Teacher: Han Bhai, Kitna Parha?

Students: Kuch Nai, Sir syllabus bataein.

Le Teacher:

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 1

 Reasoning, Inductive and Deductive Reasoning and its Application
Introduction
Reason is the capacity of consciously applying logic to seek truth and draw conclusions from
new or existing information. It is closely associated with such characteristically human activities
as philosophy, science, language, mathematics, and art, and is normally considered to be a
distinguishing ability possessed by humans. Reason is sometimes referred to as rationality.
Reasoning is associated with the acts of thinking and cognition, and involves using one's
intellect. The field of logic studies the ways in which humans can use formal reasoning to
produce logically valid arguments." Reasoning may be subdivided into forms of logical
reasoning, such as: deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning.
Inductive and Deductive Reasoning applied in Research
The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims
at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory.
Inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations, and deductive
reasoning the other way around.
Both approaches are used in various types of research, and it’s not uncommon to combine them
in one large study.
Inductive research approach
When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to perform inductive
research because there is no theory to test. The inductive approach consists of three stages:
1. Observation
o A low-cost airline flight is delayed
o Dogs A and B have fleas
o Elephants depend on water to exist
2. Observe a pattern
o Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed
o All observed dogs have fleas
o All observed animals depend on water to exist
3. Develop a theory
o Low cost airlines always have delays
o All dogs have fleas
o All biological life depends on water to exist
Limitations of an inductive approach
A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be proven, but it can be
invalidated.
Example
You observe 1000 flights from low-cost airlines. All of them experience a delay, which is in line
with your theory. However, you can never prove that flight 1001 will also be delayed. Still, the
larger your data set, the more reliable the conclusion.
Deductive research approach
When conducting deductive research, you always start with a theory (the result of inductive
research). Reasoning deductively means testing these theories. If there is no theory yet, you
cannot conduct deductive research.
The deductive research approach consists of four stages:
1. Start with an existing theory
o Low cost airlines always have delays
o All dogs have fleas
o All biological life depends on water to exist
2. Formulate a hypothesis based on existing theory
Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 2
 o If passengers fly with a low cost airline, then they will always experience delays
o All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas
o All land mammals depend on water to exist
3. Collect data to test the hypothesis
o Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
o Test all dogs in the building for fleas
o Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water
4. Analyse the results: does the data reject or support the hypothesis?
o 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject hypothesis
o 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas = reject hypothesis
o All land mammal species depend on water = support hypothesis
Limitations of a deductive approach
The conclusions of deductive reasoning can only be true if all the premises set in the inductive
study are true and the terms are clear.
Example
 All dogs have fleas (premise)
 Benno is a dog (premise)
 Benno has fleas (conclusion)
Based on the premises we have, the conclusion must be true. However, if the first premise turns
out to be false, the conclusion that Benno has fleas cannot be relied upon.
Combining inductive and deductive research
Many scientists conducting a larger research project begin with an inductive study (developing a
theory). The inductive study is followed up with deductive research to confirm or invalidate the
conclusion.
In the examples above, the conclusion (theory) of the inductive study is also used as a starting
point for the deductive study.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 3

 What are the Steps of Developing a Research Topic?
Steps for developing Research Topic
The research process often begins with a very broad idea for a topic you’d like to know more
about. You do some preliminary research to identify a problem. After refining your research
questions, you can lay out the foundations of your research design, leading to a proposal that
outlines your ideas and plans.
Step 1: Choose your topic
First you have to come up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very
broad. Think about the general area or field you’re interested in—maybe you already have
specific research interests based on classes you’ve taken, or maybe you had to consider your
topic when applying to graduate school and writing a statement of purpose.
Even if you already have a good sense of your topic, you’ll need to read widely to build
background knowledge and begin narrowing down your ideas. Conduct an initial literature
review to begin gathering relevant sources. As you read, take notes and try to identify problems,
questions, debates, contradictions and gaps. Your aim is to narrow down from a broad area of
interest to a specific niche.
Make sure to consider the practicalities: the requirements of your programme, the amount of
time you have to complete the research, and how difficult it will be to access sources and data on
the topic. Before moving onto the next stage, it’s a good idea to discuss the topic with your thesis
supervisor.
Step 2: Identify a problem
So you’ve settled on a topic and found a niche - but what exactly will your research investigate,
and why does it matter? To give your project focus and purpose, you have to define a research
problem.
The problem might be a practical issue—for example, a process or practice that isn’t working
well, an area of concern in an organization’s performance, or a difficulty faced by a specific
group of people in society.
Alternatively, you might choose to investigate a theoretical problem—for example, an
underexplored phenomenon or relationship, a contradiction between different models or theories,
or an unresolved debate among scholars.
To put the problem in context and set your objectives, you can write a problem statement. This
describes who the problem affects, why research is needed, and how your research project will
contribute to solving it.
Step 3: Formulate research questions
Next, based on the problem statement, you need to write one or more research questions. These
target exactly what you want to find out. They might focus on describing, comparing, evaluating,
or explaining the research problem.
A strong research question should be specific enough that you can answer it thoroughly using
appropriate qualitative or quantitative research methods. It should also be complex enough to
require in-depth investigation, analysis, and argument. Questions that can be answered with
“yes/no” or with easily available facts are not complex enough for a thesis or dissertation.
In some types of research, at this stage you might also have to develop a conceptual
framework and testable hypotheses.
Step 4: Create a research design
The research design is a practical framework for answering your research questions. It involves
making decisions about the type of data you need, the methods you’ll use to collect and analyze
it, and the location and timescale of your research.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 4

There are often many possible paths you can take to answering your questions. The decisions
you make will partly be based on your priorities. For example, do you want to determine causes
and effects, draw generalizable conclusions, or understand the details of a specific context?
You need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or
quantitative methods. You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures, and materials
you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria for selecting participants or
sources.
Step 5: Write a research proposal
Finally, after completing these steps, you are ready to complete a research proposal. The
proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research.
As well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the proposal
should also include a literature review that shows how your project will fit into existing work on
the topic. The research design section describes your approach and explains exactly what you
will do.
You might have to get the proposal approved by your supervisor before you get started, and it
will guide the process of writing your thesis or dissertation.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 5

How to define your research problem
A research problem is a specific issue, difficulty, contradiction, or gap in knowledge that you
will aim to address in your research. You might look for practical problems aimed at contributing
to change, or theoretical problems aimed at expanding knowledge.
Bear in mind that some research will do both of these things, but usually the research problem
focuses on one or the other. The type of research problem you choose depends on your
broad topic of interest and the type of research you want to do.
This article helps you identify and refine a research problem. When writing your research
proposal or introduction, you will have to formulate it as a problem statement and/or research
questions.
Why is the research problem important?
Your topic is interesting and you have lots to say about it, but this isn’t a strong enough basis for
academic research. Without a well-defined research problem, you are likely to end up with an
unfocused and unmanageable project.
You might end up repeating what other people have already said, trying to say too much, or
doing research without a clear purpose and justification. You need a problem in order to do
research that contributes new and relevant insights.
Whether you’re planning your thesis, starting a research paper or writing a research proposal, the
research problem is the first step towards knowing exactly what you’ll do and why.
Step 1: Identify a broad problem area
As you discuss and read about your topic, look for under-explored aspects and areas of concern,
conflict or controversy. Your goal is to find a gap that your research project can fill.
Practical research problems
If you are doing practical research, you can identify a problem by reading reports, following up
on previous research, and talking to people who work in the relevant field or organization. You
might look for:
 Issues with performance or efficiency in an organization
 Processes that could be improved in an institution
 Areas of concern among practitioners in a field
 Difficulties faced by specific groups of people in society
If your research is connected to a job or internship, you will need to find a research problem that
has practical relevance for the organization.
Examples of practical research problems
Voter turnout in region X has been decreasing, in contrast to the rest of the country.
Department A of Company B has a high staff turnover rate, affecting productivity and team
cohesion.
Non-profit organization Y faces a funding gap that means some of its programs will have to be
cut.
Theoretical research problems
Theoretical research focuses on expanding knowledge and understanding rather than directly
contributing to change. You can identify a research problem by reading recent research, theory
and debates on your topic to find a gap in what is currently known about it. You might look for:
 A phenomenon or context that has not been closely studied
 A contradiction between two or more perspectives
 A situation or relationship that is not well understood
 A troubling question that has yet to be resolved
Theoretical problems often have practical consequences, but they are not focused on solving an
immediate issue in a specific place (though you might take a case study approach to the
research).
Examples of theoretical research problems
The effects of long-term Vitamin D deficiency on cardiovascular health are not well understood.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 6

The relationship between gender, race and income inequality has yet to be closely studied in the
context of the millennial gig economy.
Step 2: Learn more about the problem
Next, you have to find out what is already known about the problem, and pinpoint the exact
aspect that your research will address.
Context and background
 Who does the problem affect?
 Has it been an issue for a long time, or is it a newly discovered problem?
 What research has already been done?
 Have any solutions been proposed?
 What are the current debates about the problem, and what do you think is missing from them?
Specificity and relevance
 What particular place, time and/or people will you focus on?
 What aspects will you not be able to tackle?
 What will be the consequences if the problem is not resolved?
 Whose will benefit from resolving the problem (e.g. the management of an organization or future
researchers)?
Example of a specific research problem
Non-profit organization X has been focused on retaining its existing support base, but lacks
understanding of how best to target potential new donors. To be able to continue its work, the
organization requires research into more effective fundraising strategies.
When you have narrowed down your problem, the next step is to formulate a problem statement
and research questions or hypotheses.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 7

How to write a problem statement
After you have identified a research problem for your project, the next step is to write a problem
statement. An effective problem statement is concise and concrete. It should:
 Put the problem in context (what do we already know?)
 Describe the precise issue that the research will address (what do we need to know?)
 Show the relevance of the problem (why do we need to know it?)
 Set the objectives of the research (what will you do to find out?)
When should you write a problem statement?
There are various situations in which you might have to write a problem statement.
In academic research, writing a problem statement can help you contextualize and understand the
significance of your research problem. A problem statement can be several paragraphs long and
serve as the basis for your research proposal, or it can be condensed into just a few sentences in
the introduction of your paper or thesis.
The problem statement will look different depending on whether you’re dealing with a practical
real-world problem or a theoretical scientific issue. But all problem statements follow a similar
process.
Step 1: Contextualize the problem
The problem statement should frame your research problem in its particular context and give
some background on what is already known about it.
Practical research problems
For practical research, focus on the concrete details of the situation:
 Where and when does the problem arise?
 Who does the problem affect?
 What attempts have been made to solve the problem?
Example
Voter turnout in region X has been decreasing steadily over the past ten years, in contrast to
other areas of the country. According to surveys conducted by organization Y, turnout is lowest
among under-25s and people on low incomes. There have been some effective attempts at
engaging these groups in other regions, and in the last two elections parties A and B increased
their campaigning efforts in region X, but these interventions have yet to have any significant
effect on turnout.
Theoretical research problems
For theoretical research, think about the scientific, social, geographical and/or historical
background:
 What is already known about the problem?
 Is the problem limited to a certain time period or geographical area?
 How has the problem been defined and debated in the scholarly literature?
Example
In the past ten years, the “gig economy” has become an increasingly important segment of the
labour market. Under-30s are more likely to engage in freelance, contracted or zero-hour work
arrangements instead of traditional full-time jobs. Research on the reasons for and consequences
of this shift has focused on objective measures of income, working hours and employment
conditions, but there has been little work exploring young people’s subjective experiences of the
gig economy.
Step 2: Show why it matters
The problem statement should also address the relevance of the research: why is it important that
the problem is solved?
This doesn’t mean you have to do something groundbreaking or world-changing. It’s more
important that the problem is researchable, feasible, and clearly addresses a relevant issue in your
field.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 8

Practical research problems
Practical research is directly relevant to a specific problem that affects an organization,
institution, social group, or society more broadly. To make it clear why your research problem
matters, you can ask yourself:
 What will happen if the problem is not solved?
 Who will feel the consequences?
 Does the problem have wider relevance (e.g. are similar issues found in other contexts)?
Example
Low voter turnout has been shown to have negative associations with social cohesion and civic
engagement, and is becoming an area of increasing concern in many European democracies.
When specific groups of citizens lack political representation, they are likely to become more
excluded over time, leading to an erosion of trust in democratic institutions. Addressing this
problem will have practical benefits for region X and contribute to understanding of this
widespread phenomenon.
Theoretical research problems
Sometimes theoretical issues have clear practical consequences, but sometimes their relevance is
less immediately obvious. To identify why the problem matters, ask:
 How will resolving the problem advance understanding of the topic?
 What benefits will it have for future research?
 Does the problem have direct or indirect consequences for society?
Example
In the literature on the gig economy, these new forms of employment are sometimes
characterized as a flexible active choice and sometimes as an exploitative last resort. To gain a
fuller understanding of why young people engage in the gig economy, in-depth qualitative
research is required. Focusing on workers’ experiences can help develop more robust theories of
flexibility and precocity in contemporary employment, as well as potentially informing future
policy objectives.
Step 3: Set your aims and objectives
Finally, the problem statement should frame how you intend to address the problem. Your goal
should not be to find a conclusive solution, but to seek out the reasons behind the problem and
propose more effective approaches to tackling or understanding it.
The aim is the overall purpose of your research. It is generally written in the infinitive form:
 The aim of this study is to determine…
 This project aims to explore…
 I aim to investigate…
The objectives are the concrete steps you will take to achieve the aim:
 Qualitative methods will be used to identify…
 I will use surveys to collect…
 Using statistical analysis, the research will measure…
Practical research aims and objectives
The aim of this research is to investigate effective engagement strategies to increase voter
turnout in region X. It will identify the most significant factors in non-voting through surveys
and interviews, and conduct experiments to measure the effectiveness of different strategies.
Theoretical research aims and objectives
This project aims to better understand young people’s experiences in the gig economy.
Qualitative methods will be used to gain in-depth insight into the motivations and perceptions of
under-30s engaged in freelance and zero-hour work across various industries. This data will be
contextualized with a review of recent literature on the gig economy and statistical analysis of
demographic changes in the workforce.
The aims and objectives should lead directly to your research questions.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 9

What are the steps of formulating / developing Research Questions?
Developing strong research questions
A good research question is essential to guide your research paper, project or thesis. It pinpoints
exactly what you want to find out and gives your work a clear focus and purpose. All research
questions should be:
 Focused on a single problem or issue
 Researchable using primary and/or secondary sources
 Feasible to answer within the timeframe and practical constraints
 Specific enough to answer thoroughly
 Complex enough to develop the answer over the space of a paper or thesis
 Relevant to your field of study and/or society more broadly
In a research paper or essay, you will usually write a single research question to guide your
reading and thinking. The answer that you develop is your thesis statement — the central
assertion or position that your paper will argue for.
In a bigger research project, such as a thesis or dissertation, you might have multiple research
questions, but they should all be clearly connected and focused around a central research
problem.
There are many types of research question that correspond to different types of research.
How to write a research question
The process of developing your research question follows several steps:
 Choose a broad topic
 Do some preliminary reading to find out about topical debates and issues
 Narrow down a specific niche that you want to focus on
 Identify a practical or theoretical research problem that you will address
When you have a clearly-defined problem, you need to formulate one or more questions. Think
about exactly what you want to know and how it will contribute to resolving the problem.
The way you frame your question depends on what your research aims to achieve. The table
below shows some examples of how you might formulate questions for different purposes.
Research aims Research question formulations
 What are the characteristics of X?
 How has X changed over time?
Describing and exploring  What are the main factors in X?
 How does X experience Y?
 How has X dealt with Y?
 What is the relationship between X and Y?
 What is the role of X in Y?
Explaining and testing  What is the impact of X on Y?
 How does X influence Y?
 What are the causes of X?
 What are the advantages and disadvantages of X?
 How effective is X?
Evaluating and acting  How can X be achieved?
 What are the most effective strategies to improve X?
 How can X be used in Y?
Depending on the scope of your research, you may identify just one question or several. You
may also have one primary research question and several secondary questions or sub-questions
that relate to the same problem.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 10

Example research problem Example research question(s)
The teachers at school X do not have the What practical techniques can teachers at school
skills to recognize or properly guide gifted X use to better identify and guide gifted
children in the classroom. children?
What are the main factors that influence young
Under-30s increasingly engage in the “gig
people’s decisions to engage in the gig
economy” instead of traditional full-time
economy? What do workers perceive as its
employment, but there is little research into
advantages and disadvantages? Do age and
young people’s experiences of this type of
education level have an effect on how people
work.
experience this type of work?
Most research questions can be answered with various types of research, but the way you frame
your question should help drive your research design choices.
What makes a strong research question?
Writing questions isn’t a difficult task in itself, but it can be hard to work out if you have
a good research question. Research questions anchor your whole project, so it’s important to
spend some time refining them. The criteria below can help you evaluate the strength of your
research question.
Focused and researchable
Criteria Explanation
Your central research question should follow from your research problem
Focuses on a single
to keep your work focused. If you have multiple questions, they should all
topic and problem
clearly relate to this central aim.
You must be able to find an answer by
Answerable collecting quantitative and/or qualitative data, or by reading scholarly
using primary or sources on the topic to develop an argument. If such data is impossible to
secondary data access, you will have to rethink your question and ask something more
concrete.
Avoid subjective words like good, bad, better and worse, as these do not
Does not ask for a give clear criteria for answering the question. If your question is
subjective value evaluating something, use terms with more measurable definitions.
judgement  Is X or Y a better policy?
 How effective are X and Y policies at reducing rates of Z?

Feasible and specific

Criteria Explanation
Make sure you have enough time and resources to do the research
Answerable within required to answer the question. If you think you might struggle to
practical constraints gain access to enough data, consider narrowing down the question to
be more specific.
All the terms you use in the research question should have clear
meanings. Avoid vague language and broad ideas, and be clear
Uses specific, well- about what, who, where and when your question addresses.
defined concepts  What effect does social media have on people’s minds?
 What effect does daily use of Twitter have on the attention
span of under-16s?
Does not ask for a Research is about informing, not instructing. Even if your project is
conclusive solution, focused on a practical problem, it should aim to improve

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 11

policy, or course of understanding and suggest possibilities rather than asking for a
action ready-made solution.
 What should the government do about low voter turnout?
 What are the most effective communication strategies for
increasing voter turnout among under-30s?
Complex and arguable
Criteria Explanation
Closed yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research
questions — they don’t provide enough scope for investigation and
discussion.
Cannot be answered
 Has there been an increase in homelessness in the UK in the past
with yes or no
ten years?
 How have economic and political factors affected patterns of
homelessness in the UK over the past ten years?
If you can answer the question through a Google search or by reading a
Cannot be answered
single book or article, it is probably not complex enough. A good
with easily found
research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources,
facts and figures
interpretation and/or argument to provide an answer.
The answer to the question should not just be a simple statement of fact:
Provides scope for there needs to be space for you to discuss and interpret what you found.
debate and This is especially important in an essay or research paper, where the
deliberation answer to your question often takes the form of an argumentative thesis
statement.
Relevant and original
Criteria Explanation
Addresses a problem The research question should be developed based on initial reading
relevant to your field or around your topic, and it should focus on addressing a problem or gap
discipline in the existing knowledge.
The question should aim to contribute to an existing debate — ideally
Contributes to a topical
one that is current in your field or in society at large. It should
social or academic
produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can build
debate
on.
You don’t have to ask something groundbreaking that nobody has
Has not already been ever thought of before, but the question should have some aspect of
answered originality (for example, by focusing on a specific location or taking a
new angle on a long-running debate)

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 12

 Literature review
Definition
A literature review surveys books, scholarly articles, and any other sources relevant to a
particular issue, area of research, or theory, and by so doing, provides a description, summary,
and critical evaluation of these works in relation to the research problem being investigated.
Literature reviews are designed to provide an overview of sources you have explored while
researching a particular topic and to demonstrate to your readers how your research fits within a
larger field of study.
Importance of a Literature Review
A literature review may consist of simply a summary of key sources, but in the social sciences, a
literature review usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and
synthesis, often within specific conceptual categories. A summary is a recap of the important
information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization, or a reshuffling, of that
information in a way that informs how you are planning to investigate a research problem. The
analytical features of a literature review might:
 Give a new interpretation of old material or combine new with old interpretations,
 Trace the intellectual progression of the field, including major debates,
 Depending on the situation, evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most
pertinent or relevant research, or
 Usually in the conclusion of a literature review, identify where gaps exist in how a problem
has been researched to date.
Purpose/Aim of a literature review
There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:
 To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
 To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
 To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
 To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
 To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic
The Role of Literature Review in a Research
Your literature review gives readers an understanding of the scholarly research on your topic.
In your literature review you will:
 demonstrate that you are a well-informed scholar with expertise and knowledge in the
field by giving an overview of the current state of the literature
 find a gap in the literature, or address a business or professional issue, depending on your
doctoral study program; the literature review will illustrate how your research contributes
to the scholarly conversation
 provide a synthesis of the issues, trends, and concepts surrounding your research
Types of Literature Reviews
1. Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply
imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The
purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the
value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration
control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important
form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are
used to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 13

2. Integrative Review
Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on
a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are
generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses
or research problems. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary
research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common form of review in
the social sciences.
3. Historical Review
Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical literature reviews focus on
examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue,
concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the
scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show
familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future
research.
4. Methodological Review
A review does not always focus on what someone said [findings], but how they came about
saying what they say [method of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework
of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches,
and data collection and analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of
knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the
areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration,
sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical
issues which you should be aware of and consider as you go through your own study.
5. Systematic Review
This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research
question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise
relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data from the studies that are included in the
review. The goal is to deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize scientifically all
of the research about a clearly defined research problem. Typically it focuses on a very specific
empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A
contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily applied to examining prior research
studies in clinical medicine and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the social
sciences.
6. Theoretical Review
The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an
issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish what
theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have
been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help
establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for
explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical
concept or a whole theory or framework.
Why and how to write a literature review?
When you write a thesis, dissertation, or research paper, you will have to conduct a literature
review to situate your research within existing knowledge. The literature review gives you a
chance to:
 Demonstrate your familiarity with the topic and scholarly context
 Develop a theoretical framework and methodology for your research
 Position yourself in relation to other researchers and theorists
 Show how your research addresses a gap or contributes to a debate

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 14

You might also have to write a literature review as a stand-alone assignment. In this case, the
purpose is to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your knowledge of scholarly
debates around a topic.
The content will look slightly different in each case, but the process of conducting a literature
review follows the same steps.
Writing literature reviews is a particularly important skill if you want to apply for graduate
school or pursue a career in research.
Step 1: Search for relevant literature
Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic.
If you are writing the literature review section of a dissertation or research paper, you will search
for literature related to your research problem and questions.
If you are writing a literature review as a stand-alone assignment, you will have to choose a
focus and develop a central question to direct your search. Unlike a dissertation research
question, this question has to be answerable without collecting original data. You should be able
to answer it based only on a review of existing publications.
Make a list of keywords
Start by creating a list of keywords related to your research question. Include each of the key
concepts or variables you’re interested in, and list any synonyms and related terms. You can add
to this list if you discover new keywords in the process of your literature search.
Keywords example
 Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
 Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
 Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth
Search for relevant sources
Use your keywords to begin searching for sources. Some useful databases to search for journals
and articles include:
 Your university’s library catalogue
 Google Scholar
 JSTOR
 EBSCO
 Project Muse (humanities and social sciences)
 Medline (life sciences and biomedicine)
 EconLit (economics)
 Inspec (physics, engineering and computer science)
Read the abstract to find out whether an article is relevant to your question. When you find a
useful book or article, you can check the bibliography to find other relevant sources.
To identify the most important publications on your topic, take note of recurring citations. If the
same authors, books or articles keep appearing in your reading, make sure to seek them out.
Step 2: Evaluate and select sources
You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic—
you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.
For each publication, ask yourself:
 What question or problem is the author addressing?
 What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
 What are the key theories, models and methods? Does the research use established
frameworks or take an innovative approach?
 What are the results and conclusions of the study?
 How does the publication relate to other literature in the field? Does it confirm, add to, or
challenge established knowledge?
 How does the publication contribute to your understanding of the topic? What are its key
insights and arguments?
Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 15
  What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
Make sure the sources you use are credible, and make sure you read any landmark studies and
major theories in your field of research.
You can find out how many times an article has been cited on Google Scholar—a high citation
count means the article has been influential in the field, and should certainly be included in your
literature review.
The scope of your review will depend on your topic and discipline: in the sciences you usually
only review recent literature, but in the humanities you might take a long historical perspective
(for example, to trace how a concept has changed in meaning over time).
Take notes and cite your sources
As you read, you should also begin the writing process. Take notes that you can later incorporate
into the text of your literature review.
It is important to keep track of your sources with citations to avoid plagiarism. It can be helpful
to make an annotated bibliography, where you compile full citation information and write a
paragraph of summary and analysis for each source. This helps you remember what you read and
saves time later in the process.
Step 3: Identify themes, debates, and gaps
To begin organizing your literature review’s argument and structure, you need to understand the
connections and relationships between the sources you’ve read. Based on your reading and notes,
you can look for:
 Trends and patterns (in theory, method or results): do certain approaches become
more or less popular over time?
 Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
 Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
 Pivotal publications: are there any influential theories or studies that changed the
direction of the field?
 Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be
addressed?
This step will help you work out the structure of your literature review and (if applicable) show
how your own research will contribute to existing knowledge.
Step 4: Outline your literature review’s structure
There are various approaches to organizing the body of a literature review. You should have a
rough idea of your strategy before you start writing.
Depending on the length of your literature review, you can combine several of these strategies
(for example, your overall structure might be thematic, but each theme is discussed
chronologically).
Chronological
The simplest approach is to trace the development of the topic over time. However, if you choose
this strategy, be careful to avoid simply listing and summarizing sources in order.
Try to analyze patterns, turning points and key debates that have shaped the direction of the field.
Give your interpretation of how and why certain developments occurred.
Thematic
If you have found some recurring central themes, you can organize your literature review into
subsections that address different aspects of the topic.
For example, if you are reviewing literature about inequalities in migrant health outcomes, key
themes might include healthcare policy, language barriers, cultural attitudes, legal status, and
economic access.
Methodological

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 16

If you draw your sources from different disciplines or fields that use a variety of research
methods, you might want to compare the results and conclusions that emerge from different
approaches. For example:
 Look at what results have emerged in qualitative versus quantitative research
 Discuss how the topic has been approached by empirical versus theoretical scholarship
 Divide the literature into sociological, historical, and cultural sources
Theoretical
A literature review is often the foundation for a theoretical framework. You can use it to discuss
various theories, models, and definitions of key concepts.
You might argue for the relevance of a specific theoretical approach, or combine various
theoretical concepts to create a framework for your research.
Step 5: Write your literature review
Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main body,
and a conclusion. What you include in each depends on the objective of your literature review.
Introduction
The introduction should clearly establish the focus and purpose of the literature review. If you
are writing the literature review as part of your dissertation or thesis, reiterate your central
problem or research question and give a brief summary of the scholarly context. You can
emphasize the timeliness of the topic (“many recent studies have focused on the problem of x”)
or highlight a gap in the literature (“while there has been much research on x, few researchers
have taken y into consideration”). If you are writing a stand-alone paper, give some background
on the topic and its importance, discuss the scope of the literature you will review (for example,
the time period of your sources), and state your objective. What new insight will you draw from
the literature?
Body
Depending on the length of your literature review, you might want to divide the body into
subsections. You can use a subheading for each theme, time period, or methodological approach.
As you write, you can follow these tips:
 Summarize and synthesize: give an overview of the main points of each source and
combine them into a coherent whole
 Analyze and interpret: don’t just paraphrase other researchers—add your own
interpretations where possible, discussing the significance of findings in relation to the
literature as a whole
 Critically evaluate: mention the strengths and weaknesses of your sources
 Write in well-structured paragraphs: use transition words and topic sentences to draw
connections, comparisons and contrasts
Conclusion
In the conclusion, you should summarize the key findings you have taken from the literature and
emphasize their significance.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 17

 Define importance of Research Proposal? Why it is important for
Research?
Research Proposal: Importance, Purpose, & Writing Steps
Introduction
The main purpose of a research proposal is to convince the reader of your project’s value. You
will have to prove that you have a plan for your work and that your project will be successful.
Your reader has to be sure that it is not another useless piece of writing, but a profound research
work that will be extremely important for science.
Definition
A research proposal is a document that proposes a particular research project, usually in
academia or sciences, intending to get funding from an institution. A typical research proposal
addresses a range of points:
 A research question(s) that the proposed research seeks to answer
 The data & methods that will be used to answer the questions
 The time and financial costs for the research
 The prior research in the field
 Potential benefits for the sponsoring institution
Research proposals are usually required when one plans to write a thesis, dissertation, or research
paper. The format is similar to that of a research paper, with an introduction, a literature review,
a methods section, and a conclusion.
Purpose & Importance
The primary goal of any research proposal is to convince a sponsoring institution that a particular
research project is worthwhile. The document usually aims to cover the aspects below.
Convince the reader that your project is original, interesting, and essential for a
Relevance research field you’re working in.
Demonstrate your familiarity with the research field. Show that you know its
Context current state and have a deep understanding of the literature.
Explain your methodology. Show that your data and methods are thought about
Approach well.
Talk about the practical side of your project. Confirm that you’re able to
Feasibility complete the research within the limits of the program or the institution you’re
applying to.
Importance of Proposal in Research
The purpose of the research proposal: The research proposal is your chance to explain the
significance of your project to organizations who might wish to fund or otherwise support it.
Ideally, it will demonstrate the quality and importance of your project as well as your ability to
conduct the proposed research. The proposal also gives you the opportunity to think through
your research project, to refine your focus, and to predict any challenges that may arise. It may
be helpful to consult your proposal at various stages in your research process to remind yourself
of your focus and to chart how your project has progressed
How to write Research Proposal
Determine your The first and probably the easiest thing to do is to identify a
STEP #1
area general study topic or subject area to investigate.
On the second stage, you need to read as much literature on
STEP #2 Study literature the general topic as possible. Make notes and summarize each
study’s purpose and findings.
STEP #3 Find the gap in the The purpose of the previous step is to determine what studies

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 18

 literature have already been done on the subject of your research
proposal and then identify any obvious gaps in the literature.
Find where you can add to the existing body of knowledge.
The purpose of the research proposal is to sell your idea to the
funding agency. On this stage, the task is to explain why you
Make a purpose
STEP #4 are investigating this topic, what you propose to do, and why
statement
others should be interested in your research. This is called a
purpose statement.
Next, you should craft a research question & hypotheses for
Formulate a
your study. Research hypotheses determine what you will
STEP #5 question &
investigate and what you expect to find in your study. They
hypotheses
are your supposed answers to the research question.
The research proposal’s introduction should include the
components that you created on the previous stages: a
Write an
STEP #6 problem statement, a summary of the literature, a concise
introduction
description of the gap in the literature, a purpose statement, &
a research question.
In your methods section, you should outline the procedures
Describe your you plan to follow to complete the proposed study. The
STEP #7
methods section generally includes: an explanation of the research
design and some information on the data collection process.
Outline the research design of your academic research
Describe your
STEP #8 proposal. You should describe two or three possible
research design
alternatives for each part of the design.
Describe your In this section, describe how you are going to collect your
STEP #9 data collection data. Explain the scheme of analyzing the collected data and
procedures reporting the results.
STEP Provide a timeline On the final stage, you need to give some information on the
#10 and budget estimated budget and schedule of your research.

How to write a Research Proposal? (From Scribbr.com)

A research proposal describes what you will investigate, why it’s important, and how you will
do the research. The format of a research proposal varies between fields, but most proposals
should contain at least these elements:
 Cover page
 Introduction
 Literature review
 Research design
 Reference list
There may be some variation in how the sections are named or divided, but the overall goals are
always the same. This article takes you through a basic research proposal template and explains
what you need to include in each part.
Purpose of a research proposal
Academics often have to write research proposals to get funding for their projects. As a student,
you might have to write a research proposal as part of a grad school application, or you might
need to submit one before you start writing your thesis or dissertation.
All research proposals are designed to persuade someone—such as a funding body, educational
institution, or supervisor—that your project is worthwhile.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 19

 Research proposal aims
Relevance Convince the reader that your project is interesting, original and important
Show that you are familiar with the field, you understand the current state of
Context
research on the topic, and your ideas have a strong academic basis
Make a case for your methodology, showing that you have carefully thought about
Approach
the data, tools and procedures you will need to conduct the research
Confirm that the project is possible within the practical constraints of the
Feasibility
programme, institution or funding

Title page
Like your dissertation or thesis, the proposal will usually have a title page that includes:
 The proposed title of your project
 Your name
 Your supervisor’s name
 The institution and department
Check with the department or funding body to see if there are any specific formatting
requirements.
Abstract and table of contents
If your proposal is very long, you might also have to include an abstract and a table of
contents to help the reader navigate the document.
Introduction
The first part of your proposal is the initial pitch for your project, so make sure it succinctly
explains what you want to do and why. It should:
 Introduce the topic
 Give background and context
 Outline your problem statement and research question(s)
Some important questions to guide your introduction include:
 Who has an interest in the topic (e.g. scientists, practitioners, policymakers, particular members
of society)?
 How much is already known about the problem?
 What is missing from current knowledge?
 What new insights will your research contribute?
 Why is this research worth doing?
If your proposal is very long, you might include separate sections with more detailed information
on the background and context, problem statement, aims and objectives, and importance of the
research.
Literature review
It’s important to show that you’re familiar with the most important research on your topic. A
strong literature review convinces the reader that your project has a solid foundation in existing
knowledge or theory. It also shows that you’re not simply repeating what other people have
already done or said.
In this section, aim to demonstrate exactly how your project will contribute to conversations in
the field.
 Compare and contrast: what are the main theories, methods, debates and controversies?
 Be critical: what are the strengths and weaknesses of different approaches?
 Show how your research fits in: how will you build on, challenge, or synthesize the work of
others?
If you’re not sure where to begin, read our guide on how to write a literature review.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 20

Research design and methods
Following the literature review, it’s a good idea to restate your main objectives, bringing the
focus back to your own project. The research design or methodology section should describe the
overall approach and practical steps you will take to answer your research questions.
Methodology in a research proposal
 Will you do qualitative or quantitative research?
 Will you collect original data or work with primary or secondary
Research type sources?
 Is your research design descriptive, correlational, or experimental?
 Exactly what or who will you study (e.g. high school students in
New York; Scottish newspaper archives 1976-80)?
Population and
 How will you select subjects or sources (e.g. random
sample
sampling, case studies)?
 When and where will you collect the data?
 What tools and procedures will you use (e.g. surveys, interviews,
observations, experiments) to collect and analyze data?
Research methods
 Why are these the best methods to answer your research
questions?
 How much time will you need to collect the data?
 How will you gain access to participants or sources?
Practicalities
 Do you foresee any potential obstacles, and how will you address
them?
Make sure not to simply write a list of methods. Aim to make an argument for why this is the
most appropriate, valid and reliable approach to answering your questions.
Implications and contribution to knowledge
To finish your proposal on a strong note, you can explore the potential implications of the
research for theory or practice, and emphasize again what you aim to contribute to existing
knowledge on the topic. For example, your results might have implications for:
 Improving processes in a specific location or field
 Informing policy objectives
 Strengthening a theory or model
 Challenging popular or scientific assumptions
 Creating a basis for further research
Reference list or bibliography
Your research proposal must include proper citations for every source you have used, and full
publication details should always be included in the reference list. To create citations quickly and
easily, you can use our free APA citation generator.
In some cases, you might be asked to include a bibliography. This is a list of all the sources you
consulted in preparing the proposal, even ones you did not cite in the text, and sometimes also
other relevant sources that you plan to read. The aim is to show the full range of literature that
will support your research project.
Research schedule
In some cases, you might have to include a detailed timeline of the project, explaining exactly
what you will do at each stage and how long it will take. Check the requirements of your
programme or funding body to see if this is required.
Budget
If you are applying for research funding, you will probably also have to include a detailed budget
that shows how much each part of the project will cost.
Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 21
Make sure to check what type of costs the funding body will agree to cover, and only include
relevant items in your budget. For each item, include:
 Cost: exactly how much money do you need?
 Justification: why is this cost necessary to complete the research?
 Source: how did you calculate the amount?
To determine your budget, think about:
 Travel costs: do you need to go to specific locations to collect data? How will you get there, how
long will you spend there, and what will you do there (e.g. interviews, archival research)?
 Materials: do you need access to any tools or technologies? Are there training or installation
costs?
 Assistance: do you need to hire research assistants for the project? What will they do and how
much will you pay them? Will you outsource any other tasks such as transcription?
 Time: do you need to take leave from regular duties such as teaching? How much will you need
to cover the time spent on the research?

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 22

 Doctrinal and Non-Doctrinal Research
Doctrinal Research
It is a theoretical research and it is pure in nature. Conventional legal sources like reports of
committees, legal history, judicial pronouncements, Acts passed by legislature and parliament etc
are the sources of doctrinal legal research.
Definition
As the word ‘doctrinal’ is a derivative of 'doctrine', let's begin with defining the term 'doctrine'.
Dictionary Definition:
Doctrine means “a principle, esp. a legal principle that is widely adhered to.”
Terry Hutchinson and Nigel Duncan define, “The word ‘doctrine’ is derived from the Latin
‘doctrina’ which means ‘to instruct, a lesson, a precept’. The doctrine includes legal concepts
and principles of all types – cases, statutes, rules. Doctrine has been defined as ‘a synthesis of
rules, principles, norms, interpretive guidelines and values. It explains, makes coherent or
justifies a segment of the law as part of a larger system of law. Doctrines can be abstract, binding
or non-binding’.”
According to Prof. S. N. Jain, “Doctrinal research involves analysis of case law, arranging,
ordering and systematizing legal propositions and study of legal institutions through legal
reasoning or rational deduction.”
Dr. S.R. Myneni has defined, “A doctrinal research means a research that has been carried out
on a legal proposition or propositions by way of analysing the existing statutory provisions and
cases by applying the reasoning power.”
To Ian Dobinson and Francis Johns, “Doctrinal or theoretical legal research can be defined in
simple terms as research which asks what the law is in a particular area. It is concerned with
analysis of the legal doctrine and how it has been developed and applied. This type of research is
also known as pure theoretical research. It consists of either a simple research directed at finding
a specific statement of the law or a more complex and in depth analysis of legal reasoning.”
Jurisprudential Foundation
Doctrinal legal research has its jurisprudential root on the positive or analytical school of law. As
doctrinal legal research pursues what is the law in specific issue, its approach is merely
analytical, or in other words, influenced jurisprudentially by the positive school of thought.
Doctrinal research is underpinned by positivism and a view of the world where the law is
objective, neutral and fixed. In the words of prominent jurist of positive school, H.L.A. Hart,
doctrinal research “takes an internal, participant-oriented epistemological approach to its object
of study.” Thus doctrinal legal research is knowledge based research in law rather than research
about law. It does not go through the relationship of law with other disciplines of society.
Doctrinal legal research attempts to preserve consistency in law on the basis of legal reasoning.
Researcher conducting doctrinal research usually analyses the existing laws for the sake of
stability and certainty in law, which could ultimately results in consistency in justice delivery.
Historical Development
Doctrinal Legal Research has been dominant in the realm of research in law field for over
centuries. History of doctrinal legal research dates back to nineteenth century while legal
professionals were developed as clerks, law began developing as case law and the Court's
decisions went on updating the law in common legal system. The doctrinal method lies at the
basis of the common law and it has remained as prominent legal research method all over the
world to date.
The rules which were ‘evolved organically and slowly’ and applied by the Courts in common
legal system repeatedly and consistently were considered as doctrinal legal concepts. Following
such notion of doctrinal, doctrinal research in legal concepts eventually come into existence in
the common legal system.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 23

Law gradually developed into an academic field in nineteenth and twentieth century in Europe
especially in United Kingdom, doctrinal research emerged as an academic instrument for legal
research. Universities in the common legal system mostly adopted doctrinal method as
mainstream legal research method till the last decade of the twentieth century.
Outside the European continent, in Canada and Australia, doctrinal legal research was formally
defined as a category of research in 1980s. The 1982 landmark study on the state of legal
research and scholarship in Canada, the Arthurs Report, added for the first time, non-doctrinal
research category, namely ‘fundamental research’ as a legal research which deals with
philosophical aspects related with other social genres. The committee formed in Australia to
review the research practices, headed by Dennis Pearce, categorized ‘doctrinal’ as the prominent
legal research followed by ‘reform-oriented’ and ‘theoretical’ research in its report in early
1980s.
Purpose of Doctrinal Legal Research
The major purposes of doctrinal legal research comprise, but are not limited to the following:
a) To construct new legal theories, principles and doctrines, to test them and add new
knowledge in the legal scholarship.
b) To help maintain continuity, consistency and certainty of law.
c) To resolve day-to-day client matters as it is more manageable and outcomes are more
predictable due to its focus on established sources.
d) To advise courts or clients about the application of legal doctrine to specific cases,
transactions, or other legal events. To critically examine the judicial opinions and in case of
conflicts between the decisions of different court, to suggest the resolution to those
conflicts.
e) To provide lawyers, judges and others with the tools needed to reach decisions on an
immense variety of problems, usually with very limited time at disposal.
The main purpose of doctrinal legal research is to improve the substantial part of the law by
means of which could result in achieving the broader goal of law. The ultimate goal of law is
justice rather than mere legal procedures, texts and jargons. Thus doctrinal legal research is often
employed in the areas of enriching legal contents, coding and even interpretation of the legal
statutes.
Steps in Doctrinal Research
This approach is predicated on solving a specific legal problem and normally includes the
following steps:
a) Assembling relevant facts
b) Identifying the legal issues
c) Analyzing the issues with a view to searching for the law
d) Reading background material (including legal dictionaries, legal encyclopedias, textbooks,
law reform and policy papers, journal articles)
e) Locating primary material including legislation, delegated legislation and case law
f) Synthesizing all the issues in context g. Coming to a tentative conclusion
Advantages of Doctrinal Research:
1. First, doctrinal legal research, which basically involves analysis of legal principles,
concepts or doctrines, their logical ordering and systematizing of legal propositions
emerging there from, has some practical utility.
2. Secondly, a doctrinal legal researcher, through his analysis, attempts to test the logical
coherence, consistency and technical soundness of a legal proposition or doctrine. His
knitting of legal principles or doctrines, with sound reasoning, may lead to a well
developed law.
3. Thirdly, a scholar of law indulged in doctrinal legal research, in a systematic way and with
convincing reasoning, exhibits ‘inbuilt’ ‘loopholes’, ‘gaps’, ‘ambiguities’ or

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 24

 ‘inconsistencies’ in the substantive law inquired into as well as in some of principles or
doctrines embodied therein
4. Fourthly, Ultra-vires and many other concepts can be improved only by doctrinal research.
Limitations of Doctrinal Research:
Several criticisms may be leveled against doctrinal or library-based methodology.
1. Firstly, it is highly theoretical and technical, uncritical, conservative, trivial and without
due consideration of the social, economic and political importance of the legal process.
2. Secondly, it must be noted that ideological research is very narrow and restricts the choice
and range of topics, which increasingly withdrew the legal profession in the greater social
context.
3. Third, it is sometimes described as trivial dogmatic research because it is often done
without due consideration of social, economic, and the political importance of the legal
process. The law does not operate in a vacuum. It works within the community and impacts
on the community.
Basic Tools of Doctrinal Research
The basic tools of a doctrinal legal researcher, thus, are:
(i) statutory materials,
(ii) case reports,
(iii) standard textbooks and reference books,
(iv) legal periodicals,
(v) Parliamentary Debates and Government Reports, and
(vi) Micro films and CD-ROM.
Non-Doctrinal Research:
Introdcution
It is also known as empirical research or socio-legal research and relies on experience and
observation. It is a trans-boundary research but its foundation is on doctrinal research only. Non-
doctrinal legal research tries to investigate through empirical data, how law and legal institutions
affect human attitudes and what impact on society they create.
Aims of Non-Doctrinal Research
In a non-doctrinal legal research, the researcher tries to investigate through empirical data how
law and legal institutions affect or mould human attitudes and what impact on society they
create. He endeavors to look into ‘social face or dimension’ of law and ‘gap’, if any, between
‘legal idealism’ and ‘social reality’. Non-doctrinal legal research, thus, involves study of ‘social
impact’ of law (existing or proposed) or of ‘social-auditing of law’.
Advantages of Non-Doctrinal Research
1. First, Non-Doctrinal research highlights the ‘gaps’ between ‘legislative goals’ and ‘social
reality’ and thereby ‘depicts’ a ‘true picture’ of ‘law-in-action’. It particularly highlights the
‘gap’ in relation to (a) the practice of law enforcers, regulators and adjudicators and (b) the
use or under-use of the law by intended beneficiaries of the law.
2. Secondly, non-doctrinal legal research carries significance in the modern welfare state, which
envisages socio-economic transformation through law and thereby perceives law as a means
of achieving socio-economic justice and parity.
3. Thirdly, Non-Doctrinal research renders an invaluable help in ‘shaping’ social legislations in
tune with the ‘social engineering’ philosophy of the modern state and in ‘making’ them more
effective instruments of the planned socio-economic transformation.
Limitations of Non-Doctrinal Research
1. Non-doctrinal legal research needs a strong base of doctrinal legal research. A legal scholar
who is weak in doctrinal legal research cannot handle non-doctrinal legal research in a
meaningful way. It may turn out to be a futile exercise leading to no significant results.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 25

2. It is time consuming and costly. It calls for additional training, great commitment of time and
energy, for producing meaningful result,
3. It is extremely weak in solving a problem in hand,
4. It cannot give a direction as to what course the law should follow to be useful,
Basic Tools of Non-Doctrinal Research
The basic tools of data collection for a socio-legal research, thus, are:
(i) interview,
(ii) questionnaire,
(iii) schedule,
(iv) interview guide,
(v) observation, participant or non-participant, and
(vi) published or unpublished materials (such as Census Reports, Reports of
Governmental and/or Non-Governmental Agencies, and appropriate literature on
sociology of law).

Inter-Relation Between Doctrinal And Non-Doctrinal Legal Research

• These two broad types of legal research- doctrinal legal research and non-doctrinal legal
research- are overlapping rather than mutually exclusive. It is difficult to draw a sharp
theoretical or pragmatic line of differentiation between the two.
• The distinction between doctrinal and non-doctrinal legal research, if there be one, is one of
emphasis. In doctrinal legal research the main objective is to clarify the law, to take a
position, to give reasons when the law is in conflict, and, perhaps, to suggest methods for
improving the law.
• It involves the identification of ‘fact’, its underlying policy, and ‘measures’ for improvement.
While non-doctrinal legal research gives emphasis on understanding ‘social dimension’ or
‘social facet’ of law and its ‘impact’ on the ‘social attitude’. It gives emphasis on ‘social
auditing of law’.
• In doctrinal legal research legal materials, such as statutes, regulations, and cases, are used,
whereas in non-doctrinal legal research, materials from other fields, like sociology, are
sought and used.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 26

 The main types of Research Compared (From Scribbr.com)
When you start planning a research project, developing research questions and creating
a research design, you will have to make various decisions about the type of research you want to
do.
There are many ways to categorize different types of research. The words you use to describe
your research depend on your discipline and field. In general, though, the form your research
design takes will be shaped by:
 The type of knowledge you aim to produce
 The type of data you will collect and analyze
 The sampling methods, timescale and location of the research
Types of research aims
The first thing to consider is what kind of knowledge your research aims to contribute.
Types of research aims
Type of
What’s the difference? What to consider
research
Basic research aims to develop
knowledge, theories and predictions, Do you want to expand
while applied research aims scientific understanding or
Basic vs applied to develop techniques, products and solve a practical problem?
procedures.
How much is already known
Exploratory research aims about your research
to explore the main aspects of an problem? Are you
under-researched problem, while conducting initial research
Exploratory vs explanatory research aims to explain on a newly-identified issue,
explanatory the causes and consequences of a or seeking precise
well-defined problem. conclusions about an
established issue?
Is there already some theory
on your research problem
Inductive research aims to develop that you can use to
a theory, while deductive research develop hypotheses, or do
Inductive vs aims to test a theory. you want to propose new
deductive theories based on your
findings?
Types of research data
The next thing to consider is what type of data you will collect. Each kind of data is associated
with a range of specific research methods and procedures.
Types of research data
Type of research What’s the difference? What to consider
Primary data is collected directly by
How much data is already
the researcher (e.g. through
available on your topic? Do
interviews or experiments), while
you want to collect original
secondary data has already been
data or analyze existing data
Primary vs secondary collected by someone else (e.g. in
(e.g. through a literature
government surveys or scientific
review)?
publications).

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 27

 Is your research more
Qualitative research methods focus concerned with measuring
on words and meanings, something or interpreting
while quantitative research something? You can also
Qualitative vs methods focus on numbers and create a mixed
quantitative statistics. methods research design
that has elements of both.
Descriptive research gathers
Do you want to identify
data without controlling any
characteristics, patterns
variables, while experimental
and correlations or test
Descriptive vs experi research manipulates and controls
causal relationships
mental variables to determine cause and
between variables?
effect.
Qualitative vs. quantitative research
When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics,
while qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining
different kinds of knowledge.
An introduction to quantitative research
Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to
find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to
wider populations.
Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research, which involves collecting and
analyzing non-numerical data (e.g. text, video, or audio).
Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry,
psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.
Advantages of quantitative research
Quantitative research is often used to standardize data collection and generalize findings.
Strengths of this approach include:
 Replication
Repeating the study is possible because of standardized data collection protocols and tangible
definitions of abstract concepts.
 Direct comparisons of results
The study can be reproduced in other cultural settings, times or with different groups of
participants. Results can be compared statistically.
 Large samples
Data from large samples can be processed and analyzed using reliable and consistent procedures
through quantitative data analysis.
 Hypothesis testing
Using formalized and established hypothesis testing procedures means that you have to carefully
consider and report your research variables, predictions, data collection and testing methods
before coming to a conclusion.
Disadvantages of quantitative research
Despite the benefits of quantitative research, it is sometimes inadequate in explaining complex
research topics. Its limitations include:
 Superficiality
Using precise and restrictive operational definitions may inadequately represent complex
concepts. For example, the concept of mood may be represented with just a number in
quantitative research, but explained with elaboration in qualitative research.
 Narrow focus

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 28

Predetermined variables and measurement procedures can mean that you ignore other relevant
observations.
 Structural bias
Despite standardized procedures, structural biases can still affect quantitative research. Missing
data, imprecise measurements or inappropriate sampling methods are biases that can lead to the
wrong conclusions.
 Lack of context
Quantitative research often uses unnatural settings like laboratories or fails to consider historical
and cultural contexts that may affect data collection and results.
An introduction to qualitative research
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or
audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights
into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and
analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.
Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and social sciences, in subjects such as
anthropology, sociology, education, health sciences, history, etc.
Advantages of qualitative research
Qualitative research often tries to preserve the voice and perspective of participants and can be
adjusted as new research questions arise. Qualitative research is good for:
 Flexibility
The data collection and analysis process can be adapted as new ideas or patterns emerge. They
are not rigidly decided beforehand.
 Natural settings
Data collection occurs in real-world contexts or in naturalistic ways.
 Meaningful insights
Detailed descriptions of people’s experiences, feelings and perceptions can be used in designing,
testing or improving systems or products.
 Generation of new ideas
Open-ended responses mean that researchers can uncover novel problems or opportunities that
they wouldn’t have thought of otherwise.
Disadvantages of qualitative research
Researchers must consider practical and theoretical limitations in analyzing and interpreting their
data. Qualitative research suffers from:
 Unreliability
The real-world setting often makes qualitative research unreliable because of uncontrolled
factors that affect the data.
 Subjectivity
Due to the researcher’s primary role in analyzing and interpreting data, qualitative research
cannot be replicated. The researcher decides what is important and what is irrelevant in data
analysis, so interpretations of the same data can vary greatly.
 Limited generalizability
Small samples are often used to gather detailed data about specific contexts. Despite rigorous
analysis procedures, it is difficult to draw generalizable conclusions because the data may be
biased and unrepresentative of the wider population.
 Labor-intensive
Although software can be used to manage and record large amounts of text, data analysis often
has to be checked or performed manually.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 29

 Classification of Types of Research
There are various types of research that are classified according to their objective, depth of study,
analyzed data, time required to study the phenomenon and other factors. It’s important to note
that a research project will not be limited to one type of research, but will likely use several.
A. According to your Depth of Scope
1) Descriptive Research
2) Exploratory Research
3) Explanatory Research
B. According to the Type of Data Used
1) Quantitative Research
2) Qualitative Research
C. According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables
1) Experimental Research
2) Non-Experimental / Observational Research
D. According to the Type of Inference
1) Inductive Research
2) Deductive Research
E. According to The Sources of Information
1) Primary Research
2) Secondary Research
F. According to its Purpose
1) Theoretical or Pure or Basic or Fundamental Research
2) Applied Research

A. According to your Depth of Scope

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research is used for the preliminary investigation of a subject that is not yet well
understood or sufficiently researched. It serves to establish a frame of reference and a hypothesis
from which an in-depth study can be developed that will enable conclusive results to be
generated.
Because exploratory research is based on the study of little-studied phenomena, it relies less on
theory and more on the collection of data to identify patterns that explain these phenomena.
Descriptive Research
Descriptive research, as its name suggests, describes the state of affairs as it exists at present. It
merely describes the phenomenon or situation under study and its characteristics. It reports only
what has happened or what is happening. It therefore does not go into the causes of the
phenomenon or situation. The primary objective of descriptive research is to define the
characteristics of a particular phenomenon without necessarily investigating the causes that
produce it.
Explanatory Research
Explanatory research is the most common type of research method and is responsible for
establishing cause-and-effect relationships that allow generalisations to be extended to similar
realities. It is closely related to descriptive research, although it provides additional information
about the observed object and its interactions with the environment.
B. According to the Type of Data Used
Qualitative Research
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or
audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights
into a problem or generate new ideas for research.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 30

 Qualitative methods are often used in the social sciences to collect, compare and interpret
information, has a linguistic-semiotic basis and is used in techniques such as discourse analysis,
interviews, surveys, records and participant observations.
Quantitative Research
Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to
find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to
wider populations.
Quantitative research study delves into a phenomena through quantitative data collection and
using mathematical, statistical and computer-aided tools to measure them. This allows
generalized conclusions to be projected over time.
C. According to the Degree of Manipulation of Variables
Experimental Research
It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated under strictly
controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on another independent variable or
object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured through study and control groups, and
according to the guidelines of the scientific method.
Non-Experimental Research
Also known as an observational study, it focuses on the analysis of a phenomenon in its natural
context. As such, the researcher does not intervene directly, but limits their involvement to
measuring the variables required for the study. Due to its observational nature, it is often used in
descriptive research.
For example, a study on the effects of the use of certain chemical substances in a particular
population group can be considered a non-experimental study.
D. According to the Type of Inference
Inductive Research
In this type of research, knowledge is generated from an observation to achieve a generalization.
It is based on the collection of specific data to develop new theories.
Deductive Investigation
In this type of research, reality is explained by general laws that point to certain conclusions;
conclusions are expected to be part of the premise of the research problem and considered
correct if the premise is valid and the inductive method is applied correctly.
E. According to The Sources of Information
Primary Research
This fundamental research type is defined by the fact that the data is collected directly from the
source, that is, it consists of primary, first-hand information.
Secondary research
Unlike primary research, secondary research is developed with information from secondary
sources, which are generally based on scientific literature and other documents compiled by
another researcher.
F. According to its Purpose
Theoretical Research
Theoretical research, also referred to as pure or basic research, focuses on generating knowledge,
regardless of its practical application. Here, data collection is used to generate new general
concepts for a better understanding of a particular field or to answer a theoretical research
question. In Theoretical research or pure research or basic research, the researcher is mainly
concerned with generalization and with the formulation of a theory. He undertakes research only
to derive some increased knowledge in a field of his inquiry. He is least bothered about its
practical context or utility.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 31

Applied Research
Applied research or action research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem. Here
the researcher sees his research in a practical context. Here, the goal is to find strategies that can
be used to address a specific research problem. Applied research draws on theory to generate
practical scientific knowledge.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 32

An introduction to research methods
Research methods are specific procedures for collecting and analyzing data. Developing your
research methods is an integral part of your research design. When planning your methods, there
are two key decisions you will make.
First, decide how you will collect data. Your methods depend on what type of data you need to
answer your research question:
 Qualitative vs. quantitative: Will your data take the form of words or numbers?
 Primary vs. secondary: Will you collect original data yourself, or will you use data that
has already been collected by someone else?
 Descriptive vs. experimental: Will you take measurements of something as it is, or will
you perform an experiment?
Second, decide how you will analyze the data.
 For quantitative data, you can use statistical analysis methods to test relationships
between variables.
 For qualitative data, you can use methods such as thematic analysis to interpret patterns
and meanings in the data.
Methods for collecting data
Data is the information that you collect for the purposes of answering your research question.
The type of data you need depends on the aims of your research.
Qualitative vs. quantitative data
Your choice of qualitative or quantitative data collection depends on the type of knowledge you
want to develop.
For questions about ideas, experiences and meanings, or to study something that can’t be
described numerically, collect qualitative data.
If you want to develop a more mechanistic understanding of a topic, or your research
involves hypothesis testing, collect quantitative data.
 Pros  Cons
 Flexible – you can often adjust  Can’t be analyzed statistically
your methods as you go to or generalized to broader
Qualitative develop new knowledge. populations.
 Can be conducted with small  Difficult to standardize
samples. research.
 Can be used to systematically
describe large collections of  Requires statistical training to
Quantitative things. analyze data.
 Generates reproducible  Requires larger samples.
knowledge.
You can also take a mixed methods approach, where you use both qualitative and quantitative
research methods.
Primary vs. secondary data
Primary data is any original information that you collect for the purposes of answering your
research question (e.g. through surveys, observations and experiments). Secondary data is
information that has already been collected by other researchers (e.g. in a government census or
previous scientific studies).
If you are exploring a novel research question, you’ll probably need to collect primary data. But
if you want to synthesize existing knowledge, analyze historical trends, or identify patterns on a
large scale, secondary data might be a better choice.
 Pros  Cons

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 33

  More expensive and
 Can be collected to answer your specific time-consuming to
research question. collect.
Primary
 You have control over the sampling and  Requires training in
measurement methods. data collection
methods.
 No control over how
 Easier and faster to access. data was generated.
 You can collect data that spans longer  Requires extra
Secondary
timescales and broader geographical processing to make
locations. sure it works for your
analysis.
Descriptive vs. experimental data
In descriptive research, you collect data about your study subject without intervening.
The validity of your research will depend on your sampling method.
In experimental research, you systematically intervene in a process and measure the outcome.
The validity of your research will depend on your experimental design.
To conduct an experiment, you need to be able to vary your independent variable, precisely
measure your dependent variable, and control for confounding variables. If it’s practically and
ethically possible, this method is the best choice for answering questions about cause and effect.

Research methods for collecting data

Primary Qualitative
Research or or
When to use
method secondary quantitative
? ?
Experiment Primary Quantitative To test cause-and-effect relationships.
To understand general characteristics of a
Survey Primary Quantitative
population.
Interview/fo To gain more in-depth understanding of a
Primary Qualitative
cus group topic.
To understand how something occurs in its
Observation Primary Either
natural setting.
To situate your research in an existing body
Literature
Secondary Either of work, or to evaluate trends within a
review
research topic.
To gain an in-depth understanding of a
Case study Either Either specific group or context, or when you don’t
have the resources for a large study.

Quantitative research methods

You can use quantitative research methods for descriptive, correlational or experimental
research.

 In descriptive research, you simply seek an overall summary of your study variables.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 34

  In correlational research, you investigate relationships between your study variables.
 In experimental research, you systematically examine whether there is a cause-and-
effect relationship between variables.

Correlational and experimental research can both be used to formally test hypotheses, or
predictions, using statistics. The results may be generalized to broader populations based on
the sampling method used.

To collect quantitative data, you will often need to use operational definitions that translate
abstract concepts (e.g., mood) into observable and quantifiable measures (e.g., self-ratings of
feelings and energy levels).

Quantitative research methods

Research
How to use Example
method

Control or manipulate To test whether an intervention can reduce procrastination

an independent in college students, you give equal-sized groups either a
Experiment variable to measure its procrastination intervention or a comparable task. You
effect on a dependent compare self-ratings of procrastination behaviors between
variable. the groups after the intervention.

Ask questions of a group

You distribute questionnaires with rating scales to first-
of people in-person,
Survey year international college students to investigate their
over-the-phone or
experiences of culture shock.
online.

Identify a behavior or To study college classroom participation, you sit in on

(Systematic) occurrence of interest classes to observe them, counting and recording the
observation and monitor it in its prevalence of active and passive behaviors by students
natural setting. from different backgrounds.

Collect data that has

To assess whether attitudes towards climate change have
been gathered for other
Secondary changed since the 1980s, you collect relevant
purposes e.g., national
research questionnaire data from widely available longitudinal
surveys or historical
studies.
records.

Quantitative data analysis

Once data is collected, you may need to process it before it can be analyzed. For example,
survey and test data may need to be transformed from words to numbers. Then, you can
use statistical analysis to answer your research questions.

Descriptive statistics will give you a summary of your data and include measures of averages
and variability. You can also use graphs, scatter plots and frequency tables to visualize your
data and check for any trends or outliers.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 35

Using inferential statistics, you can make predictions or generalizations based on your data.
You can test your hypothesis or use your sample data to estimate the population parameter.

You can also assess the reliability and validity of your data collection methods to indicate how
consistently and accurately your methods actually measured what you wanted them to.

Qualitative research methods

Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data collection methods. These are
some of the most common qualitative methods:

 Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or encountered in detailed field
notes.
 Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one conversations.
 Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a group of people.
 Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
 Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts, images, audio or
video recordings, etc.

Qualitative researchers often consider themselves “instruments” in research because all

observations, interpretations and analyses are filtered through their own personal lens.

For this reason, when writing up your methodology for qualitative research, it’s
important to reflect on your approach and to thoroughly explain the choices you made in
collecting and analyzing the data.

Qualitative data analysis

Qualitative data can take the form of texts, photos, videos and audio. For example, you might be
working with interview transcripts, survey responses, fieldnotes, or recordings from natural
settings.

Most types of qualitative data analysis share the same five steps:

1. Prepare and organize your data. This may mean transcribing interviews or typing up
fieldnotes.
2. Review and explore your data. Examine the data for patterns or repeated ideas that
emerge.
3. Develop a data coding system. Based on your initial ideas, establish a set of codes
that you can apply to categorize your data.
4. Assign codes to the data. For example, in qualitative survey analysis, this may mean
going through each participant’s responses and tagging them with codes in a
spreadsheet. As you go through your data, you can create new codes to add to your
system if necessary.
5. Identify recurring themes. Link codes together into cohesive, overarching themes.

There are several specific approaches to analyzing qualitative data. Although these methods
share similar processes, they emphasize different concepts.

Mujhe bhi surprise laga keh na parhaty huye bhi itna syllabus Law
college k dastoor ka hisa raha raha. So keep enjoying.

Subject: Research Methodology Exam Notes Page 36