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Department of Petroleum Engineering and Applied Geophysics

Examination paper for TPG4150 Reservoir

Recovery Techniques

Academic contact during examination: Jon Kleppe

Phone: 91897300/73594925

Examination date: December 10, 2014

Examination time (from-to): 0900-1300
Permitted examination support material: D/No printed or hand-written
support material is allowed. A specific basic calculator is allowed.

Other information:

Language: English
Number of pages: 6
Number of pages enclosed: 0

Checked by:

____________________________
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Signature
TPG4150 Reservoir Recovery Techniques 2
Final exam December 10, 2014

Symbols used are defined in the enclosed table

Question 1 (5 points)

This question relates to the group project work.

a) State if you participated in a Gullfaks I1 or K1/K2 project

b) List the main production mechanisms in the field that you studied.
c) What was the value used for the gas cap parameter m in your calculations and explain how did
you decide to use that value?
d) How did you obtain Bo and Rso for your calculations?
e) List at least two of the main conclusions of the project.
f) List at least three of the main uncertainties in the material balance calculations.

Question 2 (16 points)

For displacement of oil by water in a reservoir cross-section, answer following questions:

a) What does the term "segregated flow" mean, and which factors determine this flow condition?
b) What does the term "diffuse flow" mean, and which factors determine this flow condition?
c) What does the term "vertical equilibrium" mean in reservoir analysis, and when is it a realistic
assumption?
d) Sketch typical saturation profiles (in vertical direction) for “diffuse flow” conditions and
“segregated flow” conditions.
e) What does the term "piston displacement" mean in reservoir analysis, and when is it a realistic
assumption?
f) What is the Dykstra-Parsons method used for, and which assumptions are made for the
method?
g) What is the Buckley-Leverett method used for, and which assumptions are made for the
method?
h) What is the Dietz method used for, and which assumptions are made for the method?

Question 3 (15 points)

Write or derive an expression (equation or text) that defines each of the following terms (see list of
symbols at the back):
a) Formation volume factor
b) Solution gas-oil ratio
c) Fluid compressibility
d) Pore compressibility
e) Total reservoir compressibility
f) Expansion volume (approximate) due to compressibility and pressure change
g) Real gas law for hydrocarbon gas
h) Reservoir oil density
i) Reservoir gas density
j) Reservoir water density
k) Relationship between oil compressibility (undersaturated) and formation volume factor
l) An expression for gas compressibility using the real gas law
m) What do we mean with "microscopic" and "macroscopic" recovery factors?
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Final exam December 10, 2014

n) How can we improve the "microscopic" recovery of a reservoir?

o) How can we improve the "macroscopic" recovery of a reservoir?

Question 4 (8 points)

For the two situations below (i and ii) please derive expressions for surface gas production,
surface water production, and surface oil production. You may neglect capillary pressures.

i) ii)

Question 5 (8 points)

An oil reservoir with an initial gas cap and immobile water is being produced from initial
conditions and down to a final closing pressure. The production stream consists of oil and gas.
Write (derive) the material balance equations needed, and find an expression for the oil recovery
factor. Neglect water and rock compressibilities.

Question 6 (8 points)

For the homogeneous reservoir section below

a) Sketch typical capillary pressure curves used for equilibrium calculations of initial saturations.
Label important points.
b) Sketch typical initial water, oil and gas pressures vs. depth. Label important points used and
explain briefly the procedure used.
c) Sketch the corresponding initial water, oil and gas saturation distributions determined by
equilibrium calculations and capillary pressure curves. Label important points and explain
briefly the procedure used.
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Final exam December 10, 2014

d) Explain the concepts of WOC contact and free surface, using a sketch

Question 7 (12 points)

a) Start with Darcy’s equations for displacement of oil by water in an inclined layer at an angle
α (positive upwards):
kk A ⎛ ∂P ⎞
qo = − ro ⎜ o + ρ o g sin α ⎟
µ o ⎝ ∂x ⎠
kk rw A ⎛ ∂ ( Po − Pc ) ⎞
qw = − ⎜ + ρ w g sin α ⎟
µw ⎝ ∂x ⎠
and derive the expression for water fraction flowing, f w , inclusive capillary pressure and
gravity.
b) Make typical sketches for water fraction flowing, f w , vs. water saturation, assuming capillary
pressure and gravity may be neglected, for the following cases:
• a high mobility ratio
• a low mobility ratio
• for piston displacement
c) Make a typical sketch for water saturation vs. x for water displacement of oil in a horizontal
system (Buckley-Leverett), assuming capillary pressure and gravity may be neglected, for the
following cases:
• a high mobility ratio
• a low mobility ratio
• for piston displacement

Question 8 (10 points)

For water displacement of oil in a fractured reservoir the wetting conditions of the reservoir rock
may greatly influence the recovery process.

a) Sketch the following capillary pressure curves:

• A typical imbibition curve for a 100% water wetted system
• A typical imbibition curve for a system that is partly oil wet.
Mark the following items on the curves:
• End point saturations
• The area for spontaneous imbibition
• The area for forced imbibition
b) What is the final (theoretical) oil recovery factor for a 100% water-wet fractured reservoir
under water flooding? Write the appropriate expression.
c) The vertical continuity (contact) between matrix blocks in the reservoir may in some cases
influence significantly the oil recovery. Explain shortly for which situations this is true for the
following processes:
• Water displacement
• Gas displacement
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Final exam December 10, 2014

Question 9 (8 points)

Start with Darcy´s equations for oil and gas (neglect capillary pressure), and

a) Derive an expression for GOR (gas-oil ratio) at surface conditions for a well that perforates
one layer in a horizontal, undersaturated reservoir.
b) Derive an expression for GOR (gas-oil ratio) at surface for a well that perforates one layer in a
horizontal, saturated reservoir (Neglect capillary pressure).
c) Sketch a typical curve of GOR vs. time for an initially undersaturated oil reservoir that is
produced through pressure depletion. Explain all details.

Producing GOR of a well is 1100 (sm3 gas/sm3 oil) and the solution gas-oil ratio (Rso) is 100 (sm3
gas/sm3 oil). Formation-volume factors for oil and gas are: Bo = 2 and Bg = 0,005 .

d) What is GOR at reservoir conditions (rm3 gas/rm3 oil)?

e) What is the fraction of the surface-GOR (sm3 gas/sm3 oil) coming from the free gas in the
reservoir?
f) What is the gas-oil mobility ratio in the reservoir?

Question 10 (10 points)

a) List all steps and show formulas/equations/definitions used in the derivation of a one-
dimensional (x) one-phase (oil), horizontal fluid flow equation.

b) Show all details in the derivation of the following equation:

∂ ⎛ k ∂P⎞ ∂ ⎛ φ ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟
∂ x ⎜⎝ µ B ∂ x ⎟⎠ ∂ t ⎝ B ⎠

c) Which two main types of boundary conditions are normally used to represent reservoir fluid
production and injection?
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Final exam December 10, 2014

Attachment - Definition of symbols

Bg Formation volume factor for gas (res.vol./st.vol.)

Bo Formation volume factor for oil (res.vol./st.vol.)
Bw Formation volume factor for water (res.vol./st.vol.)
Cr Pore compressibility (pressure-1)
Cw Water compressibility (pressure-1)
ΔP P2 − P1
Gi Cumulative gas injected (st.vol.)
GOR Producing gas-oil ratio (st.vol./st.vol.)
Gp Cumulative gas produced (st.vol.)
k Absolute permeability
k ro Relative permeability to oil
k rw Relative permeability to oil
k rg Relative permeability to oil
m Initial gas cap size (res.vol. of gas cap)/(res.vol. of oil zone)
Me End point mobility ratio
N Original oil in place (st.vol.)
N ge Gravity number
Np Cumulative oil produced (st.vol.)
P Pressure
Pcow Capillary pressure between oil and water
Pcog Capillary pressure between oil and gas
qinj Injection rate (res.vol./time)
Rp Cumulative producing gas-oil ratio (st.vol./st.vol) = G p / N p
Rso Solution gas-oil ratio (st.vol. gas/st.vol. oil)
Sg Gas saturation
So Oil saturation
Sw Water saturation
T Temperature
Vb Bulk volume (res.vol.)
Vp Pore volume (res.vol.)
WC Producing water cut (st.vol./st.vol.)
We Cumulative aquifer influx (st.vol.)
Wi Cumulative water injected (st.vol.)
Wp Cumulative water produced (st.vol.)
ρ Density (mass/vol.)
φ Porosity
µg Gas viscosity
µo Oil viscosity
µw Water viscosity
γ Hydrostatic pressure gradient (pressure/distance)