398 Chapter 8. Systems of Linear Algebraic Equations; Gauss Elimination ‘THEOREM 8.3.1 Equivalent Systems If one linear system is obtained from another by a equation operations, then the two systoms are equivalent, ite number oF elementary Outline of Proof: The truth of this claim for elementary equation operations of types 2 and 3 should be evident, so we confine our remarks to operations of type 1. Thsulfices to look at the effect of one such operation, Thus, suppose that a given linear system A is altered by replacing its jth equation by its jth plus a times its ‘kth its other equations being kept intact. Let us call the new system A’. Surely, every solution of A will also be a solution A’ since we have merely added equal ‘quantities to equal quantities. That is, iA" results from A by the application of an elementary equation operation of type 1, then every solution of A is also a solution of A, Purther, we can convert A’ back (o A by an elementary equation operation of type I, namely, by replacing the jth equation of A’ by the jth equation of plus =aatimes the kth equation of 4’. Consequently, it follows from the italicized result (too sentences back) that every solution of AV is also a solution of A. Then A and Al are equivalent, 2s claimed. In Example 1, we saw that each step is an elementary equation operation: Three elementary equation operations of type 1 took us from (2) to (4), and one of, type 2 took us from (4) to (5); finally, the back substitution amounted to several op- erations of type 1. Thus, according to Theorem 8.3.1, equivalence was maintained throughout so we can be sure that (6) is the solution set of the original system (2) (as can be verified by direct substitution) ‘The system in Example 1 aduilted 3 wuigue solution. Ty see how dhe method of successive elimination works out when there is no solution, or a nonunique so- lution, let us work two more examples. EXAMPLE 2. Inconsistent System. Consider the 4 2) tet ry 3 a Dery + Bry ~ 25 Te, = m= 2 Keep the st equation intact, add ~$ times the frst equstion to the second (eq.2 ~» «9.2 —Heqt), an add — times the first othe hid (eq > €4.3 —} e4.) 2+ Bp -2= 4 -dmtim- 1 ” ~ Ber + 6x5 = -12, Keep the first two equations ntact, and add ~3 times the second equation to the third (eq 38.3, Solution by Gauss Elimination — 399 + eg.3 864.2) 2, + Bx -2zy= 4, + 2ns= Ay o =-15 Any solution 2,222, of (9) must satisfy each of the three equations, but there are no values of #1, 22,2) that can satisfy 0 = —15. Thus, (9) is inconsistent (has no solution), ad therefore (7) is as well COMMENT. The source of the inconsistency is dhe fact that whereas the left-hand side of the third equation is 2 times the left-hand side of the first equation plus 3 dimes the let-hand side ofthe second, the right-hand sides do ot bear that relationship: 2(1) +3(3) = 17 #2. [White that built-in contrition is not abviowe from (7), iteventually comes to fightin tho third equation in (9). IF we modify the system (7) by changing the final 2in (7) to 17, then the final ~12 in (8) becomes a3, and the final ~15 in (9) becomes a zero 2a, + Bey ~ 225 — day + 2ey (10) . cx mapyng te is by adh cod by aa (ian) where we have discarded the identity 0 = 0, ‘Thus, by changing the ¢,’s so as to be “compatible.” the system now admits an infinity of solutions rather than none. Specifically, we can let 2s (or 22 it doesn’t matter which) in (11b) be any value, say a where a: is achiteary. Then (Tb) gives ry = —2 “Thus, sve have the infinity of solutions for any a. Evidently, wo of the three planes intersect, giving a line that Hes inthe third plane, snd equations (12) are parametric equations ofthat fine! W EXAMPLE 3. Nomnique Solution. Consider the system of four equations in six unknowns (m = 4,n = 6) Dep + ay + Ary + Bey + a mt ty + 2x5 = 0, M+ tp ty dey ty + Pee ny - Sey = 4ey = 25 + 26 = (3) Wanting the top equation io begin with 27 and subsequent equations to indent atthe lett,400 Chapter 8. Systems of Lineur Algebraic Equutions: Gauss Elimination Jet us first move the top equation tothe bottom (eq. ++ e4.4): x ~ 3x2 = Ary = 2x5 + ay = 0, ri~ t+ zy + 2x5 = 0, Bit a+ 2x + 4ry + 25+ 2x6 = 3, Qty + a5 + dry + Bre + Zp = 2 Add =1 times the first equation to the second (eq.2 > e42 eq.3 ~1 64.1) equations: ay ~ Bea day ~ 25 + 26 = 0, 2ea + ay + dag + 2xe + 26 = 0, dry + ity + Ste + Bre + a 2ay + sty + Airy + 8x5 + te = 2. aay = eg.1) and thisd (eq.3 as, ‘Add ~2 times the second to the thd (o9.3 —+ ¢4.3 ~2 €9.2) and ~1 times the second to the fourth eq > eq ~1 e9.2): yn dey — — dzq ~ Bey + 26 Deg by + dey + Be + te ‘Add the third tothe fourth (eq-4 ~» eq-4 + €4,3): ep 3r dry Weg + ae Day bay + dey + 2x +e ee a5 = 5, -Finaly, multiply the second. ted, and fourth by the lading coeticiens (e4.2 +} eq2. e438 + —1eq3, eq -> ~Leqa: a athe + 2+ ztiz= D, Bet ty = —3, ‘The last evo equations give as = —5 and 2x also let be arbitrary, say a. Then that equation gives the fst equation gives 2, The results the infinity of solutions where ay and a are ariteary. Ia solution set contains p independent arbitrar meters (a1, call it (in this text) a p-parameter family of solutions. Thus, (12) 16) a tind —1, respectively ee wonnaize «1s and these values ean he substituted back Xo the second equation, In that equation we can let xy be arbitrary. say a, and we ean iad, again by back substitution, a9 ay), we nd (19) aejauss Elimination — 407 833, Solution by where the entries are 21,... 4 and where —t, and tp are arbitrary constants. ‘ay and ty = ey, this result is the same as (29). If you prefer, you with(inalg) Ase array(((1, —1 b s= array([4, 1): linsolve( A, b)s, ], (1,2, 1, 3) instead, If the system is inconsistent, then either the output will be NULL, of there will be no output EXERCISES 8.3 1. Derive the solution set for each of the following systems (k) 1 + 25 1 using Gauss elimination and augmented matrix Format. Docu- zt Qe ty- 2m =5 tent each sep (e.g, 2nd ow 2nd row + 9 times Ist Ow), Beta t r= 0 and classify the result (e.g. unique solution, the system is in- ry 4 z+ ay ty =4 cconsisteny, 3-paraneter family of solutions, et.) w a ey — 25 +44 =0 @ 2-ay=1 a - mt dm test Bet oy (my 24 2y +8: de + Sy 4 de Be + dy + thy 10, and again, for () + y+ = 10 Se + oy 6 @ e-yte=l © . zy aa (0) 2a t+ aa 1 ay + 2x + a = e429 + m= 1 25 + 2t4 = 1 () 2+ =0 O Bee t+ 2g = —4 @ A+ 4 + 2m = 0 0 arrrr 0 ny + a+ 25 ~ Sty + es = 0 ae, 1 Ber ey + me =0 0 2. (a)-(q) Same as Exercise | but using Gauss Jordan re- dluetion instead of Gauss elimination {a)=(q) Same as Exercise | but using computer software Sel a the Maple linsolve command408 Chapter 8, 4. Can 20 linear algebraic equations in L4 unknowns have & tuhique Solution? Be inconsistent? Have a two-parameter fam- ily of solutions? Have a M4-purameter family of solutions? Have 16. paramever Family of solutions? Bxplain Sle aye, + ayes + agty = 0, dur, + bey + bats = 0 epresent any (wo planes through the origin in a Castesian cyt space. For the case where the planes intersect ‘lin, show whether or not that line necessarily passes throu the origin 6. If possible, adapt the methods of this section to solve the following wonlinear systems. If itis nor possible, say so. (a) xf + 2a ait ah Buf + dag r+ dy =13 sing + 2y= 5 sing + siny sing ~ siny + dos sing + siny + 2cos where =x/2 <@ < m/2,—n/2 < 5) such that there is either no solution or & rnonunique solution? Explain (b) This time let there be three cables at angles of 45°. 60°, and 30° 2s shown, Again, cequiring an equilibrium of vertical and horizontal forces at P, derive wo linear algebraic equations on the unknown tensions Ty, 73,7. Show thatthe equations are ‘consistent so there isa nonunique solution. NOTE: We say that such a structure is statically Indeterminate because the Forces init cannot be determined from te laws of states lone. What weeds to be alded if we are to complete the eval- Ty? What is needed is information about the lative stiffness of the cables. We pursue this to a conclusion in), below. (©) [Completion of part (b)] Betore the load F is applied, lo- cate an x,y Cartesian coordinate system at P. Let P be I foot below the “ceiling” so the coordinates of A, B,C are (~1,1). (1/31), and (v3, 1}, respectively. Now apply the load # 8,3. Solution by Gauss Elimination — 409 “The point P will move toa point (x,y), and we assume that the cables are stiff enough so that 2 and y are very small: fx] 1 and |y| <1. Let the cables obey Hooke's law: Ty = Ayd ny hada, and Ty ~ hyS, where 4, ic the incwrasr in length of the jth cable du to the tension moves to (2,9), ic follows that & = VOTE GIP - v3 VER e= a) EE - VE = VIFWG=H)- v2 v3fL + (x -y)* - v0 vafie geo - ey) ay Explain each step (11.1), and show, similarly, that aia) a3) thus, uy Putting (11.4) into the evo equilibrium equations obtained in (b) then gives two equations in the unknown displacements zr. Show tha that system can be solved uniquely for 2 and us and thus complete the solution for Ty,T2, 3, 12, (Roundeffervor difficulty due to small pivots) To illustrate ‘how small pivots can accentuate the effects of roundoft error, ‘consider the system. 0.0052, + L472 0.975n + 2. 1.49, 622 cy with exact solution 2y = Land 22 = 1. Suppose that our Computer eatries three significant figures and then rounds off Using the ist equation as our pivot equation, Gauss elimina tion gives 0.005 1471.40 0.005 147149 97s 232 622) 7 | 0 285-281Section 8.3. 117 Section 8.3 1. (by ( 10 3-20 () ax- oper eatehenegt . . ; ) (anne ape winigaat belattoon %=0, %,=0 2 6 to already sn Guaso-shmurahic form Teor Xgtahy AgHle, KpRely MH CHSA HOt als (lo ) (§) /2-1-1-30 we eatth)at 2-1-1-3 0 I> Kat In -% -32 0 (i 3402) (Scbk 2) geste (6 1-9 -3 oA Tanunique tebe: RyFQ, , XyF ol, X,F~F4 OHI, ,%= Lot dal, +4 (-t430 +99, BH24+3 ce, + 5OL, Ch) [1 1-2 3\ qzrgqe-ai 1 1-2 3) qzrqsfqe/1 1-2 3 Phyge [11-2 3 [ia py (224 2)eee ns [o2a\er (21 % 1 1-3-1 0-4-2 -H 0000 0000 igus mrbution: Wg Zol, %F lobe, % 2 3+20~(I-$u) = 24 Ze (i) 2-1 epraqete%)al 2-16 \ Seate 2 6 \ qsreqsecngz [2-1 & 32 4 |asraseCa)ai [0 $5 234 o1-8 ir qeecnge | 0 1-2 LW { ate seeCsdat (0 gas Pme(0 1-2] —-, loo o Gn -2} 7 0 1-20 —~* 1o1-B 00 0 Ao migine Pela X,5 -1017, 2,5 16/7 (hy No aati ‘ (a) Teranigue, debation Kg F Oly Xqz QOL, Kee (1 Oe)/2.. X= (1HO)/2 (m) C=O: Ropolutiei; ceil: mursie AduLigi X32, X70, %=2 m) Ungar nectuction HsTI5/4, %, Mh, x= 1/2. (@) Unague redaction My E25, Kz=V5, %,2VS) % = WS (p) Us “ Bia, X21, %S-W2 OD Nentigue acct’ “Kg=e, xg=0, Xs=~e, %,=0, X= me 2. We auadey dd the Gano abein. am pdt 4, 00 Lio mary fark the ship. (b) [2 1 0) eat 1 V2 OY) qr 4itedyqe (100 x0 K_=0. (4 o)qartgia*(0 1 3) a (01 °) eee. (4) [-% “% -32 0) qirgitg2 [1 0-5 -% -2\ gueo %y=a,, XgeQz G 1-9 6 g)ee % ( -9 -¢ 4] ae eeuraas ? Mp B-2t+Za,+ Sele , an eboe q Lefd cheer ah the akipe for tue me: 210120) /210120\ (210120 210120 114000) [0 A-i-w-10) Jo w-l-hw-1 0 [0 24% 19 111320 O%1-%10 002-320 002320 22-ro1o/ lor-t-t-10/ loo1o1o0/ looo #00Section 8.3 118 14oK%10 1%001 0) [1%001 0\ ftoooto 3/0 12-+-20)\,)0 1202 0],f01000 oo] ,jolo000 001-%10/ |o0101 0} loo101 of jooroto 000100/ \loxvo100! \opotoo \ooo100 AD gro, Xq FO, X3=—-, X50, RSL 2.) Th cremenae ° ‘ poh linea: Ars amex(LL9.0,1,11,00,4,-L11,0h7b2,111)3 bis (£2,0,41); Lisodoe (Ab); vo ‘the debi “[-be1 2, ake -2t 41] thine Eo am anbiiarg PRES we uae ot wictind theo Hy2 12a, Kye lt 1) XS lmel . THs Lesko Afferent from owr rural dn LU) ta sor bX. To ae ‘the tqaicademer, ak y= Ida s@, aay, 20HuE ot= (1 A)/2. Than the Pople rind hoeeny My=@) Kq= 2G, Na, = (I-BN/2) X= (1482 wchuch 40 squeak bo oun moult am A(2). 5. Eaoy: %,7%=%3=0 40 Atm 1 A a pelchins | the atti, Bo ‘the bene must 6. by Thane che mat dot ak ty tay te, Da Hay ne ein sin th a th Loaf 29) ft 2-129) fi 2-1 29) ques x$=0, xb 210, xt=9 rr (2 12 “os O-1 2-10| "20 x320, Xe= HHI) M=*3 3 4 0 6T/ \0-23--20) \OO-1 O] sorthine ane foun petutind, (b) NA prod. (Toe, dt doit see dew a codt be dime.) (6) Net banda. sn 2m), Ant thay are Lear sn ink, Ainny, COE, AD be Cn mre Gamoa wimionebin : 1tou rho 110.1) £0 2-03, Aun 2055, Mink = 05. Lb 12 Jof0-2 4 02)-+(0 1-2-01] Thus, Z=Le7002 (725°) 11246/ loo2 ae} \oo1 03 5.02 nad (2875"), 13 O524.nad (30°), sata the spfak ctw Pruo, tare ane Taro aebutimd : Shik An : h (b) (-A)K-4=0 (= a 3) ax4(2-a)420, \-1 200] | SW A=2 ft Hows emby the Terral adekior x= 1470, 00 wt can anoume ‘thet #2, Thon (ae o}a(! mo),(! xk °) al 2dr 0 1 20 A ty merlrwvral slit ap hope =O, de, 4 A513. Pith tat Rant () I ees mortal peutiond axel, =e. 000Section 8.3. 119 3 ( yd y g a a Bes acer (eae mith motiunal rdw 420, 22-6 (e) Ps an (b), det fund Hh mostrar adudtions snust the anise ASL2, ht oe be ( ce Saeed ° tind fit Ao 2 nt haat (9 ! with martreall rebSima 228, 4=6, %=26 -l © B.(b) Paooung Prom the oepinel aystinn Fo it%,-Hls = 2% —Kat%y oor wt The os (2 9) seen (| 2S 8) I(T SSS) Howeren thy Lest fo md am emigre dprncttias 5 mult ( 0 Hm west lowes tha ch nly 39% '.@) Vasihieal’ T bn®, +7, aun, = F Eee ae ae =F andthe & gust nee, 0,5 TAT= pai . Fn B=, =1/2 the yim Ieeemec ate and, aa mensoniguee Fan 020,20 ‘the muptim Meconts O=F — andthee do no Alibi. T-T.=0 (b) Voted: Thomas? + T aento’+ T, Amao= Fy, ONT, +0.87T, + OST, =F Hergertel: Temas" - Beato’ -—'T, £030°=0 —” OT, - 05 T, -0.87T,=0. ) P fag (UL) ants the Dettin peew aint. ‘ool fry + 0.87 (Ke) ReBy) + 05-ReNxty) = F om hay - 05(-kexrd3y) -0.97(- B\(Bx+4) = 0. We coda ice thane by the Denne. egmmamd aod pak the eurutte, ant (11/4) Fe tans. T,, TT. 5 13, x a -L-Ole =O & x % verge (if wane Chamang the 1-014 20 1.01 canna the snkioanatorn Q la: (and Aimer the mebacoi 244) 2+ Lo1dM =O. to mat fan mone than, ik’ camais PI met cause The Duty Ld amd L2 one abmert parablallgives the same result EXERCISES 10.4 1. In (5) we evaluated the determinant ofa general 2 2 ma teix using a cofactor expansion about the fist row. Evaluate it again, using a cofactor expansion about the second row in stead, chen about the first column, and then about the second columa, showing that the answer isthe same in each ease, 2. Bvaluate each, wing a cofactor expansion about the fist and last rows, and also about the last column, 1a 2-30 @)3 21 wm) 1 42 oa 6 15 “410 j3 3 2 @] 320 )o 6-1 1oT 40 0 52 10 123] 234 10 30 oat Ose tt : 00 26 jzon ‘| 0 1 20] oa nt $-1 14 ®loas o 5 6 la 02 2000 «bed Oho Dd defo aan) Won io coos 000 &| (a) Gj) Same 03 Exercise 2, but expanding about the second Fovw, and about the first colume, 4. (a)=th) Same as Exercise 2, but using the method of tian- ularizati 5. (a)>(h) Same as Exercise 2, but using computer software, 6. Evaluate, by any means other than computer software, showing your steps or logic. You may use any of the peop- ewes DI-DI2. | jogs: a 45 8078 isa 6 6| ! go on 2 01-3 5| BuO 10.4. Determinants 493 O04 abe fo} 0b e Wd eo lacey foo 7. A mnemonic device often put forward for evaluating 2 x and 3 > 3 determinants is as shown below, Fasc mae Lae oy Ee RC on Lo 153s a {In other words, the determinants are the sums of the indicated products, with each product carrying the indicated sige. For example, in dhe 2 2 case this device gives on = #(a1sa22) ~ (ana Which does ageee with (5). We now state the problem: write ‘out te mnemonic result for the 3 x 3 case, and verity thy co- factor expansion) that itis correct. CAUTION: This device does not hold. in general, for m > n determinanis ifm > 4 8. Let ann 1 matix A= {0,5} be diagonal, Show that det. = ayya99*+ pn an 9. (Suppose that an m > n matrix A can be partitioned into the block-diagonal form [A] 9 0 0 0 An where Aj, ...;Ay are all square, although not necessarily all ofthe same order Show that etA = (Wet (Wet) (deed, ony “This esull may be regarded as a generalization of (8.1), bove, wherein Ags... Arp were all L>e V's (b) Does (9.1) sal od i the elements above the m blocks areSection 10.4 150 ° 1 Ou uy yn Xe, B.(b) Fans2, TAK = (%4,%2) (a aan (fs) = cya (BE Ba oats 2) XE Op %i%z + Oy Mi Ret Aer Xe SAy Ry +2Aye Xj Mqt Qaz KE = XE A3BKE+6%,X2 raguarta thet Gy=1, a7 -3, A= 3 (ngt@), 20 A= G3 (c) Paecaduing haan Cb) na ad for nes, thet KE Gay XE4 ggXF + 202% Ke + 204g XX 3+ 205% Xe KE + XE-NE + BH Xq + 3XjXs—2My My a Gyre Oy F4, Ose= 1 Oss=-l, Wie=4, Ag = 32, Ars=-1 40 Ae aa +) 3," vit 9. (ARTY = (ATT AT = AAT , 20 AAT so agmatine. Fe ptat= - 0 (ae) BrAT= SEL es BS rd rey) = AB. Fo hy G2 re )= 3), era eo (f G8 )= (33). ): (LC4,1,21, [0,5,711)5 (C0t-4,21,08,1471); sealer (ebacgectey te hye 8)5 2 [ Segesce TESSOS7ETTS 104219222541 39512373176 35221910032 = we Section 10.4 2. (b) Ged il nas, fi 3 2° 2.18) - 3X17) +0(25) = 87 “GIS Ont Bnd nour sk = 6)-6)- (NH) + S(1)= BTV Odd 3nd column at = 0(25)-2(-10)+5 (11) = B1V (i) aks a$(be-cdy soli “go eee |bits Lae 2-30|=-|o-u-#|=-|o0 x not oS oa 00 Bt Cem FH) = 87 t p |2o1o) Lass] jizse 1236 1236 ositls-[o3t-_ losi-i |o_fosi-t |lfo3s i 0450 045 0}= “lo4s0 00k % |F"lo0% % ciysten) 12361 lzorol lo-s-2l loon l loo oa] =132. 5.6) The Maple commande, th nada Azz amneny (TL2,0,1,01,£0,3,1,-1] ,L04,5,01, [12,3,6]])5 | Ait (AD; gues 132, ao chtamed an 44).Section 10.4 151 meta pea OF abd. “The manna pte Xo peated mde thet thio mating 12 NO’ rrangpeban sumer st fer mk yno eae MAIN dregenall (uppir Dt Fo owen suight). on B » ub = ces, € (fe ae patty a bewer) “Han, vy papa Ds, actlAl= ite “Onn bt pan the “unrang” dagen DYE napin magh), AA = CH) dy One peg” Bin 2.00) Let am man mating Ax {aig} Jeo the form ahem. We cam ust DI amd D2 to Ro ttek Ay, then Ag yy then Am. When deme the smedifee Hh A matriet 1000 de Tummgublan , no ae wala, by pypet Ds, Bet, A288 = Oia Coes Sg k laarrin the "prduct com greed a0 4 AusA, Y(dut A, )~ (dat Arn ). (byand (e) Yeo, theme ny an am (0), Riddle un these canta. 234 rut Ber ByteBi | 7 22 2 ol 5 2 3 re A le (a) Ince), [$4 3| 2219 = fghlen = -19 ‘mii, |2{oo0 ” Tole clo| = ay[RE](4) = albe-cd)$ e|g lg) * lel 00 OlF abelo dn cay, de slo “Hidle Adlo | lake oodk Aad) = A, at(As--AQ)) = (at ALY dak (MadA S@tA Yate y ada Ag) = ate. = (ACA Nat A,) (actA) Ih (b) Each ser eritnitnitio a neale factor of, amd tine ane n news, 20 du (ocAy = ox at A. 12. Ye omy Sew J a Jansan. Combinechion the thre than supeatid noe 4 prpurty Drader one e aad Seana cours, « caster uxpanaim abr thet nour 0. To Abbustnate , Aas 2x38 amd thet ratele the Ty ay Ny Hy at( of ( x : :)= ( Bs Bete A | nate rears (% © Ho. dt (ALA, Ay) = dat (A, ( >Section 10.4 152 I. Cb) Nea 44,20, 80 A\Fa)=2, 42> igdich ie AR jer ®1o0o0 ee poe aes es o Ayz} sao, 1 |= /472 1) 28. Wa? O Omd a; ak > 0 Oyds a, os47 4 tance, tad 2, (de fot, maple 000al 10008 M ate, sack, with meyatir sunk part.) 8) 0220, do unstable ( oo tether, auth nagetind taal part, 2 with pro sual pal (e) N25, a= dg 2 ag at. Thu, A.=1, A9=|tt]=0. Com atop Aine Avnet det Rud abl Cali ee | (raphe gua Commend, fade (2°54 4X3 4K 24 %41, 5 Reet Scomplig reilo a0 nell, uae the compliy eptins : 54K Ke 2441, %, Complens amd ota the rele 1, 54.864, +5 4-864 “Edunee, umstiabee v } =f ' ' 3320/7 (01 3 0[= (9 suse] FO: Hence, the auctions howe ne ; 033-2] los3-2] loor3s eroman ratte, 16.0) (Gl) follrwe uadily Prom a 6 a. pansion aA, oo. nar a anthe jth cbumn. ai chain Geren haath Taytt),dyaCt), “ral = (geth Spe) ++ (Se det) dae) oo) Lath) = [Fad [4 |FF 3 + |F% |= oftat +sHPeot-20 4 oO pet! 14 O amt! Io 0 I. Fer nse: [ett] = nee mX5) = XX, vet daa i) = Rh, 0 ed x X21 x5 X31 Fr n=3: = U(r hs )— K(KE= XS) +X %q (KX) F(X Rg XXEHK, Ky Ky Kg t Ky a. (%%j) = “tae Xa X—rhy do” eejes 18. @) Nin) = nmultiphectios + (ri) adder and subtractions + Neat) calor Ledtiona for the n colacton, timate, = oe +2n-1. Thm F- an-1 (m2) nen ao cae (Meron he tae Intron te mune sidin protien (with smttial endbinr =3), amalenowa to the spat y'e Merry =Nex. - me