SEM - III DESCRIPTIVE TYPE

E-Buddies Notes
Material Metallurgy | Semester 3

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Table of Content
Module Contents Page no
1 Classification of materials, Concepts of crystals, Crystal Defects, Cold 3
Working and Recrystallization annealing.

2 Mechanism of Crystallization, Classification of Alloys based on phases 10

and phase diagram, Iron-Iron carbide phase diagram

3 Heat treatment, Surface hardening processes, Alloy steels. 23

4 Strengthening mechanisms in materials, Fracture of metals, Fatigue, 30
Creep.

5 Composites, Nano Materials, Introduction to Smart materials. 37

6 Engineering Polymers and Ceramics, Processing, Non destructive 42
Testing of Materials

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Module 01 :
Q. Discuss the differences and similarities between slip and twinning. [Dec 19, NOV
18,MAY18]
Slip Twinning
The direction of share can be either positive or Direction of shear is limited to that which
negative produces its twin image.
Stress required to produce slip is less Stress required to produce swimming is more.
Sleep is more common in B.C.C and F.C.C. Twinning is more common in H.C.P. metals
metals.
Slip lines are observed only after plastic Twin lines are observed after mechanical
deformation working and annealing
In this process the atomic movements are over In this process the atomic movements are over
large distances. a fraction of atomic spacing.
It consists of a shear displacement of an entire It consists of each plane of atoms moves a
block. definite distance.
It occurs on widely spaced planes. It occurs on every atomic plane involved in the
deformation within the twin region of the crystal.
The slip portion has some orientation of atoms That twinned portion shows mirror image of the
as that of original portion untwined portion.

Q. Why FCC metals are in general more ductile them BCC and HCP metals. [Dec 19, NOV
18]
• FCC has a higher packing efficiency and the slip planes are more closely packed than BCC.
• Infact BCC has more slip systems than FCC. But they are not as closely packed as FCC.
For plastic deformation, we need at least 5 independent slip systems.
• A face-centred cubic crystal structure will exhibit more ductility (deform more readily under
load before breaking) than a body-centred cubic structure
• Both FCC and BCC have those. But the previously mentioned factor makes FCC more
ductile than BCC.

Q. What are MR fluids? Where are they used? [Dec 19,MAY18]

• A magnetorheological fluid (MR fluid) is a type of smart fluid in a carrier fluid, usually a
type of oil.
• When subjected to magnetic field the fluid greatly increases its viscosity to the point of
becoming a viscoelastic solid.
• Importantly, the yield stress of the fluid when in its active state can be controlled very
accurately by varying the magnetic field intensity.
• The upshot is that the fluid's ability to transmit force can be controlled with an
electromagnet which gives rise to its many possible control-based applications.

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Q. What is strain hardening? Explain the phenomenon on the basis of

dislocation theory. Also discuss the role of Frank reed source in strain
hardening [Dec 19,NOV18]
Definition

• Ductile material increase in strength and hardness when plastically deformed at

temperature lower than the recrystallization temperature. This is called as work
hardening or strain hardening.
• In Elastic limit a small plastic deformation results in a relatively large increase in
strain hardening.
• The rate of strain hardening decreases rapidly beyond elastic limit and
becomes a constant value until fracture occurs.
• strain hardening process is of great significance in many metal formation and
fabrication operations in industries. As a result, working electrical conductivity
may be decreased and rate of chemical action increased.

• Work hardening can also be explained on the basis of dislocation theory,

because slip occurs by the motion of dislocation.
• Dislocation is a linear defect observed in the crystal structure. Misalignment of
atomic plane causes dislocation. The presence of an extra atomic plane or
absence of an atomic plane results in the formation of dislocation.
• During plastic deformation, dislocation movement is observed. As a dislocation
moves, the density increases. Is moving this location comes across any
obstacle inclusion and impurities movement is restricted requiring more stress
for their movement.
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• Figure shows the dislocation forward by living a loop around the obstacle. If the
dislocation is anchored at both the ends, it cannot easily bypass the obstacle.
• In this case, the dislocations under the applied stress. The dislocation gets
served as shown in the figure in 3 steps i, ii and iii. Find the step iv, the curved
dislocation forms a loop that travels outwards to the grain boundary.
• As the loop disappears the original dislocation is again created. The cycle
repeats and dislocation density increases. This is known as Frank reed source.

Q. Define hot and cold working. Compare the two process giving a few
example for each. [MAY 19]
Sr.No. Cold working Hot working
1. Cold working is a process in which Hot working is a process in which
metal are work below the metals are brought about the
recrystallization temperature recrystallization temperature
2. In cold working annealing heat Any type of heat treatment is notrequired.
treatment isrequired
3. Cold working does not involve hot It involves complete cold working
workingprocesses process example. Hot working = cold
working + annealing.
4. It is easy to control the dimensions It is difficult to control the dimensions
withinthe tolerance limit within tolerance limit.
5. More stress required for plastic Less stress is required for plastic
deformation deformation.
6. Higher amount of energy is used for Complete energy is used for plastic
plastic deformation and some amount of deformation.
energy isstored as internal energy
7. Ordinary steel which are used for Special materials are required for
shaping shaping the metals, hence cost of hot
the metals, hence cost of cold working working plant is more.
plantis less
8. In cold working handling of the In hot working handling of material is
materials iseasy difficult.
9. Continuous working on metal cannot Material can be continuously working
be without any cracking.
done to possibility of cracking
10. No oxidation of metal occurs during Heavy oxidation of metal occurs due to
coldworking working at high temperature.

Q. Write the difference between ductile and brittle fracture [MAY 19,MAY18]
Ductile fracture Brittle fracture
It involves large plastic failure It is associated with minimum plastic
deformation
It is always preceded by local failure It doesn’t involve necking
called necking
Ductile fracture normally occurs in fcc It is observed in bcc and hcp
materials
It occurs through grains It follows the grain boundaries

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It presents a rough dirty surface A complete brittle fracture shows sharp

facets which reflects light
It occurs with slow tearing of metal It occurs suddenly without any warning
with expenditure of considerable energy

Q. What is dislocation? What are the sources of dislocation? Compare edge and
screw dislocation. [MAY 19,MAY 18]
Dislocation - A part of a line of atoms will be missing from its regular site and this
missing row of atoms is called as dislocation.
❖ The distortion is centred along a line and hence this line defect is called as
dislocation.
❖ Movement of dislocation is necessary for plastic deformation. The
dislocation is a boundary between the slipped region and the unslipped region
and lies in the slip plane.

EDGE DISLOCATION SCREW DISLOCATION

Defect due to the insertion of an extrahalf Defect due to shearing of one plane ofatom, parallel
plane of atoms to another plane
Classified as positive dislocation and Classified as clockwise andanticlockwise
negative dislocation
The lattice above and below thedislocation The lattice is distorted along thedislocation line
line is in distorted state
Burgers vector is normal to the Burgers vector is parallel to thedislocation line
dislocation line
On applying stress dislocation moves On applying stress dislocation moves perpendicular
parallel to the direction of stress to the direction of stress

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Q. What is recrystallization annealing? Discuss the various stages of

recrystallization annealing.[MAY 19, NOV 18,MAY18]
1. In recrystallization annealing, the old distorted grains are replaced by the new
equiaxed stress free, strain free grains by a process of nucleation and growth.
2. This occurs by a recrystallization process.
3. Nucleation occurs at the points of high energy and subsequently these nuclei
grow at the expense of old grains,
4. The micro structure at the end of recrystallization process is very much
similar to the original structure. i.e. similar to the structure prior to the cold
work,
5. The grains become equiaxed and the dislocation density gets reduced to
a value characteristic of train free metal

6. Internal stresses are reduced almost to the original level with subsequent
increase in corrosion resistance, electrical resistance also goes to its original
level.
7. Recrystallization does not occur unless the degree of cold work is sufficient
and temperature is sufficiently high.
8. The minimum degree of cold work necessary for recrystallization to occur is
called the critical degree of cold work. this is of the order of 2- 3% for most of
the metals and alloys.

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Q. What are the characteristics of brittle fracture? discuss Griffiths theory and derive
its equation . [MAY 19, MAY 18]
The characteristics of brittle fracture are:
• It occurs when a small crack in a material grows and the movement of crack involves
very little plastic deformation of the metal adjacent to the crack. growth continues
until fracture occurs.
• At the surface of a material, the atoms do not have as many neighbours as those in
the interior of a solid and therefore they form fewer bonds, obviously, surface atoms
are at a higher energy than a plane of interior atoms. brittle fracture contains in
destroying the interatomic bonds by normal stresses/
• Brittle fracture in metals is characterized by a rapid rate of crack propagation with a
minimum energy of absorption, with no gross deformation and very little micro-
deformation.
• This does not produce plastic deformation and therefore requires less energy than a
ductile fracture.
• It occurs along crystal plane with fewer atomic bonds.
• It occurs below the elastic limit of a material.
• The tendency for brittle fracture increases with decreasing temperature, increasing
strain rate and stress concentration.

The Griffith theory states that a crack will propagate when the reduction in potential
energy that occurs due to crack growth is greater than or equal to the increase in surface

energy due to the creation of new free surfaces.

Consider an element of thickness t, subjected to tensile stress s. Let U0 be
the strain energy of the material before applying stress. Let Ua be the strain
energy after application of stress.
Hence total elastic strain energy stored in the material per unit volume
=ΔU
=Ua-Uo
=-1/2 x stress x strain
=-1/2 x s x s/E
Hence total elastic strain energy UE= volume x strain energy per unit volume.
=-π /4 x (2c)2 x t x 1/2x s x s/E c 2
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= -πs2c2 /E
Where
UE =total elastic energy. s=stress applied, E= young’s modulus .t=thickness
=1 C= length of the crack.

Along with strain energy, the crack is also subjected to the surface energy
. let Us be the total surface energy
Us = 2 x 2c x t x γ

Where γ = surface energy per unit area of fracture

surface 2c x t = area of surface
Hence, Us=4c γ.
By energy conservation, the total energy change during fracture is sum of
elastic strain energy and surface energy
Hence, UT= -πs2c2 /E + 4c γ.
Differentiating, with respect to c, we get
0=- 2πs2c/E+ 4γ.
Hence, s=

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Module 02 :
Q. What are limitations of plain Carbon steel? Explain the alloying effect on phase
transformations . [Dec 19,NOV 18]

Limitations of plain carbon steels

1) Low hardenability
2) Low corrosion and oxidation resistance
3) Low strength at elevated temperature
4) During rapid quenching of fully martensitic structure distortion and cracking also
occur.
Alloying effect on phase transformation

1) An alloy element is added to steel; it can influence several properties. The extent of
effect on a given property depends on the type of element, its amount and the
subsequent heat treatment given to steel.
2) In alloys based on Ti or Zr, very important effect of an alloying element pertains to the
manner in which its addition, field effect the allotropic phase to phase
transformation temperature.
3) Some element stabilizes the phase and the other phase by raising this temperature.
4) Elements stabilize the be phase by lowering the temperature. Element which are
dissolved in Ti or Zr causes the transformation temperature to increase or bring
about little change in temperature is known as - stabilizers.
5) These elements are generally non transition metals or interstitial elements (like C,N
and O), element which alloys with Ti or Zr, brings down the transformation
temperature at stabilizers.
6) These elements are alloys transition metals and the noble metals with unfilled or just
field electron bands among the interstitial elements.

Q. Define critical cooling rate. Describe various cooling curve on TTT diagram. How
search curves are drawn? What factors affect critical cooling rate? . [Dec 19,NOV
18]
Critical cooling rate : Is defined as the lowest cooling rate which produces 100% martensite with
minimum internal stresses and distortion.
1) T (time), T (temperature), T (transformation) diagram is a plot of temperature versus
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the logarithm of a time for a steel alloy of definite composition. it is used to

determine when transformation begin and end for a constant temperature heat
treatment of a previously austenitized alloy.
2) When austenite is cooled slowly to a temperature below lower critical temperature,
the metal structure which is obtained at room temperature is ferrite, Pearlite etc. The
microstructure of a metal is significantly altered as the cooling rate increases, w e
get martensite phase at room temperature .
3) TTT diagram indicates when a specific transformation starts and ends and it also
shows what percentage of transformation of austenite at a particular temperature is
achieved.

:-

How search curves are drawn

• TTT curves are also known as s curve or C curve isothermal transformation

diagram this diagram also involve non equilibrium rates of cooling.
• At very high rates of cooling or quenching, a metastable phase called martensite
is formed in steels.
• TTT diagram is the main source of information for the decomposition of austenite
under non equilibrium conditions.
• As shown in the figure the area on the left of the transformation curve represents
the austenite region.
• Left curve indicates the start of transformation and right curve represents the
finish of a transformation.
• The area between the two curve indicates the transformation of austenite to
different types of crystals.
• As shown in the figure the cooling rate a and b which indicate to rapid cooling

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process.
• In this case curve will cause a higher distortion and higher internal stresses then
the cooling rate B.
• The end product of both the cooling rates will be martensite.
• Cooling rate b is also known as critical cooling rate, which is represented by
cooling curve that is tangent to the nose of TTT diagram.

Factors affecting the cooling rate

1) Austenite is stable at temperature 723 Celsius, below this austenite is unstable.
2) Any cooling rate lower than CCR will forms of transformation products such as
Pearlite or Bainite, but any cooling rate equal to what faster than CCR will form only
martensite.

Q. Draw Fe-Fe3C Diagram and label the temperature composition and

phases. [Dec 19,NOV 18, MAY 18].

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Q. Describe the cooling of the 0.4% C steel from liquid state to room temperature.
Calculate the phases in the steel obtained at room temperature. [DEC 19,]

Steel containing 0.4 % carbon is a hypo eutectoid steel:

• Which steel is completely austenite above A3 i.e. upper critical temperature line.
• As it is cooled below A3 line the iron begins to change from FCC to BCC.
• As a result, small crystals and body centred cube (BCC) iron begin to separate
out from austenite (FCC)
Microstructure of 0.4 % carbon:

• The microstructure of 0.4 % carbon are as follows

• The microstructure of medium carbon steel shows that 50% pearlite and 50%
ferrite is obtained. The dark portion phase is pearlite and bright portion phase is
ferrite.

Fig 1 Etchant: Nital magnification :200XPhases a

involved in the transformation

1. Li : liquid solution of carbon in iron

2. ferrite : solid solution of carbon in iron. It is soft and ductile phase. Cold work
without cracking. Maximum concentration of carbon in ferrite is 0.09% at
1493 C temperature of the peritectic transformation. Crystal structure of
ferrite is BCC
3. Austenite : Inertial solid solution of carbon in iron. Austenite has FCC,
permitting high solubility of carbon up to 2% it at 1147 C. Austenite does
not exist below 727
C. It is a soft, ductile malleable and non-magnetic phase.
4. ferrite : solid solution of carbon in iron. ferrite has BCC crystal structure
and low solubility of carbon up to 0.025% 727 C. ferrite and exist at room
temperature it is a soft and ductile phase.

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5. Cementite : cementite and intermetallic compound of iron and carbon having

carbon content 6.67% cementite that has a complex orthorhombic crystal
structure having 12 iron atoms and 4 carbon atoms unit cell. Cementite is
hard and brittle phase.
6. Ledeburite : Ledeburite which consists of eutectic mixture of pearlite and
cementite. It is observed in cast iron containing 4.3 % carbon.
7. Transformed ledeburite : Structure consists of pearlite and cementite . This
mixture is called transform ledeburite.

Q. A slowly cooled steel contains 40% ferrite and 60% pearlite at room
temperature. Determine the total amount of ferrite and cementite present in the
alloy.[DEC 19]
Here, for 40% ferrite and 60% pearlite

Amount of ferrite = 6.7−0.76 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟖𝟗 as 88.92%

6.7−0.02

Amount of cementite = 0.76−0.02 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟏𝟏 as 11.1%

6.7−0.02

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Q. Explain transformation of austenite to bainite [DEC 19]

Transformation of austenite to bainite
1. The transformation product of austenite at below 550-degree cel is called
bainite.
2. It is an extremely fine mixture of ferrite and cementite.
3. Bainitic transformation starts by Nucleation of ferrite/
4. Since this takes place at low temperatures, the rate of nucleation is very high
but the growth rate is very low due to relatively less mobility if carbon atoms at
low temperatures.
5. This results in a structure with very fine distribution of ferrite a cementite
phases and is usually unresolvable by the optical microscope.
6. The bainite formed at higher temperatures is called upper bainite and usually
has a feathery appearance, whereas the bainite formed at lower temperatures
is called lower bainite and has an acicular (needle like) appearance.

Q. Draw Fe-Fe3C diagram indicating all important temperatures, phases and

compositions. Explain slow cooling of an alloy containing 0.9% carbon when
cooled from 16000 C temperature to room temperature.

The various phases existing in the diagram are as follows-

1. α-Ferrite:
• an interstitial solid solution of carbon at low temperature.(BCC α-ferrite)
• Almost a pure iron ,soft and ductile, strongly ferromagnetic upto 768̊C.
• becomes paramagnetic at 768̊C, due to heating
2. Austenite (γ):
• Interstitial solid soln of carbon in fcc
• dissolves upto 20 % of carbon at 1147 C ̊
• soft,ductile,malleable ,non magnetic .

3. d-Ferrite: Unlike α-ferrite ,it is interstitial solid of carbon at high temper, in bcc

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4. Fe3C (cementite) :
• Intermetallic compound of iron and carbon
• has complex orthorhombic crystal structure with 12 iron atoms and 4 carbon
in unit cell.
• Occurs at 6.64 % by weight of carbon.
• Extremely hard and brittle.

The following transformations take place-

1. Peritectic transformation: At 1492̊ C , d-ferrite and liq form austenite at point P.

• S1+L=S2
d-ferrite + liquid γ-ferrite
(0.1% of c) (0.55% of C) (0.18% of
C)
2. Eutectoid transformation: At austenite converts into pearlite . ie- α-ferrite and
727 carbide .(at point E)
• S1=S2+S3
γ -ferrite α-ferrite + Fe3C(cementite)
(0.8% of C , FCC) (0.025% of C, BCC) (6.67% of C,orthorohmbic)
3. Eutectic transformation :At
, liquid at 4.3 % of carbon transforms into ledeburite
1147 austenite and iron carbide
i.e
.
• L= S2+S3.
Liquid γ-ferrite + Fe3C
(4.3% of C) ( 2% of C) (6.67% of C).
At 0.9 percent carbon,
We get the following points :
• At point 1: iron is present in pure liquid state .
• At point 2 : just above point 2, iron is in pure liquid state, and just below
point 2, it starts separating out as austenite and liquid .
Hence we get :L γ-ferrite +Liquid .
• At point 3: above point 3, most of the γ-ferrite seperates out from the liquid.
Hence below point 3, we only get γ-ferrite .
γ-ferrite +Liquid γ-ferrite .
• At point 4: above point 4, pure γ-ferrite exists , but below point 4, it starts
seperating into cementite . we get
γ-ferrite γ-ferrite + Fe3C.
• At point 5:above point 5, γ-ferrite and Fe3C coexist uptill 727 degree cel.
However below 5, all the γ-ferrite converts into α-ferrite and this is forms
pearlite .

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By lever rule ,
% γ-ferrite= 6.67-0.9 x100 =98.29%
6.67-0.8

% Fe3C =100-98.29 =1.71%

• At point 6: all of the γ-ferrite converts into α-ferrite and pearlite is
formed. By lever rule,

% α-ferrite =
6.67-0.9
x100=14.87% 6.67-
0.008
%% Fe3C =100-14.87=85.31

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Q. Draw and explain isomorphous phase diagram. [MAY 19]

Isomorphous phase diagrams are of loop type and are obtained for two metals having
complete solubility in the liquid state as well as solid state. E.g. Cu-Ni, Au-Ag, Au-Cu.
Mo-W, Mo-V, Mo-Ti. W-V, Au-Ni and Bi-Sb.

In the given diagram, c and d are the melting temperatures of metals A and B
respectively Cooling of an alloy with Z% of B:
• From 1-2 the alloy is in the liquid state and no change occurs.
• At just below 2, solidification starts and solid phase starts separating out from the
liquid.
• as temperature decreases, the amount of solid increases and this continues up
to 4 where last liquid freezes to solid.
• between 2 and 4, the average composition of existing solid is indicated by the
solidus line while that of liquid by the liquidus line.
• At the temperature consideration, amounts of solid and liquid can be obtained
by applying lever rule.
• For example, at 3, average composition of the existing liquid is given by the
point M and that of solid is by point N. the number of phases will be as below:
Amount of liquid = length on the opposite side of tie
line (Of composition M%B) The total length of tie -line
= length 3N
Length
MN

Amount of solid = length on the opposite side of tie

line (Of composition N%B) The total length of tie -line
= length M3
Length
MN
= 1-amount of liquid
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Q. Write a short note on allotropic forms of iron. [MAY 19]

• At room temperature, Iron is present in bcc crystal structure, it is ferromagnetic
up to its curie’s temperature, (768 deg)
• It is called as alpha iron
• At 768 degree it turns in a paramagnetic substance, retaining its bcc form.
• At 910 degree, it changes from bcc to fcc. It is called as gamma iron.
• Then again at 1400 it changes from fcc to bcc form. It is called as delta iron.
• Upon further heating it melts at 1539 degree

Q. Draw TTT curve for a eutectoid steel and explain the effects of various
cooling curves on transformation products [MAY 19,NOV 18,MAY 18]

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1. Cooling Curve -1 (Coarse Pearlite)

• This curve is obtained by a very slow cooling rate in the conventional
annealing process.
• The transformation product of this cooling curve will be coarse pearlite.
• In the diagram when cooling of unstable austenite will be carried out
between 675 degrees to 727 degree.
• Isothermally, it will transform into coarse pearlite.
• The same transformation can be carried out by continuous cooling curve,
when unstable austenite will be cooled by! degree per second cooling rate.
• The transformation will start when the transformation product crosses
starting TTT and finishes it crosses finishing TTT and CCT curve.
• After transformation, the rate of cooling will have no effect on the
microstructure properties.

2. Cooling Curve 2 – (Medium Pearlite)

• The cooling curve is obtained by isothermal or cycle annealing process.
• The transformation product of this cooling curve is medium pearlite.
• The transformation occurs when material cooled between 600 to 675 degree.
at a constant temperature in TTT diagram and 3 degrees /sec CCT diagram,
• Microstructure shows uniform cementite in the matrix of Alpha -ferrite

3. Cooling Curve 3 – (Fine Pearlite)

• This cooling curve is obtained by the normalising process
• The transformation product is fine pearlite.
• The transformation occurs when the material will be cooled between 500-600
degrees at a constant temperature in TTT diagram and 5 degrees/sec in CCT
diagram.
• The microstructure of fine particles shows fine particles of cementite in the matrix
of alpha ferrite.

4. Cooling Curve 4- (Upper Bainite)

• This cooling curve is obtained by cooling material rapidly enough to miss the nose
of the TTT curve and then at a constant temperature for transformation.
• The constant temperature is maintained just below the nose of TTT curve,
• The transformation product of this curve is upper bainite.
• Bainite is a fine pearlite and contains very fine distribution of ferrite and
cementite phase
• Upper bainite has a feathery appearance under the optical microscope.
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5. Cooling Curve 5 – (Lower Bainite)

• This cooling curve is obtained by cooling material rapidly enough to miss the nose
of TTT curve just above 210-degree temperature (Ms).
• Hold it at a constant temperature for transformation.
• The transformation product is lower bainite.
• It is observed under an optical microscope as an acicular appearance.
• The hardness of lower bainite if between 50-60 Rc.
• It is not observed in TTT diagram

6 .Cooling Curve 6-Critical Cooling Rate:

• This curve is tangent to the nose of TTT and CCT curve.

• It is the slowest cooling rate at which austenite can be transformed into martensite.
• It is 140 deg/sec for eutectoid steel.

7. Cooling Curve 7- (Martensite)

• This curve is obtained by very fast cooling rate of 350 deg/sec.

• The transformation product of this curve is martensite.
• It gives maximum hardness in the plain carbon steel which is 64 Rc
• This curve is obtained by rapid quenching enough to avoid transformation in the
nose region.

Q .Short notes on Nitriding [MAY 19]

• Nitriding is done by heating the steel n contact with a source of atomic nitrogen at a
temperature of about 550-degree C
• The atomic nitrogen diffuses into the steel and combines with iron and certain
alloying elements present in the steel and forms respective nitrides.
• This layer does not get etched with most of the common etching reagents used in
the microscopic examination of steels and hence appears white under the
microscope.
• White layer is extremely hard and brittle and tends to crack or chip in service and
hence it is not desirable.
• Plain carbon steels produce only white layer and therefore are not suitable for
nitriding.
• In presence of alloying elements such as Al, Cr, Mo, V, W, Mn and Ti in solid
solution, respective nitrides are formed, which are hard and tough and hence do not

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crack or chip.
• These nitrides increase the hardness and wear resistance of steels.
• Molecular nitrogen does not diffuse into the steel and hence is completely ineffective
as a nitriding medium.
• The atomic nitrogen source can be a molten salt bath containing NaCN similar to that
used liquid carburizing without the addition of alkaline earth salts or dissociated
ammonia and accordingly the process is called liquid nitriding or gas nitriding.

• During nitriding of alloy steels, first a white layer is formed on the surface from which
nitrogen diffuses deeper into the steel and selectively precipitates the alloy nitrides.

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Module 03 :
Q. What is hardenability? What are the factors affecting hardenability? Explain
Jominy quench test? [DEC 19,NOV18, MAY 18]
Definition

• Hardenability may be defined as the ability of steel to develop its maximum hardness
(depth of hardness) when subjected to normal hardening and quenching cycle.
• Generally high alloy steels pose higher hardenability which shows lower critical
cooling rate, so that even slow cooling will leads to a martensitic structure as
compared with plain Carbon steels.
• For plain carbon steels, hardenability is very low as compared with alloy steels.

Factors affecting hardenability

• Alloying elements : the alloying elements in steel have a big influence on
hardenability, alloying element in steel increases hardenability.
• Austenitic grain size : hardenability is also affected by austenitic grain size. A fine
grain size reduces hardenability, because of larger number density of
heterogeneous nucleation sites.
• Severity of quench : certainly fast cooling with water or brain water will give lower
hardenability as compared with oil quenching increases hardenability as the
cooling rate is slightly slower.
• Carbon content in steel : generally increase in percentage of carbon, increases
hardenability, but up to some extent. Otherwise at very high carbon, hardenability
decreases.

Hardenability measured by jominy end quench test

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• This test has been standardized by the ASTM (American society of testing of
materials) SAE (society of automotive engineering) and AISI.
• The test is conducted with standard sample as shown in the figure, prepared from
the steel of which hardenability is to be found out.
• The test set up as shown in the figure, along with the dimensions of standard
samples.
• Which standard sample is then heated to proper austenitizing temperature
(according to the composition of steel under test) and after a proper socking time,
the specimen is removed from the furnace and placed on the support.

Fig 2 End quench hardenability

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Fig 3 Hardenability curve

• Then a water jet is started the flow of water is so adjusted that the cooling effect
will be obtained only on the bottom most surface of the specimen and gradually
it cools up to collar end. The water it should show umbrella shape.
• After the bar has been cool to temperature, for measuring of hardness, 1 band is
grind from collar end up to the quench end and polished, proper hardness
measurement.
• The hardness is measured on the Rockwell hardness tester with RC scale. At a
distance of 1/16 interval in which hardness point as shown in the figure.
• As the cooling rate will be the highest at the end being Quenched, and will
decrease as distance from the Quench end increases.
• The hardenability is found out by measuring the hardness along the bar at
show in the figure.
• Higher hardness is obtained at the Quench end where the highest cooling rate
was obtained and gradually the hardness decreases towards the collar end.
Hardenability is curve obtained as shown in the figure.
• As shown in the above, the measure of hardenability is a point where we get 50
RC as a hardness and the depth of the hardening can be found out by drawing
the perpendicular to the x axis as shown

Q. Discuss the importance of heat treatment. [DEC19]

• Definition of heat treatment is a combination of heating and cooling operations
timed and applied to a metal or alloy in the solid state in a way that will produce
required properties.
• Heat treatment can be further defined as a series of time temperature
treatments.
• Heat treatment are used for variety of purpose is the most important being to
control the the mechanical, specially hardness, ductility, strength, toughness
and internal stresses.
• In manufacturing processes of many machine parts and tools heat treatment
plays an important role.
• It is possible to impart hi mechanical properties two metals by heat treatment
• For any heat treatment cycle the metal is first heated to some temperature above
the critical temperature to form austenite.
• The rate of heating to desired temperature is not very important. But highly
stress metals produce by cold working, should be heated slowly, then a stress-
free metal to avoid distortion.

Q. Discuss ductile -brittle transition in steel. [MAY 19]

Ductile – brittle transition in steel are
• The temperature of a material can affects the behaviour when subjected to
stress. many materials which are ductile at high temperatures are brittle at low
temperature.
• Steel may behave as a ductile material above 0̊ C, but below that temperature it

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becomes brittle
• The notched bar impact test can be used to determine whether or not a
material experiences a ductile to brittle transition as the temperature is
decreased.
• In such a transition at higher temperature, the impact energy is relatively large
since fracture is ductile. as the temperature is lowered, the impact energy drops
over a narrow temperature range as the fracture becomes more brittle.
• In case of steel. It is brittle up to -100 degree C,
• Its transition takes place, from -100 degrees to 150 degrees. In this period, it
exhibits properties of both brittle as well ductile.
• Above 150 degrees, steel becomes purely ductile.

Q. What are Stainless steels? give a brief of classification of stainless steels

[MAY 19, MAY 18]

• These steels have high corrosion resistance and hence they do not corrode in
most of the usual environmental conditions. Due to this they are called as
stainless steels.
• The high corrosion resistance is due to the presence of chromium in these
steels, when they are exposed to oxidizing environment, chromium gets rapidly
oxidized and forms a thin film of hydrous chromium oxide. this film of chromium
is passive, self -healing in character and impervious to further attack.
• Corrosion and scale resistant steels are classified into four types of groups as
below:
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1) Group A-
• this group includes plain Fe-Cr alloys and the amount of Cr in the
solid solution form is less than 13%.
• they are hard, wear resistant and magnetic in character
• are used for springs, ball bearings, valves, razors, and razor
blades, surgical instruments, cutting tools, cutlery items, etc
.
2) Group B-
• these steels are also plain Fe-Cr alloys but the amount of Cr in the
solid solution form exceeds 13%
• they are soft, ductile, malleable and magnetic in character.
• they contain chromium from 13% to 27% and carbon less than 0.2%
• they are widely used in chemical and food industries, pressure
vessels, furnace parts, heaters, heat exchangers, juice carrying pipes
in sugar industries, architectural and automotive trim, restaurant
equipment, pots and pans
3) Group C –
• these includes alloys which contain at least 24% of the total Cr, Ni
and Mn, the amount of Cr in these alloys Is at least 18% with carbon
content between 0.03 and 0.25 %.
• they are soft, ductile, malleable and nonmagnetic in character.
• they are used for engine manifolds, food and chemical plants,
tubular exchangers, utensils, wrist watches, sanitary fittings, etc.
4) Precipitation hardenable stainless steels-
• they contain elements such as Mo, Cb, Ti,Al,Cu,N in addition to the
basic elements Cr and Ni.
• higher strength is developed due to precipitation of certain
compounds and they maintain high strength up to a temperature of
550 degrees, they are used in aircraft and missile industries for skins,
nibs, bulk heads and for other structural components.

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Q. Write classification of tool steels [MAY 19]

Tool steels are specially used for working, shaping and cutting of metals. Large
number of steels are available for this purpose. They are classified and designated
according to American iron ad steel institute (AISI) as below-
1. Cold work tool steels
2. Hot work tool steels
3. High speed tool steels
4. Special purpose tool steels

1. Cold Work Tool Steel : resistance at low temperatures. Some of the steels from this
group contain very little or no alloying elements and hence are less expensive.
depending on their hardness they are classified as
A) Water hardening steels: they are plain carbon steels with high carbon
content (0.6 to 1.4%)
They are used for maintenance of sharp cutting edges and high wear
resistance. since they have poor hardenability; they are hardened by
water quenching hence the name water hardening steels.

B) Oil hardening steels: these contain small number of alloying elements

such as W, Mn, Cr, Mo and V. due to this their hardenability is better
than the water hardening tool steels and hence they can be hardened
by oil quenching. they are used for blanking and forming dies, shear
blades, master tools, etc.
C) Air hardening steels: these steels have high hardenability due to the
addition of various alloying elements such as Mn, Cr, Mo, W in
sufficient amount the total content of alloying elements exceed 5%.

D) High carbon high chromium steels :they contain carbon above 1.5 %
and some of the grades contain carbon even more than 2% with
chromium about 12% ab dither elements in small amount , they are
used for drawing dies, blanking dies, forming dies ,coining dies, thread
rolling dies, trimming dies, bushings ,shear blades, punches ,etc

2. Hot Work Tool Steels : These steels are mainly used for hot working of metals
such as for stamping, drawing, forming, piercing, extruding, upsetting and swaging.
they have good strength and toughness, hardness and wear resistance at elevated
temperatures. they are of low go high alloy content with relatively less carbon (0.35 -
0.65%) and are classified into three types depending upon the principal alloying
element. these are chromium type, tungsten type, molybdenum type hot work tool
steels.

3. High Speed Tool Steels: These steels maintain high hardness up to a temperature
of 550 degree and hence can be used for cutting of metals at high speeds. they also
have high wear resistance and cutting ability.

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They are divided into two types, depending upon the principal alloying element

1. Tungsten high speed steels or t -series – they contain high amount of

tungsten with very other elements like Cr, V, Co.
2. Molybdenum steels or m- series – a part of tungsten from the group of w-high
speed steels is substituted by molybdenum. Hence this steel contains W, Cr,
V, Co, Mo. this substitution results in lowering the cost of steel.
4. Special Purpose Tool Steels : Remaining tool steels are grouped together under
the heading special purpose tool steels.
1. shock resisting tool steels (s-series)-contain less carbon (~0.5%) for better
shock resistance,
2. low alloy tool steels(L-series)-principal alloy is chromium, used where high
wear resistance and toughness are required.
3. carbon-tungsten tool steels (F -series)-contains high carbon (>1.0%) and
tungsten as the alloying element.
4. mould steels (P-series)-used for plastic moulding, have high surface hardness.

Q.Explain Induction hardening process. [MAY 19]

• Here heating is done within thin layer of surface metal by using high frequency
induced currents.
• The component is heated by means of an inductor coil, which consists of one or
several turns of water -cooled copper tube.
• High frequency alternating currents flowing through the inductor generate
alternating magnetic field.
• this electromagnetic filed induces eddy currents of the same frequency in the
surface layers which rapidly heat the surface of the component
• Within a short period of 2-5 minutes the temperature of the surface layer comes
to above the upper critical temperature of that steel.
• the high frequency induced currents chiefly flow through the surface layer –skin
effect.
• the layer through which these currents flow is inversely proportional to the
square root of frequency of induced currents and hence the depth of hardened
layer can be controlled by controlling the frequency of supply voltage.
• the usual range of frequency is from 1000 Hz to 100000 Hz and the hardened
depths obtained are from 0.5 to 6mm

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Module 04 :
Q. What is fatigue of metals? Explain the method of testing the metals for fatigue.
Draw and discuss the S-N diagram. [DEC 19,NOV 18, MAY 18]
Metal Fatigue :
Metal fatigue occurs when metal parts are weakened due to repeated stresses. There are
three stages to metal fatigue:
• Stage One: After a certain amount of load cycles, micro-cracks begin to form on the
metal during the metal fatigue process. The micro-cracks tend to form around stress
concentrating geometric features such as edges. The stress required to create these
micro-cracks can actually be less than the ultimate tensile strength and yield tensile
strength of the metal.
• Stage Two: These micro-cracks continued to be stressed by cyclic loading, causing
them to increase in size.
• Stage Three: Eventually, the enlarged micro-cracks reach a size where the stresses
are enough to cause rapid crack propagation, leading to metal failure. The crack
surface will be different in appearance depending on metal type and metal tensile
strength.

fig 1 rotating beam fatigue test machine

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Fig 2 fatigue test specimen in bent state

Fatigue testing :
The fatigue testing can be conducted using rotating beam fatigue testing machine as shown
in figure as following:
• The fatigue specimen is gripped on to a motor at one end to provide the rotational
motion whereas the other end is attached to a bearing and also subjected to a
load or stress.
• When the specimen is rotated about the longitudinal axis, the upper and the lower
parts of the specimen gauge length are subjected to tensile and compressive
stresses respectively. The test proceeds until specimen failure take place.
• The revolution counter is used to obtain the number of cycles to failures
corresponding to the stress applied. When specimen breaks then the counter
automatically disengages.
• Increasing weight applied to the fatigue specimen results in a reduction in a
number of cycles to failure. We can use the experimental results to construct an
S-N curve.

Fig 3 S-N diagram

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S-N curves and interpretation :

• The other specimens of the metal art tested relatively at lower stress than the
previous one. With the decrease in stress value, the life of specimen increased.
• The number of repetition required to produce rupture, i.e., fracture increases as
the stress decreases. Specimen with the stress below the endurance limit will not
rupture. The life of the specimen is expressed in the number of cycles required up
to failure at maximum applied force.
• The results of fatigue test are commonly plotted on diagram in which values of
stress are plotted is coordinates and the values of cycles of stress for rupture as
abscissa. The curve is called as S-N diagram where S -stands for stress and N
for number of cycles.
• Which diagram are drawn using semi logarithmic plotting, plotting N on logarithmic
scale. The form of S-N curve is of much significance to engineers. For metals e.g.
mild steel and Titanium the curve becomes horizontal at certain stress. Distress
value is termed as fatigue limit.
• Below the stress value the specimen does not fail or fracture example. the
material will not fail even after infinite number of stress cycles.
• Obviously this shows that if the material is loaded to a stress below the fatigue
limit it will not fail no matter how many time the stress is applied.
• For all ferrous metals tested and for most non-ferrous metals these S-N diagrams
become almost horizontal for values of N ranging from 1- 106 to 5- 107 cycles
thirst indicating a well-defined endurance limit.
• We must know that the number of cycle is arbitrarily taken The fatigue test is
normally conducted using at least 8-12 specimens in order to provide sufficient
information for the interpretation of fatigue behaviour of the tested material .

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Q. Define creep. Draw the creep curve explain stages of creep. Discuss the
development of creep resistance materials. [DEC 19, MAY 19, NOV 18]
Definition
1. It is essential as low rise of plastic deformation under the action of stresses
below the yield strength of material.
2. Artificial curve of deformation versus loading time is shown
3. A Creep curve usually consists of three portions corresponding to particular
stages of creep.
4. The first stage is the stage of what is called unstable, transient creep (also
called initial or primary creep)
5. It features gradual decrease of the deformation rate to define and constant
value.
6. The second stage is the stage of study state or secondary creep and is
characterized by a constant deformation rate.
7. At the third stage (tertiary accelerated creep) the deformation rate
increases up to the failure.
8. The third stage is as a rule short and should be avoided since quick
failure of part is inevitable at this stage

Fig 1 Creep curve at constant temperature and stress

Stages of creep

a) Primary creep
b) Secondary creep
c) Tertiary creep
Primary creep :

• This stage is mainly due to dislocation movement.

• The creep rate decreases with time and effect of work hardening is
more than that of recovery process

Secondary creep :

• The rates of work hardening and recovery during the stage are equal, so the
material creeps at a steady rate.
• Depending upon the state level and temperature study creep maybe
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essentially viscous orplastic in character.

• Structural observation reveals that Pologonization is an important recovery
process during secondary creep.
Tertiary creep :

• Creep rate increases with time until fracture occurs in which stage. Tertiary
creep can occur due to necking of the specimen or a grain boundary sliding
at high temperatures and this continues until specimen fracture.
• Development of each stage of creep depend on the temperature and stress.
For the same stress an increase of temperature shortens the time of the
second stage an accelerates failure.
• The phenomenon of creep is observable in metals, iconic and covalent
crystals, the amorphous material such as glasses and polymers.
• In polymers, the phenomenon of creep is important at room temperature, in
alloys at 100 C and in steel above 300 C
• Metals generally exhibit creep at high temperature where as plastics rubber
and similar amorphous materials are very temperature sensitive to creep.
• A material is subjected to a constant tensile load at an elevated temperature
will creep and undergo a time dependent deformation.

Creep resisting material

• At elevated temperatures materials used for machine parts and structural

components must be creep resistant. Materials used for turbine blades must
be creep resistance, i.e. they should not be formed by creep during service.
• Creep can be result in seizing the blades with turbine casing. The materials
to be used at high temperature must have high melting point.
• The creep becomes significant at temperatures greater than 0.4 Tm.
Refractory oxides, e.g. MgO and Al2LO3 have high melting point and as
such are most suitable for use at high temperature. where only
compressive stresses are encounter rate their brittleness limits their use
two applications.
• The discovery of tougher ceramics e.g. Si3N4 (silicon nitride) indicate that
selected parts of a heat engine piston rings and cylinder heads can be
produced from ceramic materials. Under more versatile conditions metals
and alloys can be used.

• Most creep resistant alloys consist of a base metal of a fairly high melting
point. In aircraft industry aluminium alloys are mostly used. Aluminium alloy
containing 4% copper, 2% nickel and 1.5% magnesium is quite useful
group of creep – resisting light alloys called asY– alloys.

• To develop creep resistance alloys there should be:

1) Increased resistance of grains and grain boundaries to floor and
2) Minimum softening of recovery effects.

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• For better Mechanical properties in low temperature application, where is

not important, a fine grained material is desirable. However, for high
temperature applications find green materials are to be avoided as green
boundary sliding can be adding to creep deformation.
• We must know that grain boundary sliding is not a problem in a single
crystal as there are no grain boundaries in a single crystal. a less expensive
way of minimising grain boundary sliding is to orient the grains in such a way
that the boundary sliding does not result in cavities at grain junctions. The
cavities, if present, can coalesce together and cause creep fracture.
• It has been observed that creep will not occur to any measurable extent
below a certain temperature and the temperature is different for different
materials as mentioned below

Q. Explain thermal fatigue of metal [MAY 19 ]

Thermal fatigue of metal is
1. Fatigue failure can be produced by fluctuating thermal stresses under
conditions where no stresses are produced by mechanical causes.
2. Thermal stresses result when the change in dimensions of a member as
the result of temperature changes.
3. For the simple case of a bar with fixed end supports, the thermal
stresses developed by a temperature change Δ T is
Is s=α EΔT
Where α= liner thermal coefficient of
expansion E= elastic modulus
4. If a failure occurs by one application of thermal stress, the condition is
called thermal shock
5. However, if a failure occurs after repeated application of thermal
stress, of a lower magnitude, it is called thermal fatigue.
6. It exists at high temperature.

Q. Explain Hume-Rothery’s rules of solid solubility [MAY 19, NOV18]

In formation of solid solutions, the solubility limit of solute in the solvent is governedby certain
factors. These factors are known as Hume-Rothery’s rules of solid solubility, they are as
below:

1) Atomic Size Factor - If the atomic size of solute and solvent differ by less than
15%, it is said to have a favourable size factor for solid solution formation. If the atomic
size difference exceeds 15%, solid solubility is limited.
2) Chemical Affinity Factor - The greater the chemical affinity of two metals, the
more restricted is their solid solubility and greater is the tendency of formation a
compound, generally wider the separation of elements in periodic table, greater is their
chemical affinity.

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3) Relative Valency Factor - A metal of higher valency, can dissolve only a small
amount of a lower valency metal while the lower valency metal may have good
solubility for the higher valency metal.
4) Crystal Structure Factor - Metals having same crystal structure will have
greater solubility difference in crystal structure limit is the solid solubility.

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Module 05 :
Q.1. Define composite and discuss its classification. [DEC 19, MAY 18]
• Composites are combinations of two or more different materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties which remain separate and distinct at
the macroscopic or microscopic scale within the finished structure.
• Each of the various components retains its identity in the composite and
maintains its characteristics structure and properties.
• Composite materials are generally possessing stiffness, strength, high
temperature performance, corrosion resistance, hardness, and conductivity.
• Analysis of these properties shows that they depend on properties of individual
components, the shape, size and distribution of discontinuous components, the
orientation of components and the degree of bonding between components.

Classification :
1. According to the particle reinforced
• Large particle
• Dispersion strengthened
2. According to fibre reinforced
• Continuous (aligned)
• Discontinuous (short)
• According to structural
• Laminates
• Sandwich panels
Q. Rule of mixtures for composites. [DEC19]
• Two mathematical expressions have been formulated for the dependence of the
elastic modulus on the volume fraction of the constituent phases for a two-phase
composite.
• These rule-of mixtures equations predict that the elastic modulus should fall
between an upper bound and lower bound.
• For upper bound the equation is,
Ec (u) = EmVm + EpVp
• For lower bound the equation is,

Ec
Where, E and V denote the elastic modulus and volume fraction, respectively, whereas
the subscripts c, m, and p represent composite, matrix, and particulate phases.

Q. What are smart materials? Discuss few of them giving application for the
same. [DEC19, MAY 18 ]
Smart materials :
• Smart materials are those that change one or more of their properties (shape,

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color, size, etc.) when subjected to an external stimulus.

• These materials possess adaptive capabilities and perform better than
ordinary, materials. They are considered smart because their in-built sensing
and actuation capability
Some applications are as follows :

• Piezoelectric
Generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress and
vice versa.
• Magnetostrictive
Change in dimension of ferromagnetic material in magnetic field and vice
versa
• Phase transition dependent
“Remembers” its original shape and after being deformed returns to its original
shape when heated.
• Electro/Magneto Rheological Materials
Change is viscosity in response to electric/magnetic field.

Q. Discuss with neat diagram any one method used for nanomaterial synthesis.
[DEC 19, MAY 18]
There are generally two approaches of synthesis of
nanomaterials.

•
Bottom up approach : These process includes the miniaturization of
material components with further self assembly process leading to the
formation of nano structures.
Typical example are quantum dot formation during epitaxial growth and
formation of nanoparticles from colloidal dispersion.
• Top down approach : These approaches use larger initial structures,
which can be externally controlled in the process of nano structures.
Typical example are etching through the mask, ball milling and application of
sevre plastic deformation.
Top-down approaches

In top-down approaches, bulk materials are divided to produce nanostructured

materials. Top-down methods include mechanical milling, laser ablation, etching,
sputtering, and electro-explosion

Lithography.
• Lithography is a useful tool for developing nanoarchitectures using a focused
beam of light or electrons.
• Lithography can be divided into two main types: masked lithography and
maskless lithography. In masked nanolithography, nanopatterns are transferred
over a large surface area using a specific mask or template.

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• Masked lithography includes photolithography, nanoimprint lithography, and soft

lithography.
• Maskless lithography includes scanning probe lithography, focused ion beam
lithography, and electron beam lithography.
• In maskless lithography, arbitrary nanopattern writing is carried out without the
involvement of a mask.
• 3D freeform micro-nano-fabrication can be achieved via ion implantation with a
focused ion beam in combination with wet chemical etching, as shown in fig.

• A schematic diagram of the fabrication of 3D micro-nanostructures with an ion

beam through bulk Si structuring.
• This involves implantation in Si through Ga FIB lithography and mask-writing at
nanometer resolution, subsequent anisotropic wet etching in KOH solution, and
the fabrication of Si micro-nanostructures via the selective removal of the
unimplanted region.

Q. What are smart materials? Where are they used? [MAY 19,NOV 18, MAY 18]
Smart materials are the materials that can significantly alter one or more inherent
properties owning to the application of an external stimuli like stress, ph., magnetic
field in a controlled fashion. They are classified as:
1) Piezoelectric-changes its voltage upon deformation.
2) Electrostrictive –changes shape upon application of voltage.
3) Magnetostritive-changes shape upon application of magnetic
field.
4) Thermoelectric-changes voltage upon change in temperature.
5) Shape Memory Alloys-changes shape upon change in
temperature.
6) Thermochromic-changes colour upon change in temperature.
7) Photochromic-changes colour upon radiation.

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Applications:

1. To make smart fibre

2. To make aircrafts
3. To make sports equipment
4. To make cleaning equipment
5. To reduce vibration in helicopter blades.
6. Used in robotics
7. Used in medical surgeries

Q. Short notes on Nano materials [MAY 19, NOV 18]

• Nano structured materials maybe defined as those materials whose structural
element clusters, crystallites or molecules have dimensions in the 1-100nm
range.
• Clusters of atoms consisting of typically hundreds of thousands on the
nanometre scale are commonly called as the nano clusters.
• They often have unique optical, electronic, or mechanical properties.
• Current applications include healthcare, electronics, cosmetics, textiles,
information technology and environmental protection.
• Carbon based nano materials including fullerenes a nanotube plays an
increasingly pervasive role in nanoscale science and technology
• Fullerenes are a type of nano material, whose lattice is in the form of continuous
blocks, they resemble football, each carbon atom is linked with two and three
atoms.
• Graphite is another type of nano material. It is formed by flat hexagonal layers
of carbon atoms separated at 3.35 A.
• It has got high strength, good chemical stability at elevated temperatures, and
in oxidizing atmosphere, high thermal conductivity, low coefficient of thermal
expansion, good machinability.
• Nanobuds are a newly discovered material, combining nanotubes and
fullerenes. They have same mechanical properties and electrical conductivity of
nanotubes, but higher reactivity of fullerene molecules.
• Nanofibers consist of graphite sheet completely arranged in various orientations
these structures have a presence of plenty of sites which in turn readiness
accessible to chemical or physical interaction especially adsorption
• Fullerenes and carbon nano tubes can be seen in pieces of graphite

Q. What are composites, state their characteristics. [MAY 19]

• Composites are combination of 2 or more different materials with significantly
different physical or chemical properties which separate and distinct at
macroscopic or microscopic scale.
• The continuous phase in a composite is called matrix, while the distributed
phase is called as dispersed phase.
• Composites are classified as particle reinforced, fibre reinforced and structural

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composites, based on the type of dispersed phase present in the composite

mixture.
• Based on the matrix, they are classified as ceramic matrix, polymer matrix and
metallic matrix composites.

The characteristics of composites are as follows-

1) they are superior in strength.
2) they have high resistance to
heat.
3) They are higher stiffness.
4) they have higher fatigue strength
5) Their principle of manufacture is
borrowed from nature.
6) The base or matrix of
composites maybe metals or
alloys

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Module 06 :

Q . What is engineering polymers ? Explains its types. Write advantages and

disadvantages over metallic materials.

• A polymer is a large molecule or a macromolecule which essentially is a

combination of many subunits.
• The term polymer in Greek means ‘many parts’. Polymers can be found all
around us.
• From the strand of our DNA which is a naturally occurring biopolymer to
polypropylene which is used throughout the world as plastic.
• Polymers may be naturally found in plants and animals (natural polymers) or
may be man-made (synthetic polymers).
• Different polymers have a number of unique physical and chemical properties
due to which they find usage in everyday life.

Types of Polymers

On the basis of the type of the backbone chain, polymers can be divided into:

• Organic Polymers: Carbon backbone.

• Inorganic Polymers: Backbone constituted by elements other than carbon.

On the basis of their synthesis:

• Natural Polymers
• Synthetic Polymers

Advantages

1. Polymers are more resistant to chemicals than their metal counterparts.

2. Polymer parts do not require post-treatment finishing efforts, unlike metal.
3. Polymer and composite materials are up to ten times lighter than typical metals.
4. Polymer materials handle far better than metals in chemically harsh
environments. This increases the lifespan of the aircraft and avoids costly
repairs brought about by corroding metal components
5. Polymers are naturally radar absorbent as well as thermally and electrically
insulating.
6. In medical Facilities polymer and composite materials are easier to clean and
sterilize than metal.
7. Polymer materials allow the oil and gas industry to explore deeper depths than
ever before by offering tool weight reduction without a loss of strength as well as
materials which offer superior sealing.

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Disadvantages

1. Cannot withstand very high temperature as all plastics melt down very soon as
compared to metals.
2. The strength to size ratio of polymer is less while for metals is more.
3. Cannot be machined easily and limited speed for machining for it.
4. Heat capacity of polymer is very less so cannot be used in heat applications.
5. Heavy structure cannot be made by polymer as the structural rigidity is very less.
6. The disposal becomes an issue as some polymer cannot be recycled but all
metals can be recycled.

Q. What is ceramics also write its advantage over metallic materials . Explain
its types.

A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of either metal or non-

metal compounds that have been shaped and then hardened by heating to
high temperatures. In general, they are hard, corrosion-resistant and brittle.
Types of ceramics

1. Glass Ceramics

This is one of the many types of ceramics made by controlling the crystallization, which
has properties the sameto glass with the ceramics’ toughness and strength.

Properties: This ceramics manufactured with state of the art manufacturing process,
which generates materials with enviable characteristics like zero porosity, mechanical
strength, durability, high temperatures, translucency, and biocompatibility.This material
is also high chemical durability as well as superconductivity.

Examples: These types’ ceramics are used to make parts in the making of
cookware,bakeware, and cooktops. This material is also often applied to scientific and
industrial equipment as well as medical devices.

2. Fired Bricks

Bricks are often made by heating minerals similar to clay, and sand is considered
ceramics. This ceramic is common in homes.

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Properties: The properties of this ceramic are extensively different based on their
manufacture as well as composition. In general, this ceramic is tough, brittle, heavy as
wellas can survive higher temperatures.

Example Used: Some good use of this ceramic include chimneys, fireplaces,as well as
walls. They are also often used in landscaping.

3. Silicon

Silicon is also a popular type of ceramics and is often considered superior because of
its chemical properties. This Ceramic is very abundant as they make up about 90% of
the Earth’s crust. Sand And clays, which are used to make common ceramics, are often
based on silicon abide. Like for instance, the silica ceramic is used to create fired
bricks,and the kaolinite material is used in making porcelains are silicate materials.

Properties of these types of Ceramics: This material has a brittle and hard crystalline
solid as well as a semiconductor.

Example of Uses: Extreme purity crystalline silicon like polycrystalline silicon is used in
the making of solar panels, and semiconductor devices such as integrated circuits.
High quality silicon minerals are used to create ceramics, glass and are used as an
aggregate in cement. They are considered the most common raw materials utilized in
the field of construction.

4. Silicon Carbide

Other types of ceramics are Silicon carbide, which is a high quality semiconductor
material that has carbon and silicon that naturally occurs as the extremely rare mineral
moissanite.

Properties: These types of ceramics are tough and extremely hard ceramic, as well as
a semiconductor, which takes place in approximately 250 forms of crystalline. This
ceramic is naturally colorless but frequently colored by impurities like iron. This shows
low thermal development.

Example of Uses: This ceramic usually use in cutting tools, furnaces,brake disks,
abrasives, heating elements as well as lighting, electrical power systems. The natural
type of silicon carbide is prized as a jewel because it has the same appearance and
hardness to diamonds. It is an artificial substitute that is harder compared to zirconia.
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 5. Titanium Carbide

This is a heat resistance and extremely hard types of ceramic which has a black color.

Properties: The types of ceramics are heat resistance, extremely hard, as well as
corrosion and wear-resistant.

Example of Applications: These ceramics usually utilizes in tool bits, machine parts,
heat shields as well as watch mechanisms.

6. Tungsten Carbide

This is a material manufactured with the same parts of carbon and tungsten, which is
hard and dense.

Properties: These types of ceramics are dense, hard, tough, andstrong with low
electrical resistivity.

Example of Applications: Industrial equipment, cutting tools as well as sports

equipment.

Advantages of ceramics over metallic material

Ceramics are used or may be potentially used in combustion engines due to their
following advantages over metallics
▪ High strength.
▪ Refractoriness (high maximum service temperature). Ceramics retain their
properties (including strength and hardness) at elevated temperatures.
▪ Low density.
▪ High wear resistance.
▪ Low coefficient of friction.

Disadvantages:

1. Dimensional tolerances difficult to control during processing.

2. Weak in tension.
3. Poor shock resistance.
4. Can crack when hit with heavy items.

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Q. Explain any one Non destructive Testing of Materials

A. -ultrasonic testing

B. magnetic particle testing

C. radiographic methods

• NDT (Non-Destructive Testing) refers to an array of inspection

techniques that allow inspectors to collect data about a material
without damaging it.
• NDT stands for Non-Destructive Testing.
• It refers to an array of inspection methods that allow inspectors to evaluate and
collect data about a material, system, or component without permanently altering
it.

ULTRASONIC TESTING (UT)

Definition: Ultrasonic Non-Destructive Testing is the process of transmitting high-

frequency sound waves into a material in order to identify changes in the material’s
properties.

• Ultrasonic Testing is the use of sound waves to inspect the thickness of a

material.
• Ultrasonic Testing (UT) is also often called Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement
(UTM). It is most commonly used on metal, because metal conducts sound
waves in a manner that supports this kind of measurement.
• This method is commonly used by inspectors as one of many Non-Destructive
Testing (NDT) testing methods, allowing them to collect information about the
condition of an asset without having to damage it.
• Ultrasonic testing was first developed after the Titanic sank in 1912.
• Researchers wanted to identify ways that ships could find icebergs before they
could see them, and they began testing sound waves for this purpose.

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Here are some other types of Ultrasonic Testing:

• Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT)

• Automated Ultrasonic Testing (AUT)

• Time-Of-Flight Diffraction (TOFD)

ULTRASONIC TESTING METHODS

There are three common testing methods used in ultrasonic thickness measurement:

• Through transmission.Through transmission employs two transducers, each

placed on opposite sides of the material being tested. One of the transducers
creates a pulse and the other receives it. If there is a disruption in the pulse,
inspectors will know a defect is present in the path between the two transducers.

• Pulse echo. Pulse echo is more sensitive than through transmission. It is used to
identify defects by measuring the time it takes amplitude signals to travel
between different points or surfaces in a material.

• Resonance. Resonance is similar to pulse echo, except that with resonance

testing the regularity of transmission can be changed. Resonance testing is
primarily used when only one side of a material can be accessed.

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The most common types of ultrasonic equipment that inspectors use:

• Ultrasonic transducers and probes. Transducers are used in several types of

ultrasonic thickness measurement, including weld testing and gauging thickness.
Types include phased array, immersion, and contact transducers.

• Flaw detectors. Field-tested portable ultrasonic testing solutions for fast,

accurate inspections for internal product integrity, searching for defects, cracks,
and other discontinuities. Flaw detectors are portable, powerful, and sensitive,
allowing inspectors to penetrate materials at a considerable depth.

• Thickness gauges. Ultrasonic thickness gauges are commonly used to inspect

the thickness of various metals, including brass, steel, nickel, and lead, among
others. Thickness gauges can be especially helpful for identifying corrosion.

• Automated UT systems. Automated ultrasonic thickness systems are systems

that can be put in place and collect ultrasonic readings without an inspector
physically present, allowing data collection that can be useful for the longevity of
an asset even when someone isn’t there. These systems are commonly used to
monitor pipes in the Oil and Gas industry.

Advantages of Ultrasonic Testing Techniques:

• Portability

• Consistent

• Detects surface and subsurface defects

• Only limited access needed

• Instant results

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Testing Techniques:

• Training is more extensive than other methods

• More expensive than other methods

• Difficult to use on thin material

• Part Geometry can cause complications

• Needs relatively smooth surface to couple transducer

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MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION (MPI)

Definition: Magnetic Particle Non-Destructive Testing is the act of identifying

imperfections in a material by examining disruptions in the flow of the magnetic field
within the material.

• To use Magnetic Particle Inspection, inspectors first induce a magnetic field in a

material that is highly susceptible to magnetization.
• After inducing the magnetic field, the surface of the material is then covered with
iron particles, which reveal disruptions in the flow of the magnetic field.
• These disruptions create visual indicators for the locations of imperfections
within the material
• Magnetic particle inspection is an inspection method used to identify defects on
the surface of ferromagnetic materials by running a magnetic current through it.
• It can also be used to detect defects just beneath the surface of materials.
• The types of defects it can detect include cracks, pores, cold lap, and the lack of
sidewall fusion in welds.

Magnetic Particle Inspections Working

• To conduct a magnetic particle test, inspectors start by magnetizing the material

they want to inspect.

• If the magnetized object has no defects, the magnetic field will transfer
throughout the material without any discontinuities or interruptions.

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 • But when the current encounters defects in the material it will be interrupted,
causing it to spread out from that point and create what is called a flux leakage
field where the defect is located.

• Once the material is magnetized and defects have created these secondary flux
leakage fields, inspectors spread magnetic particles over the surface.

• The particles will be drawn to the secondary field, gathering around it and
making it visible to the naked eye.

• The particles inspectors use are typically either black or coated with some kind
of fluorescent dye to make them easier to see.

• These particles can be used in the form of powder or put into a liquid.

Advantages of Magnetic Particle Testing Techniques:

• Relative low cost

• Portability

• Ease of inspection

• Inspects irregular shapes with ease

Disadvantages of Magnetic Particle Testing Techniques:

• Must de-magnetize in some situations

• Only surface and very near surface indications may be seen

• Material/Part being tested must be ferromagnetic

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RADIOGRAPHY TESTING (RT)
Radiographic Testing: Principle,
Disadvantages
Procedure,
(With PDF)
Standards, Advantages, and
• Radiographic Testing or Radiographic Examination is a non-destructive testing
(NDT) method for examining the internal structure of any component to identify
its integrity.

• Radiographic Testing or RT uses x-rays and gamma-rays to produce a

radiograph of the test specimen that shows changes in thickness, defects or
flaws, and assembly details to ensure optimum quality.

• Radiographic testing of welds to ensure the weld quality is a widely used

industry practice.

• Radiographic testing in welding is a highly dependable way to detect weld

defects like cracks, porosity, inclusions, voids, lack of fusion, etc. in weld
interiors.

Because of its high dependability, radiographic testing is widely used in the oil & gas,
aerospace, transport, military, automotive, manufacturing, offshore, petrochemical,
marine and power generation industries

Radiographic Testing Principle

• In Radiography Testing, the part to be tested is placed between the radiation
source and a piece of sensitive film or detector.

• Once the x-ray or gamma-ray radiation is started, the test part will hinder some
of the radiation by its material density and thickness.

• Thicker and more dense material will allow less radiation to pass through the
specimen.

• The film (or an electronic device) records the amount of radiation (known as
radiograph) that reaches the film through the test specimen.

• By studying the radiograph data, defects can easily be recognized.

• If the material is sound without any defect, entire rays will evenly pass through
the material.

• But for materials containing flaws, rays passing through the flaws will get
absorbed to a small extent due to the change in the density.

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Radiographic Testing—How Does It Work?

Radiographic testing is the act of using radiation to test or inspect a material for
inspection purposes.

Radiographic testing like this:

• Line up radiation. An inspector points radiation (gamma rays or x-rays) at the

object they want to inspect.
• Line up detector. On the other side of the object, the inspector places a detector
in line with the beam of radiation.
• Take recordings. The detector takes recordings on the radiation passing through
the object.
• Analyze recordings. These recordings are then analyzed to determine the
findings from the test.

Advantages of Radiographic Testing

• Assembled components can easily be inspected.

• Surface preparation requirement is minimal.
• Both surface and subsurface flaws can be detected.
• Easily verify internal defects on complex items/structures
• Automatically detect and measure internal flaws
• Dimensions and angles of the sample can be measured without sectioning.
• Radiographic testing is one of the best NDT methods in lieu of golden joints.
• can be used for a broad range of materials.

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Disadvantages of Radiographic Testing

• Highly hazardous, so proper care must be exercised.

• High degree of skills and experience required.
• Costly affair.
• Slow process.
• Two sided access of component required.

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