Origin and Formation

UNIT 1 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE EARTH of the Earth

Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Solar System Formation and Planetary Differentiation
1.3 Formation of the Earth and its Internal Structure (Core, Mantle and Crust)
1.4 Composition of Crust, Mantle and Core
1.5 Thermal Field, Magnetic Field and Gravitational Field of Earth
1.5.1 Thermal Field of Earth
1.5.2 Magnetic Field of Earth
1.5.3 Gravitational Field of Earth
1.6 Atmosphere and Hydrosphere of Earth
1.7 Geological Time Scale
1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.9 Keywords
1.10 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Our Universe which is almost 13.8 billion years old is an outcome of commonly accepted
Big Bang theory. The Universe broadly comprises galaxies and stars. Our Solar
system is part of the galaxy ‘Milky Way’. The Milky Way galaxy probably comprises
tens of billions of other solar systems identical to ours!!! Our Solar system comprises
Sun (the star at the centre) and its planets i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune which revolve around it. Pluto was earlier considered
the ninth planet of the solar system but has been lately in the year 2006 deprived of the
fame by the International Astronomical Union! The erstwhile ninth planet Pluto is no
longer considered a planet. The eight planets are further divided into the inner set of
planets and outer set of planets. The inner set of planets comprises the first four planets
nearer to Sun i.e. Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Our earth is one of the inner four
planets. These inner planets are also known as terrestrial planets. The four planets
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune are designated as outer planets (Figure 1.1).
Besides these planets the solar system has dwarf planets, asteroid belt, comets and
other smaller celestial bodies.

Figure 1.1 Solar system with sun and its planets.

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org) 13
Earth Processes
1.1 OBJECTIVES
Recollect your school days when you were taught about the solar system. Our Solar
System, minor part of Universe, consists of Sun and its planets. The Solar System
started forming some 4.6 billion years ago. It is important to know about the solar
system and how it came into being. It is also important to understand the formation of
the planets. In this unit we will learn about the Solar System and its components. To be
precise about earth and its attributes i.e. the structure and composition of earth, thermal,
magnetic and gravitational fields of earth, atmosphere and hydrosphere of earth. We
will also learn about the geological time scale which is scale devised to record the
activities taking place on earth since its inception, i.e. approximately 4.6 billion years!
After reading this unit you will be able to:
• explain the formation of Solar system;
• describe the concept of inner and outer planets;
• explain the formation of Earth;
• discuss the internal structure of Earth; the atmosphere and hydrosphere of Earth;
• describe the gravitational, thermal and magnetic fields of Earth; and
• Outline the concept and significance of geological time scale.

1.2. SOLAR SYSTEM FORMATION AND PLANETARY

DIFFERENTIATION
The nebulae hypothesis is the most commonly accepted hypothesis to explain the
formation of our solar system. The nebulae (gaseous material) were composed
predominantly of hydrogen and helium gases besides dust sized material chemically
identical to materials found on earth. The nebula was supposedly rotating slowly under
the influence of gravity. This slow rotation of the dispersed nebulae led to its contraction
because of the influence of gravity. The contraction further led to faster rotation of the
material and finally flattening of the nebulae into a disk shape. Gravity resulted in the
accumulation of matter of the nebulae at the centre giving rise to a proto-Sun, the
predecessor of present Sun. The matter in the proto-Sun condensed, and its temperature
also rose higher to millions of degrees. This led to nuclear fusion where hydrogen
atoms combined to form helium. Partial mass of the proto-Sun converted into energy
released in the form of sunshine.
In 1755, the German philosopher Immanuel Kant proposed nebular hypothesis
for the origin of the solar system.
The proto-Sun concentrated most of the matter from the initial homogeneous nebulae.
The subordinate, minor, leftover material from the nebulae formed solar nebula
comprising a disk of gases and dust surrounding the proto-Sun. The solar nebula
flattened into a disk with condensed, higher temperatures in the inner region and less
dense outer regions. Gravitational attraction led to accretion of fine dust materials into
planetesimals, i.e. few kms in size. The planetesimals collided and combined to form
larger bodies i.e. the size of moon. This continued with more collisions under the effect
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of gravity, finally giving rise to the planets. The process of planet formation was Origin and Formation
completed approximately in a time span of 10 million years after the condensation of of the Earth
the nebula. The inner four planets are known as terrestrial planets owing to their being
like earth. The volatile materials from these planets were boiled away because of their
nearness to sun and also blown away by the solar winds far off from the sun forming
the cold, gaseous outer planets. The inner planets comprise rock-forming silicates and
metals like iron and nickel. The outer giant planets are probably formed of rocky
(silica- and iron-rich cores) rimmed by liquid hydrogen and helium. Pluto after losing
its glory as a planet is given the status of a dwarf planet composed of a frozen mixture
of gases, ice, and rock. The solar system has an asteroid belt between Mars and
Jupiter which hosts the planetesimals/asteroids. The asteroid belt has over 10,000
asteroids (size of the asteroids varies between > 10 km and dŠ 930 km). The largest
asteroid is Ceres with a diameter of 930 km. The tiny broken pieces from asteroids
strike earth and are called meteorites. Comets are aggregates of dust and ice. There
are probably many millions of comets present beyond the outer planets. At times, a
comet enters the inner solar system identified as a bright object with a tail of gases.

1.3. FORMATION OF THE EARTH AND ITS

INTERNAL STRUCTURE (CORE, MANTLE AND
CRUST)
In this section we will learn about the birth of our planet ‘Earth’. Earth is composed of
three layers i.e. Core (inner most part); Mantle (the middle layer between the core
and the crust); Crust (the outermost layer). Was earth from its inception at about 4.56
billion years, a differentiated body (comprising layers) or was homogenous. Did the
structure of earth change with passaging time? When did the oceans and water bodies
formed on the earth? How did the atmosphere on the earth formed or changed from
the initial atmosphere, which became conducive to survival of various life forms. When
did life originate on this blue planet? Are all the continents at the present time stationed
at the same location during the past 4.5 billion years time span, or have they occupied
different positions? We will try to understand the forces operational within earth which
led to the differentiation of earth’s internal structure. The internal and external geological
processes will be briefly discussed which shaped the earth from its inception to the
present state. We will try to answer the above questions.
The oldest rocks (3.7-3.8 billion years) have been found in western Greenland.
Rocks from southern Africa, western Australia, and the Great Lakes region of
North America are also dated at 3.4-3.6 billion years. The oldest dated minerals
viz. tiny zircons crystals at 4.0-4.2 billion years are found in sedimentary rocks in
western Australia.
The earth no doubt probably formed by accretion of planetesimals and other materials
from solar nebula. The earth was hot and molten at its time of inception/early stages.
The gravitational differentiation (formation of different layers of earth) started
around 4.4 billion years ago. The innermost layer is the Core, followed by the
intermediate layer Mantle and the outermost layer Crust (Figure 1.2). The three
layers are different in terms of physical and chemical properties. The Earth’s internal
structure is proposed based on seismic waves which behave differently in different
layers depending on the composition and physical nature of these layers. The two
15
Earth Processes types of seismic waves i.e. P (compression) and S (shear) waves travel at different
speeds and are also reflected and refracted from the boundaries marked between
different layers through the Earth.
Iron-nickel segregated into the innermost core part, whereas the lighter material i.e.
silicates formed in the uppermost layer of crust. The intermediate layer had both light
and heavy materials which formed the mantle. The lighter material also dissipated heat
from the interior to the surface, thus cooling the earth. This heat transferred from
interior of earth to surface is also defined as primordial heat. This source of heat along
with radiogenic heat is responsible for melting of mantle rocks and is identified as
potential cause of plutonism and volcanism on earth till date. The differentiation process
also led to formation of oceans and atmosphere. The internal and external geological
processes were also set and the face of the earth formed and to date it is changing. All
this make us believe that earth is a dynamic planet!
The earth’s core is composed of iron and nickel predominantly. This part of earth is
under extreme pressures up to 330-360 GPa. The core which is confined between
2890 Km to 6370 Km is further divided into inner core and outer core. It was possible
to study the nature of the core with the help of seismic waves. The inner solid core
extends from 5150 Km to 6370 Km, whereas the outer core which is molten extends
from 2890 Km to 5150 Km. The mantle is the intermediate layer sandwiched between
the core and the crust. This layer extends from the base of crust (which varies from the
average depth of 60-80 Km in case of continental crust and 5-10 Km in case of
oceanic crust to 2850 Km. The mantle is an important link between the core and
crust. The heat from the interior of the earth is transferred by convection in the mantle
to shallower depths. It comprises material intermediate in density between the materials
of the core and crust. This all information has been possible through seismic wave data
retrieved from different depths. Earth’s crust is the top most layer, which is the least
dense compared to the mantle and core. It is further divided into oceanic crust and
continental crust. The oceanic crust is thinner (avg. 5-10 Km) and denser compared
to continental crust which varies in thickness from 30-100 Km and is less dense
(Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2: Structure of the Earth.

16 (Source: https://ase.tufts.edu/cosmos/print_images.asp)
Check Your Progress 1 Origin and Formation
of the Earth
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Short question-answer
1. Name the different layers of earth.
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2. What is the average thickness of oceanic crust.
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Descriptive Question-Answer
3. Briefly discuss the formation of earth.
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4. Briefly discuss the components of solar system.
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1.4 COMPOSITION OF CRUST, MANTLE

AND CORE
The enormous pressures and very high temperatures inside the earth make it impossible
for us to venture inside earth even up to a few meters. The underground mining has at
the most been carried out up to 10 km in rare cases. Thus, the nature of the lower
crust, mantle and core materials is assessed by indirect geophysical data’s. The nature
of lower crust and upper mantle can be partially assessed by magmas which originate
at these depths. It is through rocks like kimberlites and lamproites and some types of
basalts (source magmas originate in mantle depths) which are enriched in xenoliths
(from lower crust and upper mantle) that we have direct access to these deeper rocks.
Otherwise to assess the physical nature (temperature, density etc) we have to rely on
the indirect geophysical methods such as seismic wave data. The seismic wave data
from different depths have been instrumental in deciphering the structure and composition
of earth to a satisfactory level. Once information on the pressure, temperature,
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Earth Processes gravitational, magnetic fields and composition of the different layers are assessed, the
same conditions are replicated in the high pressure-temperature laboratories where
stability range of different minerals are assessed and thus we get a fair idea of what
material the deeper earth is made up of. The velocities of P and S waves vary in
different layers of earth depending on the density of the rocks which make up these
layers. The P-wave velocities are higher for denser rocks (Table 1).
Table 1.1: Seismic wave velocities through different rock types
Rock type Typical rocks of Velocity of P waves Density
Granite Upper continental crust 6 Km/sec 2.6 g/cm3
Gabbro Oceanic crust 7 Km/sec 2.9 g/cm3,
Peridotite Upper mantle 8 Km/sec 3.3 g/cm3
Since the P-wave velocities in upper continental crust matches well with granitic rocks,
we conclude the continental crust comprises average granodiorite composition (member
of granitic clan rock). The oceanic crust based on matches with P-wave velocity
shows that it comprises basaltic/gabbroic material (through ocean floor dredging we
also know that ocean floor has basalts!).
The seismic waves also helped in identification of Mohorovic¡ic´ discontinuity which
is commonly addressed as Moho, which divides the crust and mantle. At the Moho
the wave velocity is 8 Km/sec. This shows the rocks beneath i.e. mantle are denser
compared to the crustal rocks. The mantle is 2850 km thick and extends from the
base of the crust to 2890 Km. The P-wave velocity of 8 Km/sec shows that the
upper mantle rocks are composed of peridotites (Table 1). The peridotites are ultra-
mafic rocks (silica deficient and enriched in magnesium and iron).
The upper mantle comprises minerals such as olivine and pyroxene with Mg rich garnet
pyrope. The upper mantle extends up to 410 km from the Moho. Lithosphere is the
rigid, brittle layer and encompasses the upper 100 kms comprising the crust and upper
part of mantle. The base of the lithosphere is marked by a low-velocity zone (LVZ).
It is the zone where low percent partial melting takes place. This zone is identified
based on S-waves which decrease in speed owing to melts present in this zone (S-
waves cannot pass through liquids). The low-velocity zone also marks the beginning
of Asthenosphere, which is a ductile layer. The LVZ extends up to 200 to 250 km
below oceanic crust whereas it is poorly constrained beneath the stable continental
cratons. From depth 410 km to 670 km, commonly known as transition zone,
mineral phases change to high pressure polymorphs because of continuous increase in
pressure (Note: the phase change takes place in terms of structure and not composition).
The mineral phases which forms are denser with more closely packed crystal structures.
The lower mantle beyond 670 km (i.e. the transition zone) is relatively homogeneous
up to 2890 Km. At the core-mantle boundary i.e. 2890 Km, a drastic change in the
velocity of P waves is encountered i.e. a drop from 13 Km/sec to 8 Km/sec. The S-
waves do not pass through the area beneath this boundary indicating it to be of liquid
nature. Seismic wave data indicates that the outer core is liquid in contrast to the
metallic solid inner core. The core of the earth is made up of iron and nickel making the
inner core the densest part of the earth. The other two elements speculated to be the
parts of core are oxygen and sulphur.

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 Origin and Formation
1.5 THERMAL FIELD, MAGNETIC FIELD AND of the Earth
GRAVITATIONAL FIELD OF EARTH
1.5.1. Thermal Field of Earth
The earth has an internal heat engine which is evident through volcanism at places on
earth such as mid-oceanic ridges, along ring of fire etc, to name a few. Also at many
places hot springs and geysers are as well surface manifestations of earth’s internal
heat. The two principal sources of heat responsible for earth’s internal heat engine are:
Primordial heat and heat generated through decay of radioactive elements such as U,
Th, K etc. The most important source is the primordial heat, which is the heat given
out since the inception and differentiation of earth. The other important source of
internal heat is the heat given out by radioactive elements concentrated in the earth
(especially in the crust). Convection is the most important process by which heat from
the deep earth is convected to shallower depths. The heat transfer in lithosphere is by
a process called conduction. It has been possible to measure temperatures at depths
up to 10 km (inside mines and boreholes). The geothermal gradient is measurement of
change in temperature/increase of temperature with depth inside earth. The geothermal
gradient varies from place to place inside earth. The average geothermal gradient is
25-30oC / km in the crust. The geothermal gradients at depth have been inferred
through measurements made on lavas and rocks which solidified from these lavas. The
figure 1.3 fairly indicates geothermal gradient inside earth. The geothermal gradient is
very steep near Earth’s surface. If we try to extrapolate the temperatures inside earth
based on the geothermal gradient, it will lead to very high temperatures i.e. tens of
thousands of degrees in the core which is actually not the case (Figure 1.3). The
geothermal gradient can be as low as 10oC/Km in subduction environments where
cold oceanic crust is subducted. The geothermal gradients can be as high as 80o-
100oC / km at mid ocean ridges where lavas are erupted continuously.

Figure 1.3: The geothermal gradient inside earth.

(Source: commons.wikimedia.org)
19
Earth Processes 1.5.2. Magnetic Field of Earth
We learnt in the preceding section about the structure and composition of different
layers of the Earth. The outer core is the molten layer of earth which comprises iron
and nickel. The Earth’s magnetic field is attributed to this molten outer core. The
convective currents in the molten outer core which is composed of iron-nickel produces
electric field and thus a large Geodynamo is created which produces a magnetic field
which has its affect not only inside the earth or its surface but extends up to earth’s
atmosphere and also far into outer space. Around 400 years back it was believed that
the Earth had a bar magnet at its centre inclined about 11° from this rotational axis
responsible for the earth’s magnetism. This contention was put to rest since earth’s
core has very high temperature and it has been proved through experiments that a
permanent magnet will get destroyed at temperatures beyond 500oC. Thus the earth’s
magnetism is being continuously produced and maintained by the electric field generated
due to the convecting outer liquid core. Earth’s magnetic field keeps changing and the
same has been observed in the past (many magnetic reversals have been recorded in
the ocean floor in the geologic past; Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Schematic illustration of the invisible magnetic field lines generated by the
Earth, represented as a dipole magnet field.
(Source: https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/sunearth/news/gallery/060410.html).

1.5.3. Gravitational Field of Earth

The gravitational field of earth can be said as a force between the object (with mass)
and the centre of the earth. Earth’s gravity is because of its mass. The gravity of Sun is
responsible for keeping the planets of our Solar system in orbit.
The gravity of earth is responsible for the moon in its orbit. Earth’s gravity is responsible
for our atmosphere. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our feet on earth! Earth’s gravity
is responsible for our existence on this blue planet! Let us also remind ourselves that it
is not simple to define the gravitational field of earth as it sounds. It depends on many
factors and is experienced differently at different locations on earth. For example an
area on earth will have strong gravity if it has more mass in the subsurface compared to
an area with less subsurface mass. The GRACE (Gravity Recovery And Climate
Experiment) mission of NASA uses spacecrafts to measure the variation in earth’s
gravity.
Gravity is a natural force in which things with mass are brought towards each other.
20 The more the mass an object possesses, the more the gravity it exerts on the surrounding
objects. The reason everything is pulled towards the earth is the mass of the earth Origin and Formation
compared to the objects on it. Gravity was a major force in the evolution of the early of the Earth
Universe and its components. It was responsible for the formation of first stars, galaxies,
planets, etc. It was the reason earth formed and differentiated into three layers viz:
Crust, Mantle and Core.
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Short question-answer
1. Give compositions of different layers of earth.
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2. What is a Geodynamo?
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Descriptive Question-Answer
3. Discuss the gravitational field of earth.
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4. Briefly discuss the geothermal gradient of earth.
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1.6 ATMOSPHERE AND HYDROSPHERE OF EARTH

The total water present on, above and under earth comprises the hydrosphere, whereas
the atmosphere is defined as the outer gaseous layer of the earth held intact by gravity.
21
Earth Processes The atmosphere and hydrosphere are an integral part of earth and evolved with time
since the birth of earth, i.e. around 4.56 billion years ago. The earth aggregated from
smaller bodies like planetesimals which contained volatile components such as H2O,
carbon, carbon dioxide and nitrogen. Some minerals making up rocks had volatiles
locked up in them. These volatiles got released during various geological processes
which segregated earth into different layers. The volatiles were continuously released
through volcanic activity/volcanism on earth’s surface, which started since the inception
of earth. The present volcanoes at the various plate margins emanate volatiles such as
water, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, carbon monoxide and nitrogen. The water and other
volatiles on earth would have also been added through extra terrestrial bodies that
kept hitting the earth when it formed. The initial earth’s atmosphere and oceans were
impacted more by voluminous bombardment of extraterrestrial bodies with the early
hot earth thus contributing to the various volatiles.
Earth’s atmosphere is a consequence of Earth’s gravity. The Earth’s atmosphere is
divided into five main layers: 1. the exosphere (farthest layer from earth’s surface);
2. the thermosphere; 3. the mesosphere; 4. the stratosphere and 5. the troposphere
(nearest layer to the earth’s surface). It comprises gases enveloping the Earth. The
two major components of the Earth’s atmosphere comprise Nitrogen (78.1%) and
Oxygen (20.9%). It has trace amounts of Argon (0.9%), Carbon Dioxide (~
0.035%), Water Vapor, and other gases (neon, helium, methane, krypton and
hydrogen). Atmosphere also has solid particulate matter viz. ash, dust, volcanic ash,
etc. The Earth’s atmosphere is a protective layer which absorbs harmful ultraviolet
rays emitted from the Sun. The earth’s atmosphere merges with outer space at an
imaginary line known as Karman line at approximately 100 kms from the earth’s
surface. The troposphere, closest layer to the Earth’s surface is 7 to 20 km thick
and contains half of Earth’s atmosphere. It contains almost all the water vapor and
dust in the atmosphere. The clouds are formed in this layer. The stratosphere starts
from where troposphere ends and is about 50 km above earth’s surface. This layer
with abundant ozone absorbs harmful radiation from the sun. The jet aircraft and
weather balloons fly in this layer. The mesosphere begins at 50 km and extends up
to 85 km. This layer is not well studied and according to scientists, meteors burn up
in this layer. The thermosphere starts from about 85-90 km to between 500-
1,000 km. The space shuttles fly in this zone and the International Space
Station orbits Earth in this layer. The exosphere, the farthest layer from the earth’s
surface, is very thin with hydrogen and helium and it merges into outer space.

1.7 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

The geological time scale has been devised to understand the geological evolution of
earth regarding time. The International Geological Time Scale is prepared and
regularly updated by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) under
the aegis of the International Union of Geological Sciences (IUGS). The
International Geological Time Scale starts at 4.56 billion years when the earth formed
to the present time. It records the evolution of earth vis-à-vis geological events, life
(which includes all life forms from cyanobacteria, unicellular organisms to the present-
day humans), hydrosphere and atmosphere. The most important basis of formulation
of this scale is rocks, fossil record and stratigraphic units. The International Geological
Time Scale has been divided into Eons, Eras, Periods and Epochs. The broadest
division of the Geological time scale is into four Eons viz: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic
22
and Phanerozoic (Figure 1.5).
Hadean, Archean and Proterozoic are together referred to as Precambrian i.e. time Origin and Formation
before the Cambrian which is the oldest Period of Phanerozoic Eon. The Precambrian of the Earth
encompasses the major part of the Geological time scale almost 4000 Ma. Hadean
eon is the earliest Eon which started at ~4.6 Ga and ended at about 3.9 Ga ago. This
was the time when earth was forming by cooling and records of felsic crust during
Hadean can be ascertained based on zircon dates at 4.4 billion years. Archean eon
began at 3.9 Ga and continued up to 2.5 Ga ago. Archean is further divided into Eo-
archean, Paleo-archean, Meso-archean and Neo-archean eras. During Archean the
continents came into existence and plate tectonic was an important geological
phenomenon. First signs of life in the form of fossils of uni-celled microorganisms have
been reported from Archean Era. Proterozoic eon began at 2.5 Ga and lasted until
0.542 Ga ago. The Proterozoic Eon is also further divided into Paleo-proterozoic,
Meso-proterozoic and Neo-proterozoic eras. This Eon was marked by fully functional
plate tectonics and well developed climate systems. During Proterozoic Eon the oxygen
in Earth’s atmosphere gradually increased. Phanerozoic Eon began at 0.542 Ga ago
and is continuing to the present. The Phaanerozoic Eon has been further divided into
three Eras viz: i. the oldest Paleozoic; ii. Mesozoic and iii. Cenozoic. The Paleozoic is
further divided into six Periods namely, Cambrian (541-485 Ma), Ordovician (485-
444 Ma), Silurian (444-419 Ma), Devonian (419-359 Ma), Carboniferous (359-
299 Ma) and Permian (299-252 Ma). The Mesozoic Era has been divided into three
Periods namely, Triassic (252-201 Ma), Jurassic (201-145 Ma) and Cretaceous (145-
66 Ma). The Cenozoic Era has been divided into three Periods namely, Paleogene
(66-23 Ma), Neogene (23-2.58 Ma) and Quaternary (2.58 Ma to the Present).
Different life forms proliferated with the onset of the Phanerozoic eon. The Stage
Meghalayan from India has been a recent addition to the Quaternary Period of the
International Chronostartigraphic Scale, which started at 0.0042 Ma. So we are living
in the Meghalayan age!
The boundaries between different time Periods were carefully marked based on
stratigraphic and fossil break and appearance of index fossils. The Precambrian and
Paleozoic boundary marks the first appearance of animals with the hard parts. The
major boundaries also mark mass extinctions. The most significant mass extinctions
which wiped about 95% of the living forms were recorded at the Paleozoic-Mesozoic
boundary i.e. Permain-Triassic boundary also known as P-T boundary. The second
significant mass extinction was recorded at Mesozoic-Cenozoic boundary i.e.
Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary when 75% of the life forms thriving in the Cretaceous
period perished.

Figure 1.5: The International Geological Time Scale.

(Source: http://www.stratigraphy.org) 23
Earth Processes Check Your Progress 3
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your progress with possible answers given at the end of the unit.
Short question-answer
1. Name the components of atmosphere.
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2. Why is hydrosphere important?
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Descriptive Question-Answer
3. Discuss the Proterozoic.
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4. Which major extinctions took place at different geological times?
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1.8 LET US SUM UP

The Unit on Origin and Formation of Earth deals with various aspects of earth since its
inception from the gaseous state to its present form. Earth is the only habitable planet
of Solar system. It is a planet which was born almost 4.6 billion years ago. The initial
structure and composition differed from its present form and composition. The earth
has been broadly divided into three prominent layers viz. Core, Mantle and Crust. The
Crust which is the most explored layer of earth is divided into: Continental and Oceanic
crust. The Continental crust differs from oceanic crust in terms of its thickness,
composition, and nature. The earth’s oceanic crust is capped by water. The hydrosphere
of earth comprises the total of water present on, above and under earth’s surface.
Earth has its atmosphere which developed over the last 4600 billion years. Earth has
a unique thermal, magnetic and gravitational field, put together these made earth a
viable and unique planet for the sustenance of life! The geologists have recorded the
events of evolution of rocks and life on earth devised in the form a Geological Time
24 Scale which encompasses the journey of earth from its inception to the present time.
 Origin and Formation
1.9 KEYWORDS of the Earth

Eons : Eons are the largest intervals of geologic time and

are hundreds of millions of years in duration.
Eras : Eons are divided into smaller time intervals known
as eras. For example Cenozoic, Mesozoic and
Paleozoic eras of Phanerozoic Eon.

1.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED FURTHER

READINGS
Grotzinger, J.P. and Jordan, T. H. (2014). Understanding earth. W. H. Freeman and
company, New York. 672p.
Wegener, Alfred (1966). The origin of continents and oceans. New York: Dover
Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-61708-4.
Buffett, Bruce A. (2010). “Tidal dissipation and the strength of the Earth’s internal
magnetic field”. Nature. 468 (7326). 952–
94. Bibcode:2010Natur.468..952B. doi:10.1038/nature09643. PMID 21164483.
Herndon, J.M. (2005). ”Scientific basis of knowledge on Earth’s
composition” (PDF). Current Science. 88 (7): 1034–37.
Herndon, J.M. (1980). “The chemical composition of the interior shells of the
Earth”. Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A372 (1748): 149-54. Bibcode:1980RSPSA.372.149H.
Montagner, Jean-Paul (2011). “Earth’s structure, global”. In Gupta, Harsh
(ed.). Encyclopedia of solid earth geophysics. Springer Science & Business Media.
pp. 134–154. ISBN 9789048187010. https://www.nasa.gov/ https://www.usgs.gov/

1.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Check Your Progress 1
Short question-answer
1. Crust, mantle and core
2. 5-10 Km
Descriptive Question-Answer
3. The solar nebula flattened into a disk with condensed, higher temperatures in the
inner region and less dense outer regions. Gravitational attraction led to accretion
of fine dust materials into planetesimals i.e. few kms in size. The planetesimals
collided and combined to form larger bodies i.e. the size of moon. This continued
with more collisions under the effect of gravity, finally giving rise to the planets.
The process of planet formation was completed approximately in a time span of
10 million years after the condensation of the nebula. The inner four planets are
known as terrestrial planets owing to their being like earth. The volatile materials
from these planets were boiled away because of their nearness to sun and also
blown away by the solar winds far off from the sun forming the cold, gaseous 25
Earth Processes outer planets. The inner planets comprise rock-forming silicates and metals like
iron and nickel. The outer giant planets are probably formed of rocky (silica- and
iron-rich cores) rimmed by liquid hydrogen and helium.
4. Briefly discuss the three layers of earth.
The earth’s core is composed of iron and nickel predominantly. It is the part of
earth is under extreme pressures up to 330-360 GPa. The core which is confined
between 2890 Km to 6370 Km is further divided into inner core and outer core.
It was possible to study the nature of the core with the help of seismic waves. The
inner solid core extends from 5150 Km to 6370 Km, whereas the outer core
which is molten extends from 2890 Km to 5150 Km. The mantle is the intermediate
layer sandwiched between the core and the crust. This layer extends from the
base of crust (which varies from the average depth of 60-80 Km in case of
continental crust and 5-10 Km in case of oceanic crust to 2850 Km. The mantle
is an important link between the core and crust. The heat from the interior of the
earth is transferred by convection in the mantle to shallower depths. It comprises
material intermediate in density between the materials of the core and crust. This
all information has been possible through seismic wave data retrieved from different
depths. Earth’s crust is the top most layer which is the least dense compared to the
mantle and core. It is further divided into oceanic crust and continental crust. The
oceanic crust is thinner (avg. 5-10 Km) and denser compared to continental crust
which varies in thickness from 30 to 100 Km and is less dense.
Answers to Check Your Progress 2
Short question-answer
1. The nature of the mantle and core materials is assessed by indirect geophysical
data’s.
2. The Earth’s magnetic field is attributed to this molten outer core. The convective
currents in the molten outer core which is composed of iron-nickel produces an
electric field and thus a large Geodynamo is created which produces a magnetic
field which has its affect not only inside the earth or its surface but extends up to
earth’s atmosphere and also far into outer space.
Descriptive Question-Answer
3. The gravitational field of earth can be said as a force between the object (with
mass) and the centre of the earth. Earth’s gravity is because of its mass. The
gravity of Sun keeps the planets of our Solar system in orbit. The gravity of earth
is responsible for the moon in its orbit. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our
atmosphere. Earth’s gravity is responsible for our feet on earth. Earth’s gravity is
responsible for our existence on this blue planet. Let us also remind ourselves that
it is not as simple to define gravitational field of earth as it sounds. It depends on
many factors and is experienced differently at different locations on earth. For
example an area on earth will have strong gravity if it has more mass in the subsurface
compared to an area with less subsurface mass. The GRACE (Gravity Recovery
And Climate Experiment) mission of NASA uses spacecrafts to measure the
variation in earth’s gravity.

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Answers to Check Your Progress 3 Origin and Formation
of the Earth
Short question-answer
1. The Earth’s atmosphere is divided into five main layers: 1. the exosphere (farthest
layer from earth’s surface); 2. the thermosphere; 3. the mesosphere; 4. the
stratosphere and 5. the troposphere (nearest layer to the earth’s surface). It
comprises gases enveloping the Earth. The two major components of the Earth’s
atmosphere comprise Nitrogen (78.1%) and Oxygen (20.9%). It has trace amounts
of Argon (0.9%), Carbon Dioxide (~ 0.035%), Water Vapor, and other gases
(neon, helium, methane, krypton and hydrogen). Atmosphere also has solid
particulate matter viz. ash, dust, volcanic ash, etc.
2. Proterozoic eon began at 2.5 Ga and lasted until 0.542 Ga ago. The Proterozoic
Eon is also further divided into Paleo-proterozoic, Meso-proterozoic and Neo-
proterozoic eras. This Eon was marked by fully functional plate tectonics and well
developed climate systems. During Proterozoic Eon the oxygen in Earth’s
atmosphere gradually increased. Phanerozoic Eon began at 0.542 Ga ago and is
continuing to the present.
Descriptive Question-Answer
3. The Phanerozoic Eon has been further divided into three Eras viz: i. the oldest
Paleozoic; ii. Mesozoic and iii. Cenozoic. The Paleozoic is further divided into six
Periods namely, Cambrian (541-485 Ma), Ordovician (485- 444 Ma), Silurian
(444-419 Ma), Devonian (419-359 Ma), Carboniferous (359-299 Ma) and
Permian (299-252 Ma). The Mesozoic Era has been divided into three Periods
namely, Triassic (252-201 Ma), Jurassic (201-145 Ma) and Cretaceous (145-66
Ma). The Cenozoic Era has been divided into three Periods namely, Paleogene
(66-23 Ma), Neogene (23-2.58 Ma) and Quaternary (2.58 Ma to the Present).
Different life forms proliferated with the onset of the Phanerozoic eon (Figure
1.7). The Stage Meghalayan from India has been a recent addition to the Quaternary
Period of the International Chronostartigraphic Scale which started at 0.0042
Ma. So we are living in the Meghalayan age!
4. The boundaries between different time Periods were carefully marked based on
stratigraphic and fossil break and appearance of index fossils. The Precambrian
and Paleozoic boundary marks the first appearance of animals with the hard parts.
The major boundaries also mark mass extinctions. The most significant mass
extinctions which wiped about 95% of the living forms were recorded at the
Paleozoic-Mesozoic boundary i.e. Permain-Triassic boundary also known as P-
T boundary. The second significant mass extinction was recorded at Mesozoic-
Cenozoic boundary i.e. Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary when 75% of the life
forms thriving in the Cretaceous period perished.

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