Research Methodology

SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF A PROBLEM

Q. what is research methodology? Research methodology is the

A: Research methodology simply refers to the specific procedures or
practical “how” of any given piece of research. techniques used to identify,
More specifically, it’s about how a select, process, and analyze
researcher systematically designs a study to information about a topic. In a
ensure valid and reliable results that address the research paper, the methodology
research aims and objectives.  section allows the reader to critically
evaluate a study's overall validity
Research methodology is the specific and reliability
procedures or techniques used to
identify, select, process, and analyze
information about a topic. In a research Methodology chapter in a
paper, the methodology section allows the dissertation or thesis explains not
reader to critically evaluate a study's overall just what methodological choices
validity and reliability were made, but also explains why
they were made.
 For example, how did the researcher go about In other words, the methodology
deciding?  chapter should justify the design
choices, by showing that the chosen
 What data to collect (and what data to methods and techniques are the best
ignore) fit for the research aims and
objectives, and will provide valid
 Who to collect it from (in research, this and reliable results. A good research
is called “sampling design”) methodology provides scientifically
sound findings, whereas a poor
 How to collect it (this is called “data methodology doesn’t.
collection methods”)

Why Research Is Necessary and Valuable in Our Daily

Lives?
1. It's a tool for building knowledge and facilitating learning.
2. It's a means to understand issues and increase public awareness.
3. It helps us succeed in business.
4. It allows us to disprove lies and support truths.
5. It is a means to find, gauge, and seize opportunities.
6. It promotes a love of and confidence in reading, writing, analyzing, and sharing
valuable information.
Deductive reasoning works from the Inductive reasoning works the
more general to the more specific. other way, moving from specific
Sometimes this is informally called a observations to broader
 
“top-down” approach. We might generalizations and theories.
begin with thinking up a theory about Informally, we sometimes call this a
our topic of interest. We then narrow “bottom up” approach. In
that down into more specific hypotheses inductive reasoning, we begin with
that we can test. We narrow down even specific observations and measures,
further when we collect observations to begin to detect patterns and
address the hypotheses. This ultimately regularities, formulate some tentative
leads us to be able to test the hypotheses that we can explore, and
hypotheses with specific data – a
finally end up developing some
confirmation (or not) of our original
general conclusions or theories
theories.

Inductive Deductive
research research
Observation -> pattern -> Tentative Theory -> Hypothesis -> Observation ->
Hypothesis -> Theory confirmation
Use research questions to narrow the
Begins with a hypothesis.
scope of the study.

Emphasis on exploring new phenomena. Emphasis on causality.

Associated with qualitative research. Associated with quantitative research.

The most important point to bear in mind when considering whether to use an
inductive or deductive approach is firstly the purpose of your research, and secondly
the methods that are best suited to either test a hypothesis, explore a new or emerging
era within the discipline, or to answer specific research question.
 Thesis vs Research
o A research paper is about to
prove that central argument.
o Research papers are shorter and
may take a few weeks or a month
to complete.
Structure:
Abstract
o Research paper should be Introduction
between 10,000 and 15,000 words Literature review
in length (50–60 pages). Method
o Research paper analyses a single Results
thesis statement from all possible Discussion
angles. Conclusions
o Research papers are a part of the References
coursework, usually completed for
partial fulfillment of a degree.
o Research papers have a single
research goal. o The thesis is related to the
statement of central questions or
arguments of scholars which leads
to further research.
o A thesis is much longer and takes
up to years to complete.
Structure: o The thesis should be between
20,000 and 25,000 words in
Abstract
length (100–130 pages).
Introduction
o A thesis works towards
Background
Method interpreting data for proving or
Implementation disproving the hypothesis.
Analysis o Completing a thesis will get you a
Conclusions degree in itself.
References o The thesis may have more than
Appendixes one research goal
 Scientific
1. Ask a Question
The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe:
How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?

2. Do Background Research
Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question,
you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the
best way to do things and ensure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past.

3. Construct a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work. It is an
attempt to answer your question with an explanation that can be tested.

4. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment

Your experiment tests whether your prediction is accurate and thus your
hypothesis is supported or not. It is important for your experiment to be a
fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one
factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same.

5. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion

Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze
them to see if they support your hypothesis or not.

6. Communicate Your Results

To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final
report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by
publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster
or during a talk at a scientific meeting. In a science fair, judges are interested in your
findings regardless of whether or not they support your original hypothesis.

Limitation
o First, the scientific method cannot answer all questions.
o Second, application of the scientific method can never capture the full
richness of the individuals and the environments under study.
o Third, our measuring instruments always have some degree of error.
o More broadly, all educational inquiry, not just the scientific method, is
carried out with the cooperation of participants who agree to provide
researchers with data. Because educational researchers deal with human
beings, they must consider a number of ethical concerns and responsibilities
to the participants.
 Five Crucial W’s
What is your research? This question needs to be answered as specifically as poss
One of the hardest parts in the early stages is to be able to define your project – so
much research fails because the researcher has been unable to do this.

Why do you want to do the research? What is its purpose? Okay,

you might have been told to do some research by your tutor or by
your boss, but there should be another reason why you have
chosen your particular subject.

Who will be your participants? At this stage of the research process, you should
about the type of people with whom you will need to get in touch and whether it w
be possible for you to contact
them.

Where are you going to conduct your research? Thinking about this
question in geographical terms will help you to narrow down your
research topic. Also, you need to think about the resources in terms
of available budget and time.

When are you going to do your research? Thinking about this

question will help you to sort out whether the research project you
have proposed is possible within your timescale. It will also help
you to think more about your participants.

Ontol Epistem Method

o Ontology is the branch of o Epistemology is the branch of o Research methodology is the
 Educational
Research
Educational research refers to
a systematic attempt to gain a
Educational research is the
formal, systematic application of
better understanding of the the scientific method to the study
educational process, generally of educational problems.
with a view in improving its
efficiency. It is an application Educational research is a type of systematic
investigation that applies empirical methods to solving
of scientific method to the
challenges in education. It adopts rigorous and well-
study of educational defined scientific processes in order to gather and
problems. analyze data for problem-solving and knowledge
advancement.

The primary purpose of educational research is to expand

the existing body of knowledge by providing solutions to
different problems in pedagogy while improving teaching
and learning practices. Educational researchers also seek PURPOSE
answers to questions bothering on learner-motivation,
development, and classroom management.
CHARACTERISTICS

o It sets out to solve a specific problem.

o Educational research adopts primary and secondary research
methods in its data collection process. This means that in
educational research, the investigator relies on first-hand sources of
information and secondary data to arrive at a suitable conclusion.
o Educational research relies on empirical evidence. This results from
its largely scientific approach.
o Educational research is objective and accurate because it measures
verifiable information.
o In educational research, the researcher adopts specific
methodologies, detailed procedures, and analysis to arrive at the
most objective responses
o Educational research findings are useful in the development of
principles and theories that provide better insights into pressing
issues.
o This research approach combines structured, semi-structured, and
 QUANTATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research methods
emphasize objective
Characterist
 The data is usually gathered using structured
measurements and the
statistical, mathematical, or ics
research instruments.
 The results are based on larger sample sizes
numerical analysis of data that are representative of the population.
collected through polls,  The research study can usually be replicated
questionnaires, and surveys, or or repeated, given its high reliability.
 The researcher has a clearly defined research
by manipulating pre-existing
question to which objective answers are
statistical data using sought.
computational techniques.  All aspects of the study are carefully designed
Quantitative research focuses on before data is collected.
gathering numerical data and  Data are in the form of numbers and
generalizing it across groups of statistics, often arranged in tables, charts,
people or to explain a particular figures, or other non-textual forms.
phenomenon. The final written  Project can be used to generalize concepts
report has a set structure more widely, predict future results, or
consisting of introduction, investigate causal relationships.
 The researcher uses tools, such as
literature and theory, methods, questionnaires or computer software, to
results, and discussion. collect numerical data.

 Things to keep in mind when reporting the results of a study using

quantitative methods:
 Explain the data collected and their statistical treatment as well as all relevant results in
relation to the research problem you are investigating. Interpretation of results is not
appropriate in this section.
 Report unanticipated events that occurred during your data collection. Explain how the
actual analysis differs from the planned analysis. Explain your handling of missing data
and why any missing data does not undermine the validity of your analysis.
 Explain the techniques you used to "clean" your data set.
 Choose a minimally sufficient statistical procedure; provide a rationale for its use and a
reference for it. Specify any computer programs used.
 Describe the assumptions for each procedure and the steps you took to ensure that they
were not violated.
 When using inferential statistics, provide the descriptive statistics, confidence intervals,
and sample sizes for each variable as well as the value of the test statistic, its direction,
the degrees of freedom, and the significance level [report the actual p value].
 Avoid inferring causality, particularly in nonrandomized designs or without further
experimentation.
 Use tables to provide exact values; use figures to convey global effects. Keep figures
small in size; include graphic representations of confidence intervals whenever
possible.
 Always tell the reader what to look for in tables and figures.
 Challe
o Survey research determines • Constructing questions for the intended
and reports the way things respondents requires clarity, consistency, and tact.
are; it involves collecting • Other major challenges facing survey researchers
are participants’ failure to return questionnaires,
numerical data to test their willingness to be surveyed over the phone,

Survey
hypotheses or answer and their ability to attend scheduled interviews.
questions about the current • If the response rate is low, then valid, trustworthy
status of the subject of study. conclusions cannot be drawn.
o One common type of survey
research involves assessing How do secondary level teachers spend their
the preferences, attitudes, teaching time? Secondary level teachers are asked
practices, concerns, or to fill out questionnaires, and results are
presented as percentages (e.g., teachers spent 50%
interests of a group of people.
of their time lecturing, 20% asking or answering
o Survey research data are questions, 20% in discussion, and 10% providing
mainly collected through individual student help).
questionnaires, interviews, How will citizens of your town vote in the next
and observations. school board election? A sample of your town
citizens complete a questionnaire or interview,
o Researchers develop their
and results are presented as percentages (e.g.,
own measuring instrument 70% said they will vote for Peter Pure, 20% named
for each survey study. George Graft, and 10% are undecided).
Exam
 How does preschool attendance affect social
maturity at the end of the first grade?
The grouping variable is preschool
attendance (i.e., the variable can take one of
Causal Comparative
two values— students attending preschool
and students not attending); the dependent Research
• Causal–comparative research
attempts to determine the cause, or
variable, or effect, is social maturity at the
end of the first grade. reason, for existing differences in
The researcher identifies a group of first the behavior or status of groups of
Examp
graders who attended preschool and a group
who did not, gathers data about their social
maturity, and then compares the two groups.
individuals.
• The cause is a behavior or
characteristic believed to influence
some other behavior or
How does having a working mother affect a characteristic, and is known as the
child’s school absenteeism? grouping variable. The change or
The grouping variable is the employment difference in a behavior or
status of the mother (again with two possible characteristic that occurs as a result
values—the mother works or does not work);
the dependent variable is absenteeism,
—that is, the effect—is known as
measured as number of days absent. the dependent variable.
The researcher identifies a group of students • Put simply, causal–comparative
who have working mothers and a group research attempts to establish
whose mothers do not work, gathers cause–effect relations among
information about their absenteeism, and groups.
compares the groups.
• Correlational research involves collecting data to
determine whether, and to what degree, a relation exists What is the relation
between two or more quantifiable variables. between intelligence and
• A variable is a placeholder that can assume any one of a self-esteem?
range of values; for example, intelligence, height, and test Scores on an intelligence
score are variables. test and a measure of self-
• At a minimum, correlation research requires information esteem are acquired from
about at least two variables obtained from a single group each member of a given
of participants. group. The two sets of
• The purpose of a correlational study may be to establish scores are analyzed, and
relations or use existing relations to make predictions. the resulting coefficient
• Correlation refers to a quantitative measure of the degree indicates the degree of
of correspondence. correlation.
• The degree to which two variables are related is expressed Does an algebra aptitude
as a correlation coefficient, which is a number between test predict success in an
1.00 and 1.00. algebra course?
• Two variables that are not related have a correlation Scores on the algebra
coefficient near 0.00. Two variables that are highly aptitude test are correlated
correlated will have a correlation coefficient near 1.00 or with final exam scores in
1.00. A number near 1.00 indicates a positive correlation: the algebra course. If the
• As one variable increases, the other variable also increases correlation is high, the
(e.g., students with high SAT scores may also have high aptitude test is a good
GPAs). predictor of success in
• A number near 1.00 indicates a negative correlation: As algebra.
one variable increases, the other variable decreases (e.g.,
high GPA may correlate negatively with likelihood of
dropping out).
Correlational Examp
Research
• According to a story, one day Aristotle caught a
fly and carefully counted and recounted the legs.
SOURCES TO
He then announced that flies have five legs. No GET
one questioned the word of Aristotle. For years his
finding was accepted uncritically. Unfortunately, KNOWLEDGE
the fly that Aristotle caught just happened to be
missing a leg!  Experience.
• Whether or not you believe the story, it
illustrates the limitations of relying on  Authority.
personal experience and authority as  Inductive Approach.
sources of knowledge.  Deductive Approach.
 Experime
In experimental research, at least
variables are controlled, and the

True experimental research pr

research approaches becaus

As a result, it also offers generaliza

different from

Researchers conducting an exp

Researchers conducting an exp

They can select the participants

groups that have similar characte
apply differen

They can select the participants

groups that have similar characte
apply differen

Finally, the researchers can select

i

The essence of experimentation i

possible or feasible to meet the

Is personalized instruction from a Is there an effect of reinforcement on

teacher more effective for students’ attitude toward school?
increasing students’ The independent variable is type of
computational skills than reinforcement (with three values: positive,
computer instruction? negative, or no reinforcement); the dependent
Exampl
The independent variable is type of
instruction (with two values:
variable is attitude toward school.
The researcher randomly forms three groups
personalized instruction and
es
computer instruction); the dependent
variable is computational skills.
from a single large group of students.
One group receives positive
reinforcement, another negative
A group of students who have never reinforcement, and the third no
experienced either personalized reinforcement.
teacher instruction or computer After the treatments are applied for a
instruction are selected and randomly predetermined time, student attitudes toward
divided into two groups, each taught school are measured and compared for each of
by one of the methods. the three groups.
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative research methods are designed in a

manner that help reveal the behavior and perception
of a target audience with reference to a particular
topic. There are different types of qualitative
research methods like an in-depth interview, focus
groups, ethnographic research, content analysis,
case study research that are usually used.
The results of qualitative methods are more
descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite
easily from the data that is obtained.
Qualitative research methods originated in the
social and behavioral sciences. Today our world
is more complicated and it is difficult to understand
what people think and perceive. Online qualitative
research methods make it easier to understand that
as it is more communicative and descriptive.

Strategie
 Characteristics
1. Natural environment (natural setting). Qualitative researchers collect field data a
the locations where participants experience the problem or issue to be studied.
Qualitative researchers do not change the environmental settings and activities of
the participants. Information is gathered by talking directly to people and seeing
them act directly in a natural context.

2. Researcher as a key instrument (researcher as key instrument). Qualitative

researchers generally collect their own research data through participant
observation, documentation, or direct interviews with participants. These
researchers generally do not use instruments or questionnaires made by other
researchers, because they are the only key to the study.

3. Multiple sources of data. Qualitative researchers generally choose to collect the

required data from various sources such as interviews, documentation, and
observations, rather than relying only on one source data.

4. Inductive data analysis. Qualitative researchers build categories, patterns and

themes from the ground up (inductive) or from separate data into a complete
conclusion.

5. The meaning of the participants (participant’s meaning). In the entire research

process, the researcher must focus on studying the meaning obtained from the
participants about the issue or research problem, not the meaning conveyed by othe
authors or researchers in certain literatures.
2. Qualitative interview
1. Qualitative observation
6. Design that develops (emergent In qualitative interviews, qualitative
design). Qualitative researchers argue that qualitativ
research is always evolving
Qualitative observation is an observation andresearchers
dynamic. can
This interview
can mean face-to-face
that the initial plan is not a
standard that must be adheredorto, all
face stages
to face of research
with may change
participants, by after the researche
in which the researcher
goes intogoes
thedirectly to collects
field and the data. Provided
field to observe participant
achieving thebehavior telephone,
andobjectives,
research
or can also be involved in still in line in
that these changes are
namely obtaining information about the problem or
research location.
activities at the research issue. In this focus group interviews or group
observation, the researcher can record and interviews. The questions are
record both structured and unstructured unstructured and open questions for the
7. Theoretical perspective (theoretical
purpose of lens). Qualitative
capturing researchers
the opinions and often use certain
notes. Usually perspectives
researchers are ininvolved in research
conducting such as ethnography, cultural concepts, gender
a variety of roles, it can be asrace
differences, and others. views of participants on a particular
a complete
participant or non-participant. issue.

8. Interpretive. Qualitative researchers make an interpretation of what they see, hea

4. Audio
and what they understand. Usually there and visual in interpretation between
are differences
researchers and readers and participants, so it appears that qualitative research
material
3. Quality documents
offers different views on a content or problem.
Qualitative documents can be public documents This data can be in the form of
such as newspapers, magazines or papers or in recordings of both sound and
9. A holistic
the form of personal account.
documents such Qualitative images and
as diaries, researchers printed
usually results
try sucha complex picture o
to make
as pictures, photographs and
a research issue or problem. Researchers describe the perspectives and factors
diaries and e-mails.
paintings.
associated with the problem as a whole.
 Ethnographic
 Ethnographic research, or ethnography, is the study of the cultural patterns and
perspectives of participants in their natural settings.
 Ethnography focuses on a particular site or sites that provide the researcher with a
context in which to study both the setting and the participants who inhabit it.
 The participants are observed as they take part in naturally occurring activities
within the setting.
 Ethnographers immerse themselves in the lives and culture of the group being
studied, often living with that group for months on end.
 These researchers participate in a groups’ activities whilst observing its behavior,
taking notes, conducting interviews, analyzing, reflecting and writing reports – this
may be called fieldwork or participant observation.
 Ethnography is most useful in the early stages of a user-centred design project. This
is because ethnography focuses on developing an understanding of the design
problem.
 For example: An insurance company wanted to re-design their system dealing
with the processing of insurance claims. This system had evolved over many years
and actually represented a patchwork of previous systems. The ‘claim processing’
supported by this ‘system of systems’ is itself a highly complex process. In this
example, ethnographic research should probably be considered.

 One of the main advantages  One of the main criticisms levelled at

associated with ethnographic research ethnographic studies is the amount of
is that ethnography can help identify time they take to conduct. As
and analyze unexpected issues. When discussed above, ethnographic
conducting other types of studies, studies do not always require a long
which are not based on in-situ period of time, but this consideration
observation or interaction, it can very is nonetheless valid. Because of its
easy to miss unexpected issues. richer output, an ethnographic study
 Ethnography’s other main benefit is will tend to take longer to generate
generally considered to be its ability to and analyze its data than many other
deliver a detailed and faithful methods.
representation of users’ behaviors and  During previous ethnographic studies,
attitudes. Because of its subjective we have found that it is possible that
nature, an ethnographic study can be subjects may not act naturally during a
very useful in uncovering and short study. Longer studies normally
analyzing relevant user attitudes and counter-act this because the subjects
emotions. grow to trust the researcher and/or get
tired of any pretense.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
A qualitative research
approach to conducting Phenomenologic
research on a unit of study
or bounded system (e.g., Phenomenological studies begin with the
an individual teacher, a assumption that multiple realities are
rooted in subjects’ perspectives. Thus, an
Case
classroom, or a school can
be a case). The goal is to experience has different meanings for each
person. Through unstructured interviews,
arrive at a detailed
description and the investigator explores the subject’s
thoughts and feelings to elicit the essence
understanding of the entity
of an individual’s experience.
(the “case”). Case studies A phenomenological study might be
use multiple methods, such conducted to answer the questions, “What
as interviews, observation, is the relationship like between a beginning
and archives, to gather teacher and his or her mentor?” and “What
data. does the experience mean to the beginning
teacher?”
 NARRATIVE RESEARCH
• Narrative research is the study of how different humans experience the
world around them, and it involves a methodology that allows people to tell
the stories of their “storied lives.”
• Narrative studies usually focus on the experiences of individuals and their
chronology and context using the technique of restoring to collaboratively
construct a narrative account. The goal of a narrative research design is to
collaboratively explore a phenomenon of interest with an individual in an
effort to understand how individuals’ past experiences impact the present
and, potentially, the future.
• Narrative research can contribute to our understanding of educational
issues such as adolescent drug use, cultural differences in diverse urban
school settings, and the achievement gap that separates children raised in
poverty from children who are less economically disadvantaged.
• One of the goals of narrative research in education is to increase
understanding of central issues related to teaching and learning through
the telling and retelling of teachers’ stories.
 Grounded
Grounded theory is a methodology which was first laid out in 1967 by
two researchers named Glaser and Strauss. It tends to be a popular
form of inquiry in the areas of education and health research. The
emphasis in this methodology is on the generation of theory which is
grounded in the data – this means that it has emerged from the data.
This is different from other types of research which might seek to test
a hypothesis that has been formulated by the researcher.

In grounded theory studies the number of people to be interviewed is

not specified at the beginning of the research. This is because the
researcher, at the outset, is unsure of where the research will take
her. Instead, she continues with the data collection until ‘saturation’
point is reached, that is, no new information is being provided.
Grounded theory is therefore Chapter flexible and enables new issues
to emerge that the researcher may not have thought about
previously.

Historical
Historical research analyzes documents, and artifacts and/or uses
interviews with eyewitnesses to gain insight into past events. The
success of historical research depends on the accuracy and
completeness of the source material. The researcher must establish
the authenticity of the documents used, as well as the validity of their
contents.
An educational researcher might want to investigate the trends in
kindergarten education in a particular school district from its
beginnings to the present. Also, one might investigate the methods
used to teach reading in the past or study school practices and
policies such as grade retention.
 MIXED METHOD RESEARCH

Process
1. Interpretation of data;
2. Analysis of data;
Mixed methods research is
3. Collection of data;
4. Selection of mixed method or basically defined as the class
mixed-model research design; of research where the
5. Determining the research researcher mixes or combines
question; quantitative and qualitative
6. Determining whether a mixed research techniques, methods,
research procedure is approaches, concepts or
appropriate; language into a single study.
7. Legitimization of data; and
Mixed methods research
8. Drawing conclusions and
writing the final report. focuses on collecting,
analyzing and mixing both
quantitative and qualitative
data in a single study or series
Character of studies. Its central premise
 The analysis of both qualitative and is that the use of quantitative
quantitative data. and qualitative approaches in
 The collection of both open and combination provides a better
closed-ended data (qualitative and understanding of research
quantitative data) in response to problems that either approach
research question. alone. This better
 Persuasive and rigorous procedures
for the qualitative and quantitative
understanding results because
methods. mixed methods offer strengths
 The integration of these two data that offset the weaknesses of
sources (by merging, connecting, separately applied
embedding). quantitative and qualitative
 The use of specific mixed methods research methods.
design that involves a concurrent or
sequential integration.
 An approach to research that has a
philosophical foundation.
 Variab
Independent Variable: The variable, value
of which affects the value of another variable
is known as independent variable. Such
variable is not affected by the change in the

les:
Variables represents the measurable traits
that can change over the course of a scientific
experiment. 
value of another variable but affects the value
of another variable. Generally, effect of such
variable on another variable is measured or
studied during research studies. Independent
Variable is concerned with variation in presence of variable is also known as absolute variable
something in person, object, animal, place or
situation or in any natural phenomena. It can be Dependent Variable: The variable, value
defined as: of which may change due to change in the
 A characteristic under study of which an identity value of other variable is called dependent
or value changes or is possible to change per unit is variable. In other words, such characteristic
called variable. OR is called dependent variable for which
 A variable is a characteristic that varies in the different values can be obtained in the
context of its value or identity. context of change in independent variable. In
this way, we can say that value of dependent
Referring the definitions of variable, we can say that variable may change due to change in the
any such characteristic, possessed by any living or value of independent variable.
non-living unit or thing, is called variable whose
value may change per unit or per groups of unit. Moderator Variable: We know that
Such characteristic is called variable characteristic in independent variable affects the value of
research study dependent variable and there has been cause
and effect relationship between these two.
The variable that affects the cause and effect
The unit that possesses variable relationship between these two variables is
characteristic to be studied is called subject called moderator variable. It means the effect
of independent variable on dependent
of study. Family, in our above mentioned variable may be different in the presence of
first example, will be considered as subject moderator variable.
and in second example student will be
considered as subject of study. Controlled Variable: If the effect of such
In the same way, if we want to study variables that can affect the cause and effect
Teaching Aptitude (TA) of high school relationship of dependent and independent
teachers, the high school teachers will be variable, is eliminated, it is called controlled
subjects of our study and TA will be variable. In other words, if the effect of
moderator variable is controlled, it is known
considered as variable characteristic under
as controlled variable.
study.
Generally, in research studies, if variables are Intervening Variable: Any such variable is
taken care of, interrelationship among the called intervening variable, that may affect
variables or impact of one or more variables the cause and effect relationship of
on other variables is studied. Sometimes, dependent and independent variables but
interactive effect of some variables on other either cannot be measured clearly or is to be
variable/s is studied through research. If ignored during research. It means,
intervening variables are neither controlled
nor taken care of during research. In other
words, any moderator variable, that cannot
be measured or observed clearly or ignored is
called intervening variable.
HYPOTHESIS:
Thinking about the significance of your topic will help you develop a tentative
hypothesis, which is a prediction about the research findings. A researcher
typically uses the tentative hypothesis as a guiding hypothesis during the process
of reviewing the literature related to the research topic. The tentative hypothesis
is likely to be modified, but it gives direction to the literature search and helps the
researcher narrow its scope to include only relevant topics. Clearly, it is
important to develop a guiding a hypothesis prior to starting your literature
review.
FORMULATING AND STATING A HYPOTHESIS:
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction of the research findings, a statement of
the researcher’s expectations about the relations among the variables in the
research topic. Studies often contain more than one variable and thus it is not
uncommon to have more than one hypothesis for a single research topic.
The researcher does not set out to prove a certain hypothesis but rather collects
data that either support or do not support it. A written statement of your
hypothesis will be a part oif your research plan and report. Both quantitative and
qualitative researchers deal with hypotheses, but the nature of each approach
differs.
DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF HYPOTHESES IN QUANTITATIVE STUDIES:
Hypotheses are essential to all quantitative research studies, with the possible
exception of some survey studies. A quantitative researcher formulates a
hypothesis before conducting the study because the nature of the study is
determined by the hypothesis. Every aspect of the research is affected, including
participants, measuring instruments, design, procedures, data analysis, and
conclusions.
Hypotheses are typically derived from theories or from knowledge gained while
reviewing the related literature, which often leads the researcher to express a
certain finding. For example, studies finding white chalk to be more effective
than yellow chalk in teaching mathematics may lead a researcher to expect white
chalk to be more effective in teaching physics as well, if there are no other
findings to the contrary. Similarly, a theory suggesting the ability to think
abstractly is quite different for 10-year-olds than for 15-year-olds may lead a
researcher to propose a hypothesis that 10 and 15 year olds perform differently on
tests of abstract reasoning.
Although all hypotheses are based on theory or previous knowledge, they have
unequal worth. A number of criteria can be, and should be, applied to determine
the value of a hypothesis.
1. A hypothesis should be based on sound rationale. It should derive from
previous research or theory and its confirmation or disconfirmation
should contribute to educational theory or practice. Therefore, a major
characteristic of a good hypothesis is that it is consistent with theory or
previous research.
2. A good hypothesis provides a reasonable explanation for the predicted
outcome. For example, a hypothesis suggesting that schoolchildren with
freckles attend longer to tasks than schoolchildren without freckles does
not provide a reasonable explanation for children’s attention behavior. A
hypothesis suggesting that children who eat a nutritious breakfast pay
attention longer than children who have no breakfast is more reasonable.
3. A good hypothesis states as clearly and collectively as possible the
expected outcome (or difference) between variables and defines those
variables in operational, measurable terms. A simple but clearly stated
hypothesis makes the relation easier for the readers to understand, is
simpler to test, and facilitates the formulation of conclusions. A relation
between variables may be expressed as a correlational or a causal one. For
example, in a study focused on the relation between anxiety and math
achievement, the hypothesis may be that anxiety and math achievements
are negatively correlated such that students who are highly anxious will
also have low math achievement, and students with higher math
achievement will have low anxiety. In a causal study addressing the same
variables, a researcher may hypothesize that anxiety will cause poor
performance on a math test.
4. A well-stated and well-defined hypothesis must be testable- and it will be
testable if it is well formulated and stated. It should be possible to test a
hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data. It is not possible to test a
hypothesis that some students behave better than other due to the
presence of an invisible little angel on their right shoulder and the others
misbehave because they have an invisible devil sitting on their left one.

A good hypothesis should be testable within some reasonable period of

time. For example, a hypothesis that first-grade students who read after
lunch every day will have bigger vocabulary at the age 60 would obviously
take a very long time to test. A more manageable hypothesis with the same
 theme is that first-grade children who read after lunch will have bigger
vocabularies at the end of the first grade than those who do not read daily.
TYPES OF HYPOTHESES:
Hypotheses can be classified in terms of how they are derived (i.e. , inductive
versus deductive hypotheses) or how they are stated (i.e., directional versus null
hypotheses).
An inductive hypothesis is a generalization based on specific observations.
The researcher observes that certain patterns or associations among variables
occur in a number of situations and uses these tentative observations to form an
inductive hypothesis. For example, a researcher observes that, in some
English grade classrooms, students who take essay tests appear to
show less test anxiety than those who take multiple-choice tests. This
observation could become the basis for an inductive hypothesis
A deductive hypothesis, in contrast, is derived from theory and provides
evidence that supports, expands, or contradicts the theory.
A research hypothesis states an expected relation or difference between variables.
In other words, the quantitative researcher specifies the relation he or she
expects to test in the research study. Research hypothesis can be non –directional
or directional.
A non-directional hypothesis states simply that a relation or difference
between variables exists. A non-directional hypothesis predicts not only the
difference but also what the difference favors e.g., interactive media instruction.
For example, a non-directional hypothesis may state the following:
The achievement of 10th-grade biology students who are instructed using
multimedia is significantly different than the achievement of those who receive
regular instruction only.
A directional hypothesis states the expected direction of the relation or
difference. A directional hypothesis should be stated only if you have a basis for
believing that the results will occur in the stated direction. The corresponding
directional hypothesis to the fore mentioned one may read:
Tenth-grade Biology students who are instructed using interactive multimedia
achieve at a higher level than those who receive regular instruction only.
A null hypothesis states that there is no significant relation or
difference between two variables. The null hypothesis is a hypothesis of
choice when a researcher has little research or theoretical support for a
hypothesis. The disadvantage of a null hypotheses is that they rarely express the
researcher’s true expectations based on literature, insights and logic. For
example, a null hypothesis may be:
The achievement level of 10th-grade biology students who are instructed using
interactive multimedia is not significantly different than the achievement level
of those who receive regular instruction.

STATING THE HYPOTHESIS:

A good hypothesis is stated clearly and concisely, expresses the relation or
difference between variables, and defines those variables in measurable terms. A
general model for stating hypotheses for experimental studies is as follows:
P who get X do better on Y than
P who do not get X (or get some other X)

In the model,
P= the participants
X= the treatment, the causal or independent variable (TV)
Y= the study outcome, the effect or dependent variable (DV)
Although this model is an oversimplification and may not always be appropriate,
it should help you to understand the statement of a hypothesis. Further, this
model, sometimes with variations, is applicable in many situations.
TESTING THE HYPOTHESIS:
The researcher selects the sample, measuring instruments, design, and
procedures that will enable him or her to collect the data necessary to test the
hypothesis. During the course of a research study, those data are analyzed in a
manner that permits the researcher to determine whether the hypothesis is
supported. Analysis of data does not lead to a hypothesis being proven or not
proven, only supported or not supported for this particular study. The results of
analysis indicate whether a hypothesis is supported or not supported for the
particular participants, context, and instruments involved.
Many beginning researchers have the misconception that if the hypothesis is not
supported by the data, then the study is a failure; and conversely, if the
hypothesis is supported, then the study is a success. If a hypothesis is not
supported, a valuable contribution may be made through the development of new
research methods or even a revision of some aspect of a theory. Such revisions
can generate new or revised hypotheses and new and original studies. Thus,
hypotheses’ testing contributes to the education primarily by expanding, refining,
or revising its knowledge base.

DEFINITION AND PURPOSE OF HYPOTHESES IN QUALITATIVE STUDIES:

The aims and strategies of qualitative researchers may differ substantially from
those of quantitative researchers. Typically, qualitative researchers do not state
formal hypotheses before conducting studies but rather seek to understand the
nature of their participants and contexts before stating a research focus or
hypothesis. However, qualitative researchers may +-develop guiding
hypothesis for the proposed research. Rather than testing hypotheses,
qualitative researchers are more likely to generate now hypotheses as a result of
their studies.
The inductive process widely used in qualitative research is based on observing
patterns and associations in the participants’ natural setting without proper
hunches of hypotheses about what researchers will study and observe. Qualitative
researchers’ reluctance to identify variables and predictions immediately stems
from the view, that contexts and participants differ and must be understood on
their own terms before a researcher can begin hypothesizing or judging. Thus,
qualitative researchers have more discretion in determining when and how to
examine or narrow a topic. In general terms, it is generally appropriate to say that
strength of qualitative research is in generating hypotheses, not testing
hypotheses.
Having identified a guiding hypothesis, the qualitative researcher may utilize the
hypothesis through the development of research questions that provide a focus
for data collection. Qualitative research questions encompass a range of topics,
but most focus on particular understanding of meanings and social life in a
particular context. However, these general topics must necessarily be more
focused to become useful and researchable questions. In most cases, the purpose
of narrowing questions is to reduce aspects of the topic, much as a hypothesis
does for quantitative research, because most researchers overestimate the proper
scope of a study.
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM:

Research can be defined as a systematic investigation into and study

of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions. It is normally born out of a problem hence the phrase
statement of problem or Problem statement.

A "Problem Statement" is a description of a difficulty or lack that

needs to be solved or at least researched to see whether a solution can
be found. It can also be described as either a gap between the real and
the desired or a contradiction between principle and practice.

What are the key characteristics of a statement of problem?

A good research problem should at minimum:

1.      Address a gap
2.      be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of research
3.      be one that will lead to more research
4.      renter itself to be investigated via  collection of data
5.      be int1eresting to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time and
resources
6.      be ethical

 The Purpose:

The purpose of a problem statement is to:

1. Introduce the reader to the importance of the topic being

studied. The reader is oriented to the significance of the study and the
research questions or hypotheses to follow.
2. Place the problem into a particular context that defines the
parameters of what is to be investigated.
3. Provide the framework for reporting the results and indicates what
is probably necessary to conduct the study and explain how the findings
will present this information.

III.  What Makes a Good Research Statement?

A good problem statement begins by introducing the broad area in
which your research is centered, gradually leading the reader to the
more specific issues you are investigating. The statement need not be
lengthy but a good research problem should incorporate the following features:
1.  Compelling Topic
Simple curiosity is not a good enough reason to pursue a research study. The
problem that you choose to explore must be important to you, your readers, and
to a the larger academic and/or social community that could be impacted by the
results of your study. The problem chosen must be one that motivates you to
address it.

2.  Supports Multiple Perspectives

The problem most be phrased in a way that avoids dichotomies and instead
supports the generation and exploration of multiple perspectives. A general rule
of thumb in the social sciences is that a good research problem is one that would
generate a variety of viewpoints from a composite audience made up of
reasonable people.

3.  Researchability
This isn't a real word but it represents an important aspect of creating a good
research statement. It seems a bit obvious, but you don't want to find yourself in
the midst of investigating a complex research project and realize that you don't
have enough prior research to draw from for your analysis. There's nothing
inherently wrong with original research, but you must choose research problems
that can be supported, in some way, by the resources available to you. If you are
not sure if something is researchable, don't assume that it isn't if you
don't find information right away--seek help from a librarian!
OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH:

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. Since these objectives
inform a reader of what you want to achieve through the study, it is extremely
important to word them clearlyand specifically. Objectives should be listed under
two headings:

Main objectives;
Sub-objectives

The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also
a statement of the main associations and relationships that you seek to
discover or establish. The sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that
you want to investigate within the main framework of your study.

Sub-objectives should be numerically listed. They should be worded

clearly and unambiguously. Make sure that each sub-objective contains only
one aspect of the study. Use action-oriented words or verbs when writing your
objectives. The objectives should start with words such as ‘to determine’, ‘to
find out’, ‘to ascertain’, ‘to measure’ and ‘to explore’.
The way the main objectives and sub-objectives are worded determines how your
research is classified (e.g. descriptive, correlational or experimental). In other
words, the wording of your objectives determines the type of research design you
need to adopt to achieve them. Hence, be careful about the way you word your
objectives.
Irrespective of the type of research, the objectives should be expressed in such a
way that the wording clearly, completely and specifically communicates to your
readers your intention. There is no place for ambiguity, non-specificity or
incompleteness, either in the wording of your objectives or in the ideas they
communicate.
If your study is primarily descriptive, your main objective should clearly
describe the major focus of your study, even mentioning the organization and
its location unless these are to be kept confidential (e.g. to describe
the types of treatment programme provided by [name of the organisation] to
alcoholics in [name of the place] or to find out the opinion of the
community about the health services provided by [name of the health
centre/department] in [name of the place]). Identification of the
organization and its location is important as the services may be peculiar to the
place and the organization and may not represent the services provided by
others to similar populations. If your study is correlational in nature,
the wording of the main objective should also include the main variables being
correlated (e.g. to ascertain the impact of migration on family roles or to compare
the effectiveness of different teaching methods on the comprehension of
students). If the overall thrust of your study is to test a hypothesis, the wording of
the main objectives should also indicate the direction of the relationship
being tested (e.g. to ascertain if an increase in youth unemployment will
increase the incidence of street crime).
THE RESEARCH TOPIC:
Selecting and identifying a research topic is the first step in applying the scientific
method. The research topic (also called the research question, problem or
purpose) provides focus and structure for the remaining steps in the scientific
method; it is a thread that binds everything together. Selecting and defining a
topic should entail considerable thought. An initial topic that is broad and
complex often proves unmanageable for study, and the researcher must narrow
its scope to implement or complete the study. When properly defined, the
research topic reduces a study to a manageable size.
Identifying a Topic or Question to Research:
The first step in selecting a research topic is to identify a general subject area that
is related to your area of expertise and is of particular interest to you. Remember,
you will be spending a great deal of time reading and working with your chosen
topic. Having one that interests you will help you maintain focus during the
months of conducting your study. Sources of Research Topics:
The five main sources of Research topics are theories, personal experiences,
previous studies that can be replicated, professional electronic mailing lists, and
library searches.
i. Theories: The most meaningful problems are generally those derived
from theories. A theory is an organized body of concepts, generalizations,
and principles that can be investigated. Educationally relevant theories,
such as theories of learning and behavior can provide the inspiration of
many research problems. Research focused on a theory is not only
conceptually rich; such research also provides information that confirms
or disconfirms one or more those aspects and may suggest additional
studies to test the theory further. For example, Jean Piaget posited that
children’s thinking develops in four different stages. Whether aspects of
Piaget’s theory operates as suggested is a good basis for many possible
research topics. For example, a researcher may explore certain factors
that may affect the length of time children take to pass from one stage to
the next.
ii. Personal Experiences: Another common way to identify a research topic
is to examine some of the questions we commonly ask ourselves about
education. Questions may arise when we participate in class discussion,
read articles in local newspapers and educational journals, or interact with
others. When we observe or read about schools, teachers, and programs,
we should ask ourselves questions such as, “Why does that happen?”
“What causes that” “What would happen if?” and “how would a different
group respond to this?” Normally we think only briefly about such
questions before returning to our everyday business, but such questions
are probably the most common source of research topics because they
capture our interest. It is hard to imagine an educator who has never had
a hunch about a better way to do something (e.g., increase learning or
improve student behavior) or asked questions about a program or
materials whose effectiveness was untested (e.g. questioning why a
writing program was successful or why science materials were not). A
possible research topic based on personal experience could be: What is the
impact of “No Children Left Behind” (NCLB) Annual Yearly Progress
(NYP) reporting requirements on the ways teachers teach.
iii. Studies That Can Be Replicated: An additional source of research
topics is previously published studies, many of which can be replicated. A
replication is a repetition of a study using different subjects to retest its
 hypothesis. No single study, regardless of its focus or breadth, provides
the certainty needed to assume that similar results occur in all or most
similar situations. Progress through research usually comes from
accumulated understandings and explanations, and replication is a tool to
provide such accumulated information.
In most cases, the method of a replication is not identical to the original
study. Rather, some feature or features of the original study are altered in
an attempt to stretch or move beyond the original findings. For example,
the researcher may select a different sample of participants from the
replication in hope of determining whether the results are the same as
those found in the original study. Or the researcher may examine a
different kind of community or student, use a different questionnaire, or
apply a different method of data analysis. There are a variety of interesting
and useful ways to replicate studies in the many domains of education.
For example, a possible replication study may focus on how students’ use
of computers in classroom affects their achievement, and the study may
extend original studies in the area by providing computers to children
who have not previously had access to such technology.
iv. Electronic Mailing Lists: Researchers most frequently use e-mail to
solicit advice and feedback and conduct dialogue with peers and experts in
their fields. The most common way to do so is by subscribing to an
electronic mailing list service: A well-known example is Listserv, run by L-
Soft International. Electronic mailing lists are designed by organizations
or special interest groups to facilitate communication among their
members. Through one of these lists, you can expect to receive
announcements and bulletins related to your area of interest. In addition,
you can post comments or questions to the mailing list. Your messages
will be read by members of the list, who may respond to you personally or
to the mailing list as a whole.
An electronic mailing list is a good resource to consult when you are
devising a research question. You can ask list members what they think of
a particular topic, if they know of other research pertaining to your topic,
or for links (electronic or otherwise) to resources of interest. You can also
bounce ideas off other list members at each stage of your research. You
can even ask for volunteers to read your work in progress!
v. Library Searches: Another commonly cited source for a research topic is a
library search. Many students are encouraged to immerse themselves in
the library and read voraciously in their areas of study until research
topics emerge. Although some research topics may emerge from library
immersion, they are considerably fewer than those emerging from
theories, personal experiences and previous studies. Searching for a
 research topics in a library amongst thousands of books is like a search for
a needle in the haystack, we might find it sometimes, but we often fail to
do so. A library is an essential part of research, however, is a place which
should be visited once the topic has been narrowed down.

Narrowing the Topic:

For the most quantitative researchers, and some qualitative researchers, the
general topic area must be narrowed to a more specific, researchable one. A
topic that is too broad creates a lot of issues. Firstly, you need to review a lot of
related literature which makes you spend a lot of time and study the library.
Secondly, broad topics make organization of a literature review very difficult.
Lastly, too broad a topic results in a study which is too general, difficult to
carry out and difficult to interpret. On the contrary, a well-defined,
manageable problem results in a well-defined, manageable study.

A quantitative research typically requires the researcher to spell down a

narrow and manageable topic at the start of the study whereas in case of
qualitative research the researcher often enters the research setting with only a
general topic in mind. Following observations over a period of time, the
researcher formulates a narrower research topic. The first idea for narrowing a
topic is to consult your faculty advisors and specialists in your area and get
specific suggestions for your study. Furthermore, read sources that provide
overviews of the current status of research in your topic are and read
handbooks containing several chapters focused on research in a particular
area. You can also consult research journals related to your area of study.

In narrowing down your topic, select an aspect of the general problem area
that is related to your area of expertise. However, do not get carried away while
narrowing a topic, because you might end up with a research problem that is
too narrow; which will be turn out to be as bad as a too broad topic.

Characteristics of a Good Topic:

Selecting a worthwhile problem will help you in getting a great deal out it both
professionally and academically. A well-conducted study will give you greater
job opportunities, enable you to add to knowledge in the concerned field,
increase your professional status and provides great self-satisfaction. The
characteristics of a good research topic are as under:

1. It should be researchable, i.e. it could be investigated via collecting and

analyzing data. Problems related to philosophical and ethical issues are
 not researchable. Generally, topics or questions containing word
“should”; cannot be answered via research since their answers are based
on opinions.
2. However, a slight change of statement can turn an un-researchable topic
into a researchable one. For example, studies examining the effects of
grouping practices in classroom learning can tell us about the varied
consequences of this practice.
3. A good research topic should have a theoretical or practical significance.
Generally speaking, a significant study is one that contributes in some
way to the improvement or understanding of the educational theory or
practice.
4. A good research topic is one in which the research is ethical. That is, the
research must not potentially harm the research participants. Harm
encompasses not only physical danger but emotional one as well.
5. A good research topic should be manageable for you. Choosing an
interesting topic is that also has expertise is not enough, you should
select one which you are able to investigate with your current level of
research skill, the resources available to you, and the time you can
commit to carrying out the research. The availability of appropriate
participants and measuring instruments is an important consideration
as well.

Stating the Research Topic:

After selecting and narrowing your research topic, you should draft a written
statement of that topic. The way in which a topic is stated varies according to
the type of research undertaken and the preferences of the researcher. We
state a research topic differently in case of qualitative and quantitative
research.

Stating Quantitative Research Topics:

For a Quantitative study, a well written topic statement generally describes

the variables of interest. The specific relations among those variables, and,
ideally, important characteristics of the participants (e.g., gifted students,
fourth graders with learning disabilities, teenage mothers). An example of a
problem statement is “The topic to be investigated in this study is the effect of
positive reinforcement on the quality of 10th graders’ English compositions”.

Stating Qualitative Research Topics:

Qualitative research topics are mostly stated in general terms at the start of the
research process, because often a researcher needs to spend a lot of time in the
study context for the focus if the study to emerge. Qualitative research topics
automatically narrow down as the researcher becomes more and more aware
of the research context, its inhabitants and these more precise statements
appear in the research report.

Placement and Nature of the Topic Statement in a Study:

A statement of the topic is the first component of both the research plan and
the completed research report, and it gives direction to the remaining aspects
of both the plan and the report. The statement is accompanied by a
presentation of the background of the topic, a justification for the study (i.e., a
discussion of its significance) and, often, limitations of the study. The
background includes information needed by readers and understands the
nature of the topic.