, often expressed as a percentage.
● Uncertainty analysis: Uncertainty analysis involves
assessing and quantifying the uncertainties associated with
measurements. It takes into account factors such as
instrument accuracy, repeatability, environmental conditions,
and the statistical analysis of measurement data.
2.Basic Measurement Instruments:
● PMMC instrument: The Permanent Magnet Moving Coil
(PMMC) instrument is a type of analog instrument used for
measuring DC quantities, such as current, voltage, and
resistance. It operates based on the interaction between a
permanent magnet and a moving coil.
● Galvanometer: A galvanometer is a sensitive instrument used
for detecting and measuring small electrical currents. It
consists of a coil suspended in a magnetic field, which
experiences a torque proportional to the current flowing
through it.
● DC measurement: In DC circuits, ammeters are used to
measure electric current, voltmeters measure voltage, and
ohmmeters measure resistance. These instruments are
designed to operate accurately in DC circuits and provide
readings in appropriate units.
● AC measurement: AC measurements require special
instruments due to the alternating nature of the signal.
Rectifier-type instruments, such as rectifier ammeters and
voltmeters, are used to measure average or RMS values of
AC quantities after rectification. Electrodynamic instruments,
such as electrodynamometer wattmeters, utilize the interaction
between magnetic fields to measure AC quantities. They can
provide readings in terms of power, voltage, and current.
● Digital voltmeter systems: Digital voltmeters (DVMs) offer
the advantages of high accuracy and resolution. Integrating
DVMs measure voltage by integrating the input signal over a
specific time period. Non-integrating DVMs use successive
approximation or dual-slope conversion techniques. Digital
multimeters (DMMs) combine multiple measurement
functions, such as voltage, current, and resistance
measurements, into a single instrument.
3.Connectors and Probes:
● Low capacitance probes: Low capacitance probes are used
for high-frequency measurements to minimize the impact of
the probe on the circuit being measured. They have low
parasitic capacitance to avoid affecting the signal
characteristics.
● High voltage probes: High voltage probes are designed to
safely and accurately measure high voltages. They
incorporate appropriate insulation and shielding to protect the
user and the measurement instrument from high voltage
levels.
● Current probes: Current probes are used to measure current
without breaking the circuit. They employ magnetic field
sensing or Hall effect principles to measure the magnetic field
generated by the current flowing through a conductor.
● Identifying electronic connectors: Electronic devices use
various types of connectors for interfacing with other devices
or systems. Common connectors include audio and video
connectors (e.g., RCA, HDMI), RF/coaxial connectors (e.g.,
BNC, SMA), and USB connectors. Understanding these
connectors is important for proper instrument and signal
connections.
UNIT – II: Impedance Measurement
and Power Supplies
1.Measurement of Resistance and Impedance:
● Low Resistance: Accurate measurement of low resistances
can be achieved using Kelvin's bridge method. This method
eliminates the resistance of the connecting leads, ensuring
accurate results. It involves the comparison of the unknown
resistance with a known standard resistor.
● Medium Resistance: Wheatstone bridge method is
commonly used for measuring medium resistances. It
balances the unknown resistance against a combination of
known resistances in a bridge configuration, allowing accurate
determination of the unknown resistance.
● High Resistance: Megger instruments are used for
measuring high resistances. They generate high DC voltages
to test the insulation resistance of cables, wires, and electrical
equipment.
2.A.C. bridges:
● A.C. bridges are used for measuring various electrical
parameters in AC circuits. They utilize the balance condition of
a bridge circuit to determine unknown values.
● Anderson's bridge: Anderson's bridge is an AC bridge used
for measuring self-inductance accurately. It balances the
inductive reactance with a known capacitor and resistors.
● De Sauty's bridge: De Sauty's bridge is employed for
measuring capacitance accurately. It balances the capacitive
reactance with a known inductor and resistors.
● Measurement of frequency: Wien's bridge is commonly used
to measure the frequency of sinusoidal signals accurately. It
balances the ratio of capacitive and resistive reactances to
determine the frequency.
3.Regulated Power Supplies:
● Power Supply characteristics: Power supplies provide
electrical energy to electronic devices. Important
characteristics include voltage regulation, current limiting,
output impedance, ripple and noise level, transient response,
and efficiency. These characteristics ensure stable and
reliable power delivery to the connected devices.
● Fixed power supply: Fixed power supplies, based on the
78XX series of voltage regulators, provide a constant output
voltage regardless of input variations within specified limits.
They are widely used for supplying regulated DC power to
electronic circuits.
● Dual power supplies: Dual power supplies consist of positive
and negative voltage regulators, typically based on the 78XX
and 79XX series. They provide both positive and negative DC
voltages required for dual-polarity applications.
● Variable power supply: Variable power supplies, based on
voltage regulators like LM317, offer adjustable output voltages
within a specified range. They are useful for applications
requiring variable voltage levels, such as circuit testing and
prototyping.
● Switch-mode power supply (SMPS): SMPS is a power
supply design that uses switching regulators to convert and
regulate electrical power efficiently. It operates by rapidly
switching a power semiconductor device on and off to control
the voltage or current. SMPS offers advantages such as high
efficiency, compact size, and the ability to handle a wide range
of input voltages.
UNIT – III: Oscilloscopes and Signal
Generators
1.Electronic Displays: The Cathode Ray
Oscilloscope (CRO):
● Block diagram: A CRO consists of several main blocks,
including the vertical deflection system, horizontal deflection
system, trigger system, timebase generator, and cathode ray
tube (CRT). The vertical deflection system controls the vertical
positioning and amplification of the input signal. The horizontal
deflection system controls the timebase and horizontal
positioning. The trigger system ensures stable waveform
display by synchronizing the horizontal sweep with the input
signal.
● Basic operation: The CRO displays electrical waveforms by
deflecting an electron beam onto the phosphor-coated screen
of the CRT. The vertical deflection system moves the beam up
or down, representing the amplitude of the input signal. The
horizontal deflection system moves the beam horizontally,
representing the passage of time. The resulting waveform
displayed on the screen allows measurements of voltage,
frequency, and phase relationships.
● Oscilloscope probes: Probes are essential accessories for
connecting the circuit under test to the input of the
oscilloscope. They ensure proper signal coupling and
impedance matching. Different types of probes are available,
such as passive probes, active probes, and differential probes,
each suitable for specific measurement requirements.
● Sampling Oscilloscope: Sampling oscilloscopes are
specialized instruments used to capture and display repetitive
waveforms with high frequency content. Instead of
continuously displaying the waveform, they sample the input
signal at specific time intervals to reconstruct the waveform
accurately.
● Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO): DSOs store waveform
data digitally, allowing for advanced analysis, triggering, and
measurements. They offer advantages such as waveform
storage and retrieval, persistence displays, and advanced
triggering options. DSOs can also perform mathematical
operations on acquired waveforms, such as FFT analysis and
waveform averaging.
● Oscilloscope specifications: Important specifications
include bandwidth (the frequency range over which accurate
measurements can be made), sensitivity (the smallest input
signal that can be detected), rise time (the time taken for a
signal to transition from one voltage level to another), and
various triggering options.
2.Signal Generators:
● Types of generators: Signal generators are instruments used
to generate various types of electrical waveforms for testing,
calibration, and troubleshooting purposes. Common types
include audio oscillators, function generators, pulse
generators, RF generators, and random noise generators.
● Audio oscillator: Audio oscillators produce low-frequency
audio signals, typically in the range of 20 Hz to 20 kHz. They
are used for audio testing, tone generation, and frequency
response measurements.
● Function generators: Function generators generate
waveforms such as sine, square, triangle, and sawtooth
waves. They offer adjustable frequency, amplitude, and duty
cycle, making them versatile for a wide range of applications,
including circuit testing, waveform synthesis, and modulation
studies.
● Pulse generators: Pulse generators generate pulses with
precise characteristics, including pulse width, pulse repetition
rate, and amplitude. They are used in digital circuit testing,
time-domain measurements, and pulse modulation
applications.
● RF generators: RF generators produce radio frequency
signals used in RF testing, communication systems, and RF
component characterization. They provide a wide frequency
range, modulation capabilities, and precise output power
control.
● Random noise generators: Random noise generators
produce random signals with a flat power spectral density.
They are used for testing and evaluating communication
systems, noise performance analysis, and random signal
generation for simulation purposes.
UNIT – IV: Transducers and Sensors
1.Transducers and sensors:
● Classification of transducers: Transducers are devices that
convert one form of energy into another. They can be
classified as active or passive transducers based on whether
they require an external power source. Transducers can also
be classified based on the type of energy conversion they
employ, such as mechanical, electrical, thermal, or optical.
● Basic requirements/characteristics: Transducers should
exhibit linearity, sensitivity, accuracy, and reliability. Linearity
refers to the relationship between input and output. Sensitivity
relates to the smallest detectable change in the measured
quantity. Accuracy represents the closeness of the
transducer's output to the true value. Reliability ensures
consistent and dependable operation over time.
● Resistive transducers: Resistive transducers change their
resistance in response to the physical quantity being
measured. Potentiometers and strain gauges are examples of
resistive transducers. Potentiometers measure displacement
or position, while strain gauges measure mechanical strain.
● Capacitive transducers: Capacitive transducers use
changes in capacitance to measure physical quantities. They
can be based on variable area, air gap, or permittivity
changes. Capacitive transducers are employed in
displacement, pressure, and humidity measurements.
● Inductive transducers: Inductive transducers utilize changes
in inductance to measure physical quantities. The Linear
Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT) is a common
example of an inductive transducer used for displacement
measurement with high accuracy and linearity.
● Piezoelectric transducers: Piezoelectric transducers convert
mechanical stress or pressure into electrical signals. They are
commonly used in vibration sensors, pressure sensors, and
ultrasound devices.
● Measurement of displacement: Displacement can be
measured using various transducers, including
potentiometers, LVDTs, and capacitive transducers. These
transducers convert mechanical displacement into electrical
signals that can be measured and quantified.
● Measurement of temperature: Temperature can be
measured using different types of temperature sensors, such
as Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs), thermistors,
thermocouples, and semiconductor IC sensors. Each type has
its own temperature range, sensitivity, accuracy, and
application suitability.
● Light transducers: Light transducers convert light energy into
electrical signals. They include photoresistors (light-dependent
resistors), photovoltaic cells (solar cells), and photodiodes.
These transducers are used in light intensity measurements,
optical communications, and photodetection applications.
