10

Forming

INTRODUCTION
Formed or shaped plastics provide a great variety of marketable products,
in a wide size range from drinking cups to large products (Figs 10.1 and
10.2). Different techniques are used, but thermoforming is the most pro-
ductive and the most diversified. Other techniques are similar to
thermoforming but normally use less heat and are more limited in their
choice of plastic; these processes include cold forming, stamping or com-
pression forming, flow molding, rubber pad molding, diaphragm form-
ing, coining, and forging. Formed parts are used in many different
applications and production lines (form, fill and seal, etc.). Food, elec-
tronic devices, medical products, and other parts use continuous
thermoforming operations at the end of high-speed production lines to
reduce the handling of products, provide hermetically sealed contents,
reduce costs, and so forth.
Thermoforming has many advantages over other methods of thermo-
plastic fabrication:
1. Parts with a large surface area can be formed with relatively low mold
and equipment cost, because of the low pressures required.
2. Very thin-walled parts can be readily formed, which is not feasible by
any other method.
3. High-volume thin-walled products, such as drinking cups, can be pro-
duced at the lowest cost per capital investment, at production rates of
50 000 to over 200 000 units per hour.
4. Low-volume heavy-gauge products, such as computer housings, are
competing favorably with injection molding in price, through lower
tooling costs, and in product detail with 69OkPa (lOOpsi) forming
pressures.
Figure 10.1 Precise-timed cooling for ABS thermoformed hull for a 15ft (4l/2 m)
runabout.

Figure 10.2 Two thermoformed parts, made from coextruded sheets, are bonded
together to create a fuel tank. The tank's inside has a nylon surface to resist
gasoline; the outside uses PP to provide the required support strength while
keeping the cost low.
THERMOFORMING
Thermoforming usually begins with plastic sheet or film: sheet thickness
tends to be 10 mil (250 |im) and greater; film thicknesses are normally less
than 10 mil (250 |um). Extrusion is the most common method of producing
sheet and film for thermoforming (Chapter 3); very small amounts are cast
or calendered (Chapter 5).
Thermoforming usually consists of heating extruded thermoplastic (TP)
sheet, film, and profile to its softening heat and forcing the hot and flexible
material against the contours of a mold by pneumatic means (differentials
in air pressure are created by pulling a vacuum between the plastic and
the mold, or the pressure of compressed air is used to force the material
against the mold), mechanical means (plug, matched mold, etc.), or com-
binations of pneumatic and mechanical means.
The process involves (1) heating the sheet (film, etc.) in a separate oven
then transferring the hot sheet to a forming press, (2) using automatic
machinery to combine heating and forming in a single unit, or (3) a
continuous operation feeding off a roll of plastic or directly from the exit
of an extruder die (postforming). Almost all the materials are TPs. To date
very few thermosets (TSs) have been used, as markets have not devel-
oped. These TSs can be reinforced or unreinforced (Chapter 12). Almost
any TP can be used, but certain types make it easier to achieve deep draws
without tearing or excessive thinning in areas such as corners. Ease of
forming depends on material characteristics; it is influenced by minimum
and maximum thickness, pinholes, the ability of the material to retain heat
gradients across the surface and the thickness, the controllability of ap-
plied stress, the rate and depth of draw, the mold geometry, the stabiliz-
ing of uniaxial or biaxial deformation, and most important, minimizing
the thickness variation of the sheet.
Bending, one of the oldest thermoforming techniques, is relatively easy
to handle. It is often accompanied by joining (adhesive or welding) or
mechanical operations (milling, drilling, polishing). If the sheet is heated
only locally in the bending operation, no special forming tools are needed.
The width of the heating zone and the thickness of the sheet determine the
bending radius. Limitations are related to the softening point of the sheet
and the intrinsic rigidity of the heated sheet (sag should be minimized).
Transparent plastics (such as PMMA and PC) with thicknesses up to
3Y2 in. (90mm) are frequently bent for use in store displays, staircases,
partitions in banks, aircraft windows, and so on. With this type of plastic,
if restrictions in the bending area are minimized, the thickness at the bend
can remain unchanged.

PROCESSING
All thermoforming systems include a means of receiving sheets cut to size,
from rolls, or directly from an extrusion line. Sheet thicknesses over
1.5mm are generally cut to size, and thinner sheets are supplied on rolls.
There are no gauge limitations on extrusion lines. The thermoformer
contains the mold, may or may not include the trimming means, and
provides the pin chain or gripping system that indexes the sheet through
the heating, forming, and sometimes the trimming operations. Trimming
is not necessarily an integral part of the forming cycle, but few applica-
tions can use the formed web without some kind of trimming. Specific
variations of basic thermoforming include processing sheets cut to size, or
from rolls, or directly from an extrusion line.
The most elementary thermoforming techniques include basic vacuum
forming, drape forming, pressure forming, and matched-mold forming.
These terms describe the single operation of clamping the heated sheet
against the male or female mold and removing air between sheet and
mold surface by vacuum, external air pressure, or both. All thermo-
forming molds contain fine holes for air evacuation. A secondary opera-
tion within the forming cycle prestretches the hot sheet in order to control
thickness in the final product. Prestretching may be accomplished with a
plug or ring in plug-assist or ring-assist forming, or by air in pressure-

VACUUMON

Figure 10.3 Straight forming: vacuum.

COMPRESSED AIR OPEN

VENT HOLES
Figure 10.4 Straight forming: pressure.
bubble plug-assist forming, vacuum snapback forming, pressure-bubble
vacuum snapback, and air-slip forming. Another popular technique is
trapped-sheet contact-heat pressure forming.
The various thermoforming techniques are generally described in terms
of the means used to form the sheet, such as bending, vacuum forming,
pressure forming, plug-assist forming, and matched-mold forming. The
different methods enable the processor to form different product shapes
to meet various performance requirements. Most of these techniques are
reviewed in Figs 10.3 to 10.12. The range of formable shapes runs from the

Heated
sheet Vacuum
Male
mold
Sheet
Vacuum
box
Vacuum
Figure 10.5 Snapback forming.

Mold pushes sheet

Male into box and then
Heated vacuum is applied
sheet mold

Clamp

Vacuum Air blows

box sheet up
Figure 10.6 Forming with a billow snapback is recommended for parts requiring
a uniform, controllable wall thickness.

VACUUM ON

PRESTRFTCH FORM

Figure 10.7 Drape form.

 PRESTRETCH FORM

Figure 10.8 Plug-assist forming.

PRESTRETCH FORM

Figure 10.9 Plug-assist, reverse-draw forming.

simple to the very complex, and the shape as well as the surface condition
can be accurately controlled outside, inside, or on both sides.
There are two basic forming methods from which all others are derived:
drape forming over a positive (male) mold, and forming into a cavity
(female) mold. Product configuration, stress and strength requirements,

VACUUM ON

PRESTRETCH FORM

Figure 10.10 Air-slip forming.

AIRSLIP-PLUG-ASSIST COMBINATION

SLIGHT AIR VACUUM

PRESSURE •LEED

VACUUM
BLEED FULL
VACUUM ON
PRESTRETCH FORM

Figure 10.11 Plug-assist, air-slip forming.

and material specifications all play a part in determining the process
technique. Forming into a female mold is generally used if the draw is
relatively deep, e.g., cups. Female molds generally provide better material
distribution and faster cooling than male molds. Male-mold forming is
preferred for certain product configurations, particularly if product
tolerances on the inside of a part are critical. Male-mold forming
produces heavier bottom strength; female-mold forming produces
heavier lip or perimeter strength. An advantage of straight forming into a
female mold is that parts with vertical sidewalls can be formed and
extracted, stress-free, from the molds because of the shrinkage that occurs
as the part cools.
In drape forming, when the hot plastic sheet touches the mold as it is
being drawn, it chills and starts to solidify. Successful drape forming

Press
Female Die

Heater
Plastic Sheet Sheet Clamp

HEATING Male Die

Press

Forming Plastic Sheet

Heater
Female Die

Sheet
Clamp
FORMING Male Die

Press
Female Die

Formed Sheet Heater

REMOVING PART Male Die

Figure 10.12 Matched-die forming.
needs to consider several variables. One of the most significant is shrink-
age. Since these types of plastic material have a high coefficient of thermal
expansion and contraction, i.e., about 7-10 times that of steel, care must
be taken when designing the mold to provide sufficient draft on the
sidewalls so the part can be extracted from the mold. It is not unusual for
parts to rupture upon cooling on an improperly designed drape mold.
Another potential problem is the part may become so highly stressed
during forming and cooling that it loses most of the physical properties
the sheet would otherwise provide.
Natural process evolution has combined the two systems to take advan-
tage of the better parts of each method. The plug-assist process, similar to
matched-die forming, involves a male mold (or plug) having a volume
about 60-90% of the cavity. By controlling the geometry and size of the
plug and its rate and depth of penetration, material distribution can be
improved for a broad range of products. The plus-assist technique is used
to manufacture cups, containers, and other deep-draw products.
Many thermoforming techniques have been developed to obtain better
material distribution and broaden the applicability of the process. Some of
the more popular methods are illustrated in Figs 10.3 to 10.12. Most of
these techniques can employ vacuum, pressure, or a combination to apply
the force necessary to shape the heat-softened plastic sheet.

Forming definitions

Air-assist
Methods in which airflow or air pressure is employed to preform the sheet
partially before the final pulldown onto the mold using vacuum.

Air-slip
A variation of snapback thermoforming in which the male mold is en-
closed in a box so that, when the mold moves forward toward the hot
plastic, air is trapped between the mold and the plastic sheet, creating a
cushion. As the mold advances, the plastic is kept away from it by the air
cushion until the full travel of the mold is reached. A vacuum is then
applied to remove the air cushion and form the part against the plug.

Billow
Heated sheet is clamped over a billow chamber. Air pressure in the
chamber is increased, causing the sheet to billow upward against a de-
scending male mold.
Bubble
Sheet is clamped into a frame suspended above a mold, heated, blown
into a blister shape by air, then molded to shape by a descending plug
applied to the blister, forcing it downward into the mold.

Clamshell
A variation of blow molding and thermoforming in which two preheated
sheets are clamped between halves of a split mold (like the two-part mold
used to form the final blow-molded part). The two sheets are drawn into
the mold cavity by a vacuum and kept separate by injecting air between
them. An end contact surface could include an integral hinge.

Cold
A process of changing the shape, primarily TP sheet or billet in the solid
phase, through plastic (permanent) deformation with the use of pressure
dies (Fig. 10.13). The term implies that deformation occurs with the plastic
at room temperature. However, its range has been widened to include
forming at higher temperatures, or warm forming, but much below the
plastic melt temperature and lower than those for thermoforming. Within
this process there are special methods, such as solid-phase pressure form-
ing (SPPF), which use cold and warm forming as well as thermoforming.
Cold plastic forming is very similar to cold metal forming. The main
differences are the time dependence of TP deformation and springback, or
recovery. Formed TPs exhibit molecular orientation along the principal
strain directions, thus increasing performance (Chapters 1 and 3).

Plastic
billet
Formed
part

Load Form Eject

Figure 10.13 Cold forming.
Comoform cold molding
An extension of the cold molding process using a thermoformed plastic
skin to impart excellent surface and other characteristics (weather resist-
ance, etc.) to a cold-molded reinforced plastic or laminate.

Drape
Sheet is clamped into a frame, heated, and draped over the mold. A
vacuum can be used to pull the sheet into conformity with the mold.

Drape assist frame or drape forming

A frame, made of anything from thin wires to thick bars, is shaped to the
peripheries of the depressed areas of the mold and suspended above the
sheet to be formed. During forming, the assist frame drops down, draw-
ing the sheet tightly into the mold, thereby preventing webbing between
high areas of the mold and permitting closer spacing in multiple molds.

Forging
A production method whereby TP stock, usually heated, is shaped to a
desired form by compression forces (impression molding) or by sharp
hammer-like blows. Virtually all ductile materials may be forged and
preheating may not always be required. When a material is forged below
the melt temperature, it is cold forged. Cold forging of plastic is generally
called cold forming or solid-phase pressure forming. When a material is
forged above the melt temperature, it is hot forged.

Form and spray

A technique to strengthen thermoformed sheets by applying a sprayup of
reinforced plastics to one side.

Form, fill, and seal

Form, fill, and seal (FFS) pouch, extensively used in packaging, involves
inline thermoforming of film or sheet, inserting the product being pack-
aged, and sealing the package using heat, adhesive, etc. As shown in Fig.
10.14, three types of pouch are used. Each has many variations.

Form, fill, and seal versus preform

Current FFS technology generates a variety of concerns over its visual
clarity. Preforms are typically thick-walled and rigid; this is to protect
 One web: bottom fold
Two webs: three-side seal
four-side seal

Pillow pouch: one web: vertical Two webs: four-side seal

seam. Top and bottom seals
Types of seams Some special features

Gusset

Tray or pocket with lid Tetrahedral

Contoured
Mandrel formed

Figure 10.14 Form, fill, and seal processes: (a) vertically formed, (b) horizontally
formed, and (c) shape formed.

expensive, heavy, and/or sharp devices, to accommodate intricate shapes

and compartments, and to prevent corner thinning. But thickness is often
accompanied by haze. FFAs are usually less thick and rigid than preforms.
Although thinness improves clarity, it limits the depth of draw. Hence,
FFS is well suited for packaging inexpensive, high-volume products, such
as syringes and gloves, which do not require much physical (as opposed
to microbiological) protection. When a deeper draw is required as well as
clarity, coextrusions may be an option. There are combinations that are
flexible yet tough enough for deeper draws. Nylon is an example.

Form, fill, and seal with zipper online

The zipper is usually put in the film by a secondary operation, which adds
cost and tends to be wasteful (up to 30% becomes scrap). Solutions to this
problem were developed during 1990 (by Bodolay Pratt Division of
Package Machinery Co., Stafford Springs CT and Klockner-Bartelt Co.,
Sarasota FL). Both systems essentially combine the pouch web and zipper
strip from a supply roll and pass them through a strip-seal station, where
the zipper is heat-sealed to the web. The system has two zipper sealing
stations, plus an ultrasonic spot-seal station for packages that are
hermetically sealed or gas-flushed. The speed of the line is identical to
conventional FFS lines.

Plug
Also called plug-assist, a process in which a plug, male mold, or male
stretching device is used to partially preform the part before forming is
completed using vacuum and/or pressure.

Plug-and-ring
A plug functioning as a male mold is forced into a heated plastic sheet
held in place by a clamping ring.

Prebillow
Prestretching of the heated plastic sheet by differential air pressure prior
to thermoforming.

Preprinting
Printing of a distorted pattern on a plastic sheet which is then
thermoformed to the desired shape, bringing the printed pattern into the
proper undistorted shape.

Pressure
Application of air pressure onto the sheet to force it into the cavity to form
the part rather than using vacuum to draw the sheet against the mold
cavity.

Prestretched
Stretching of heated sheet either by mechanical means or by differential
air pressure prior to the final shaping by differential air pressure.
Sandwich heating
The usual method of heating the sheet, prior to forming, which consists of
heating both sides of the sheet simultaneously.

Snapback
A variation of vacuum forming. Heated sheet is pulled to a concave form
by the vacuum box underneath; it is then snapped upward against a male
plug by vacuum through the plug. The process can extend deep drawing.

Stretch
Heated sheet is stretched over a male mold then drawn into shape by
vacuum and/or pressure.

Twin-sheet
The twin-sheet process produces hollow parts from cut-sheet or roll-feed
machinery. With a typical web-fed, twin-sheet system, two rolls of plastic
materials are simultaneously fed, one above the other. The webs are
transported through the oven on separate sheet-conveyor chains and
heated to a formable temperature. At the forming station, a specially
designed blow pin enters the space between the two sheets before the
mold closes. Air pressure is introduced between the sheets through the
blow pin and a vacuum is simultaneously applied to each mold half.
Twin-sheet forming is done by a slightly different method on specially
designed rotary thermoformers.

MATERIALS
The following TPs are thermoformed in large volumes: high-impact and
high-heat PS, HOPE, PP, PVC, ABS, CPET, and PMMA. Other polymers
of lesser usage are transparent styrene-butadiene block copolymers,
acrylic multipolymer, polycarbonate, cellulosics, and ethylene-propylene
thermoplastic vulcanizates (TPE). Coextruded structures of up to seven
layers include barriers of EVAL, Saran, or nylon, with polyolefins, and/or
styreneics for functional properties and decorative aesthetics at reason-
able costs.
All TPs that can be processed into films or sheets can be thermoformed,
provided the heated area to be formed does not exceed the hot-strength
capabilities of the material to support itself. Among them is foam sheet
such as PS foam sheet (Chapter 9).
 Some plastic sheets stretch as much as 600%, others as little as 15%. This
behavior directly influences what shapes can be formed and their quality.
Those with a putty-like appearance respond to very small pressures;
others, which tend to be stiff, require heavier operating equipment. The
pressure response is somewhat related to the ability to be stretched while
hot, but the correspondence is not exact.
The most useful formable TPs do not have sharp melting points (Chap-
ter 1). Their softening with increasing heat is gradual. Each material has its
own range of heat, wide or narrow, within which it can be effectively
formed. Thus, one plastic may have a forming heat of 275-40O0F (135-
2040C), whereas another may become soft enough for forming at 35O0F
(1770C) but melt at 40O0F (2040C). And a plastic may stretch well at a
given heat but tear easily if heated a few degrees higher or cooled a few
degrees. This single property is one of the most important of all the factors
involved in forming.
Films (<10mil, <250jiim) of formable resins exhibit different behavior
depending on the plastic: PS is unstable with heat and requires extra
cooling; PVC and PVDC are excellent, with no restrictions; nylon is diffi-
cult; PCTFE is sensitive to heat and pressure fluctuations; HDPE is diffi-
cult without a support film; and PP has a very narrow heat range. In fact,
PP is extremely unstable within the conventional range of forming heat, so
it is processed by other techniques. Conventional PP has the major defi-
ciency of lacking a rubbery plateau at the forming heat; it just sags and
falls apart. A process was developed to form PP just below its softening
point, avoiding any sag. Known as solid-phase pressure forming (SPPF),
it forces PP into the desired shape by mechanical plugs and pressure. In
turn researchers changed PP to overcome its deficiencies. They developed
a proprietary catalyst and reactor technology to extrude thermoformable
sheet and film. Their material has a rubbery plateau region and a high
dynamic modulus, so it is processable in conventional thermoforming
machines.
Similar changes have also been made to plastics that were difficult or
impossible to form but which had properties desirable in a formed prod-
uct. PET is an example involving large production quantities. To make it
formable, researchers produced crystallized PET (CPET).
Other important materials are coextruded sheets and films (Chapter 3).
These multilayer extruded materials provide synergism between physical
properties and chemical resistance. They include barrier layers of
ethylene-vinyl alcohol (EVOH) copolymers and others, including those
required for aseptically packaged food products with a long shelf life at
room temperature. Crystallized polyethylene terephthalate (CPET) has
been used in dual-ovenable thermoformed trays for packaging frozen
foods. These trays can be heated in microwave and conventional ovens;
the formed parts are not affected.
Recycling
With most forming (not including bending) there can be up to 50% scrap
trim. This material could be wasted, but it is actually recycled and blended
with virgin materials. Individual sheet or film stock formed into round
shapes could have 50% or more scrap. With square forms, there could be
up to 25% scrap.

Quality products
The wall-thickness distribution is a decisive quality criterion for
thermoformed products. Online registration and control of the wall thick-
ness occurs during thermoforming. Pertinent measuring systems, the con-
trol strategy, and practical testing procedures are used.
The different shapes and forming techniques mean that different re-
quirements need to be set up. Fastness, rigidity, surface properties (gloss,
structure, etc.), diffusion properties, shaping precision, and thermo-
forming stability are largely material-specific demands. However, they
are considerably affected by the choice of process parameters.
Some component properties are directly influenced by the quality of
wall thickness and its distribution, i.e., for most processes, poor control
of thickness tolerances will lead to poor repeatability of formed shapes.
The wall thickness indirectly affects the shaping precision and the
thermoforming stability. Thus, the cooling behavior and the local relaxa-
tion of molecular orientation as well as the shrinkage of the material
differ, depending on the thickness of the product. This is why the wall
thickness and its distribution are important quality characteristics that
have to be set. Important considerations are the defined tolerances and the
limits on distribution variation of sheet and film to be processed, espe-
cially if the formed product must meet performance requirements and/or
cut costs by using the minimum wall thickness to reduce material
consumption.
In plug-assist forming of small parts, the wall thickness depends prima-
rily on the molding plug and partly on the temperature. But when the
parts have large surface areas, the surface-temperature distribution has a
considerable influence on the wall-thickness distribution. This behavior is
very important since it provides a parameter that can be drastically modi-
fied from one forming cycle to the next [53].

OTHER FORMING METHODS

Certain TPs, when formed, require handling that is normally unavailable
with conventional thermoforming machines, so other processes have
evolved. Most of these methods tend to reduce the required heat or even
eliminate it entirely. One popular technique is high-pressure forming,
which is like conventional compression molding (Chapter 8).
The techniques that are used modify conventional metalworking
tools. They can be classified as (1) cold forming (performed at room
temperature with unheated tools), (2) solid-phase forming (plastic is
heated below the melting point and formed), and (3) compression
molding of reinforced/composite sheets (using heat). Other methods are
classified as forging (including closed-die forming, open-die forming, and
cold pressing), stamping, rubber pad or diaphragm forming, fluid form-
ing, coining, spinning, explosive forming, scrapless forming [3, 9, 63, 67-
69], and so on.
Cold forming and solid-phase forming include the use of ABS/PC, PC,
conventional PP, and HMWHDPE. By using solid-phase forming, proces-
sors can make more efficient use of ultrahigh molecular weight, high-
density plastics that are difficult or impossible to process by other
methods. Forming by these techniques can normally use existing metal-
working equipment with minor modifications. Tooling is inexpensive,
and production rates can be high. Flash, trim, or weld lines can be elimi-
nated by using some of these processes.
Thermoplastic composites can be stamped to produce high-
performance parts. Fiber reinforcements can be used, including glass,
graphite, aramid, and so on, in different patterns (short fibers, woven, etc.;
see Chapter 12). Products are molded in quick, high-productivity proc-
esses, using less energy than needed to manufacture comparable
aluminum and steel parts. Tooling costs decrease because of part consoli-
dation. Stamping involves two very different forming processes: solid-
state forming and flow molding (or fast compression molding). Each has
its advantages and disadvantages.
Solid-state forming uses a male metal-plug mold that matches a female
metal-cavity mold and can be used only with crystalline resins. Below
their glass-transition temperatures (Tg) amorphous resins are generally
too stiff to be rapidly formed into stable products. Crystalline types can be
permanently deformed at temperatures between their Tg and their melt-
ing point (Chapter 1). Molecular orientation, the mechanism that allows
this to occur, relates to the draw ratio. Draw ratios can vary from 5:1 for
PET and nylon to 10:1 for low molecular weight PP.
The major advantage of solid-state forming is that parts can be pro-
duced in very fast cycle times, usually 10-2Os. The surface finish of these
parts is rather smooth, as the fibers do not surface.
Flow molding is not limited to crystalline types because the resin is
melted prior to forming. The forming temperature is usually lower than
for IM or extrusion. Plastics need not be trimmed, as the composite is
'compression-molded7 to completely fill the mold cavity. Most important,
flow molding permits more complex parts to be formed than solid-state
forming. The process cycle time is usually about lmin, which is faster
than the time needed for most thermoset composites.
The surface is molten during forming, so the surface finish tends to have
a fibrous finish. Fiber separation could occur for extremely complex parts.
Braided woven fabrics and continuous-fiber mat reinforcements practi-
cally eliminate separation. Discontinuous fiber-reinforced composites,
such as those made by the slurry process, can be molded into complex
shapes without separation.

Postforming
A popular forming process that has provided both performance and cost
savings, principally for long production runs, is applied as the plastic
sheet, film, tape, and different profiles (tube, rod, etc.) exit the die of an
extruder, Upon leaving the die, and retaining heat, the plastic is continu-
ously postformed. With this type of inline system, the hot plastic has only
to be reduced to the desired heat of forming. All it may require is a fixed
distance from the die opening. Cooling can be accelerated with blown air,
a water spray, a water bath, or combinations thereof. Examples of post-
forming products are given in Chapter 3 (Figs 3.46 to 3.49 on pages 285-6).
This equipment requires precision tooling with very good registration.

EQUIPMENT
Thermoforming machines usually have sheet feeders or web feeders.
Sheet-fed machines operate from sheet cut into definite lengths and
widths for specific applications (Fig. 10.1, page 462). Web-fed machines
use either coil stock or a web which is fed directly from an extruder. The
machines range from simple, perhaps homemade, single-stage outfits to
multistage operations with computerized process control. With single-
stage machines, precut sheets are loaded individually into a clamping
frame, moved into a heating chamber, and moved back to their original
position, where the forming takes place. Figure 10.15 shows a single-stage,
shuttle-type, plug-assist former. A two-stage unit consists of two forming
stations with one heating chamber.
Another type of machine uses three or more stages. These rotary or
carousel types are usually built on a horizontal circular frame that rotates
(Fig. 10.16). The rotary table operates like a merry-go-round, indexing
through the various stations. A three-stage machine would have stations
for loading and unloading, heating, forming, and cooling; stations would
be indexed 120° apart.
To speed up output, inline sheet-fed machines are used. Two parallel
continually moving tracks hold and move a clamped sheet through the
required stations of heat and forming. All movements are indexed so all
 I. HEAT 2. LOAD,FORM, a UNLOAD

PLUG TABLE

HEAT[R

CLAMP
TRACK
PRAME

HEATER

MOLD TABLE

Figure 10.15 Single-stage, shuttle-type thermoformer.

LOAD
a
UNLOAD

FORM

HEAT

PLUG TABLE
HEATER
CLAMP FRAME CLAMP FRAME
HCATEf)
MOLD TABLE

Figure 10.16 Three-stage rotary or carousel-type thermoforming machine.

Figure 10.17 A high-speed continuous thermoformer.
actions are repeatable. To further increase the output, continuous rolls of
sheet or sheet material are fed directly from an extruder (Fig. 10.17). A set
of continuously conveying chains/tracks indexes the sheet as it moves
accurately through the heating, forming, trimming, and packaging sta-
tions. Other stations can be included, such as decorating. Multicavity
molds are used extensively. They can have sophisticated computer con-
trols to ensure proper operation of all machine and material functions.
Roll-fed thermoforming machinery can produce beverage cups at rates
of at least 75000-100000 pieces per hour while consuming plastic sheet in
excess of 1 ton per hour (910kg per hour). Production rates of integrated
inline extrusion thermoforming have reached 1135kg of trimmed prod-
ucts per hour.
Sheet consumption for larger and heavier containers can exceed 2 tons
per hour (1800kg per hour), but unit production rates may be lower
because fewer mold cavities can be mounted in the machines and more
time is required to cool the thicker walls.
Incorrect trimming can damage formed plastics and slow down or stop
the output. Tools for trimming include shear disks, steel-rule dies, and
saws. The cutting action can be done with the usual punch press, as well
as press brakes and other devices. Punch and die clearances should be
held to a minimum. The generally accepted rules that are applied to
metals are not applicable to plastics. And what is good for one plastic may
not work on another (Chapter 15). Plastics have different cutting habits:
some tend to be brittle, some rubbery, and so on. Material suppliers and
tool manufacturers can provide useful information about trimming.
Inline thermoforming installations, particularly production lines fed
directly from an extruder, have to be completely synchronized, else their
products may be inferior and their operating costs may rise. If the trimmer
operation has to be slowed down, the extruder output has to be reduced.
In fact, a slowdown can lead to a shutdown if the extruder cannot operate
at the slower speed required. All functions and stations have to be prop-
erly interrelated.

Pneumatic controls
Vacuum thermoforming can be related to most of the other forming
processes. A vacuum system may use heaters to bring the sheet to its
processing temperature and forcing techniques to impart the shape of a
mold. The hot, pliable material is moved rapidly to the mold (perhaps by
gear drives) and/or moved by an air pressure differential, which holds it
in place as it cools. When the proper set temperature is reached, the
formed part can be removed without losing its shape.
Two important requirements in this cycle are to sustain the pressure
and to maintain uniform heating of the plastic. Faster evacuation
generally produces higher-quality parts. It is important to have the correct
mold heating so the fast vacuum will produce a part with no internal
stress (or very little). While the part is formed, the vacuum gauge should
never fall below 20in. Hg (6SkPa). As a TP cools, this pressure cannot
provide sufficient force to form the part and will not hold the plastic tight
against the mold (Table 10.1).
A vacuum under 20 in. Hg (68kPa) is not satisfactory; at least 25 in. Hg
(8SkPa) is required. For proper pressure regulation, a vacuum storage or
surge tank is necessary to retain a minimal even vacuum. For long form-
ing cycles, a surge tank will permit the use of a smaller vacuum pump
than would otherwise be required. To determine the vacuum surge tank
size in cubic feet, use the following formula (229):
V0XP0 + V1nXP1n=V1XP1

Table 10.1 Vacuum pressure measurements

Pressure (psi)

Gauge* Absolute* Pressure (in. Hg)

0.0 14.7 0.0

-1.0 13.7 2.04
-2.0 12.7 4.07
-4.0 10.7 8.14
-6.0 8.7 12.20
-8.0 6.7 16.30
-9.0 5.7 18.32
-9.9 4.9 20.00
-10.0 4.7 20.36
-11.0 3.7 22.40
-12.0 2.7 24.43
-12.3 2.4 25.00
-13.0 2.7 26.47
-13.7 1.0 27.89
-14.0 0.7 28.50
-14.2 0.5 28.91
-14.3 0.4 29.00
-14.6 0.1 29.73
-14.7 0.0 29.92
a
b
Amount of pressure exceeding atmospheric pressure.
Measured with respect to zero (absolute) vacuum; in a
vacuum system, absolute pressure (psia) is equal to the nega-
tive gauge pressure (psig) subtracted from the atmospheric
pressure.
where
V0 - surge tank volume, including piping to vacuum control valve
Vm = volume of the molding area
V1=V0+Vn.
P0 = absolute pressure in surge tank (0.5 psi, 3.4 kPa)
Pm = initial pressure in the mold (at sea level 14.7psi, 10IkPa; with
prestretched forming use 17.7psi, 122 kPa)
P1 = desired atmospheric working pressure
In an example where the volume of the mold and piping is 4ft 3 (0.11 m3),
the vacuum pump can pull about 29 in. Hg (9SkPa), so the surge tank
pressure is 0.5 psi (3kPa). The desired working pressure is 2.42 psi
(16.7kPa) in the tank, and the initial mold pressure is 14.7psi (101 kPa).
V0 x 0.5 + 4 x 14.7 = (V0 + 4) x 2.42
0.5 V 0 +58.8 = 2.42 V 0 +9.68
V0 = 25.58ft3 (l91gal or 723dm3)
Suppose a lower pressure of 20 in. Hg (6SkPa) is used, which is 4.88 psi
(33.6 kPa) in the tank.
V0 x 0.5 + 4 x 14.7 = (V0 + 4) x 4.88
0.5 V0 + 58.8 = 4.88 V0 +19.52
V0 = 8.97ft3 (671 gal or 2540dm3)
In thermoforming it is sometimes necessary to prestretch (or preblow) the
hot sheet before final forming. Compressed air at 3-5 psi (21-34 kPa) is
normally used, producing a greater amount of air at atmospheric pressure
than for nonprestretched parts. In the above formula add the volume of
the prestretched bubble to the volume of the mold and the pressure
differential needed for blowing the bubble to the initial atmospheric pres-
sure in the mold.
The objective is to have the vacuum surge tank as close as possible to the
forming station and the vacuum control valve. Flexible vacuum hose with
connections eliminates elbows, tees, and tubing reducers. All valves must
be capable of operation at their fully open position. To capitalize on the
rapid vacuum capability of the surge tank, the mold must be able to
exploit all the available vacuum pressure. Vacuum holes should be drilled
as large as possible, and a maximum number should be used.
Backdrilling of large holes (to 0.125 in., 3.18mm) on the underside can
be used when smaller holes are required on the part side. Male molds can
be mounted on a vacuum plate with thin washers or shims, and large
vacuum holes can be drilled under the mold. Narrow slots can also be
used, and they offer much less resistance than holes when air is evacuated
through the mold. Flat areas, segmented sections, or male portions of a
mold can be joined with shims, providing long slots.

Temperature controls
Even though TPs have specific processing heats, forming requires thor-
ough, fast, and uniform radiant heat from the surface to the core to the
surface. To achieve these sheets, plastics over 0.040 in. (1.02mm) should
use sandwich-type (bottom and top) heater banks. To ensure sufficient
heat is used, heaters should have capacities of at least 4-6kWft~2 (43-
65kWm~2). Various types of radiant heating elements and their perform-
ances are shown in Table 10.2. Figure 10.18 shows ABS sheets, 76 in. x
230 in. (193cm x 584cm), being conveyed to an IR oven in the back of the
console, where the sheets are individually heated and formed into 15ft
(4.6m) outboard-powered runabouts. The complete automatic process of
conveying the sheet, heating, forming, and cooling takes lOmin.

Table 10.2 Types of radiant heating elements3

Efficiency (%)

When After 6 Average

Element new months life (h) Performance

Ceramic panel 65 55 12000-15000 Best buy; heats uniformly

and is efficient and capable
for profiling heat
Quartz panel 58 50 8000-10000 Same as ceramic heaters
trademark
Coiled Nichrome 18-20 8-10 1500 Initially lowest cost; is very
wire inefficient, and heats
nonuniformly with use
Tubular rodsb 45 20 3000 Inexpensive; heats
nonuniformly with use and
is difficult to screen or
mask for profiling heat
Gas-fired 40-45 25 5000-6000 Lowest cost to operate; has
infra-red many disadvantages,
including wavelength
variations and frequent
maintenance
a
Steel clamping frames should be plated with nickel-copper-chrome to reflect heat to sheet
edges. After 6 months consider replacing side and back reflectors in order to regain 4-8%
efficiency.
b
Sanding and polishing oxidized tubular heaters can improve their efficiency by 10-15%.
Figure 10.18 Heating sheets in an IR oven; the heated sheets are thermoformed
into a boat.

The cycle time is controlled by the heating and cooling rates, which in
turn depend on the following factors: the temperature of heaters and the
cooling medium, the initial temperature of the sheet, the effective heat-
transfer coefficient (Table 1.28, page 86), the sheet thickness, and thermal
properties of the sheet material. Different materials absorb radiant heat
most efficiently at various wavelengths, which in turn are affected by the
temperature of the emitting heater. The most appropriate wavelengths for
TPs fall within the infra-red spectrum of 6jLim (40O0F, 2040C) to 3.2 ^Lm
(120O0F, 6490C). For example, ABS, PE, and HIPS absorb radiant heat
most efficiently when the heating elements emit 3.5-3.3 jum, whereas PC
requires 3.4 jam.
Typical material and process heats for a variety of plastics are given in
Table 10.3. The normal forming heat should be attained throughout the
sheet, and should be measured just before the mold and sheet come
together. Shallow-draw projects with fast vacuum and/or pressure form-
ing allow somewhat lower sheet heats and thus a faster cycle. Slightly
Table 10.3 Guide to thermoforming processing temperatures (0F)

Lower Normal
Mold processing forming Upper
Plastic heat* limitb heatc limitd Set heate

HOPE 160 260 295 330 180

ABS 180 260 325 380 200
PMMA 190 300 350 380 200
PS 185 260 295 360 200
PC 265 335 375 400 280
PVC 140 210 275 300 160
PSU 320 390 475 575 360
a
The mold temperature is important in the forming process. High mold heats provide high-
quality parts with high impact strength, low internal stress, and good detail, material
distribution, and optics (clarity and lack of distortion). However, thin-gauge materials can
frequently be thermoformed on molds at lower heat, such as 35-9O0F, as the additional
stresses produced are not pronounced in the thin gauges and do not interfere with product
performance.
b
The lower processing limit represents the lowest heat at which the sheet can be formed
without undue stresses. This means that the sheet should touch every corner of the mold
prior to reaching this lower limit; otherwise problems develop such as stresses and strains
that can cause warpage, brittleness, or other physical changes in the part.
c
The normal forming temperature is the heat at which the sheet should be formed under
normal operation. This temeprature should be reached throughout the sheet. Shallow draws
with fast vacuum and/or pressure forming will allow somewhat lower sheet heat and thus
a faster cycle. Higher heats are required for deep draws, prestretching, detailed mold
decorations, etc.
d
The upper limit is the heat point where the sheet begins to degrade or becomes too fluid and
pliable to form. These temperatures can normally be exceeded only with an impairment of
the plastic's physical properties (higher heats obtain for IM and extrusion).
e
The set temperature is the heat at which the part may be removed from the mold without
warpage. Parts can sometimes be removed at higher heats if postcooling fixtures are used.

higher heats may be required for deep draws, prestretching, and highly
detailed molds.
When extrusion and thermoforming are separate operations, the heat
energy supplied for extrusion is completely lost by chilling the sheet.
Reheating for thermoforming requires additional heat energy. The inline
process offers the advantage of using a high percentage of the energy
contained in the sheet to condition it to the forming heat. Savings of about
30-40% can actually be obtained. The inline process provides a more even
heat distribution, and weight distributions can be reduced without chang-
ing physical properties. At equal output rates, an inline process needs
only half the floor space of separate operations.
The time required to cool the heat-softened plastic below its heat-
deflection temperature while it is in contact with the mold is often the key
to determining the overall forming cycles. Cooling is accomplished by
conductive heat loss to the mold and convective heat loss to the surround-
ing air [3]. The cooling rate depends upon the tooling because, in all
methods except matched mold, the plastic is in contact with the mold on
one side only. The opposite side is cooled convectively by forced air and
ambient air. Water sprays are sometimes used but often pose as many
problems, e.g., water spotting. Pressure forming helps to minimize cool-
ing time because the higher air pressure keeps the sheet in more intimate
contact with the mold surface.

Molds
Molds can range from hardwood for short runs to filled and unfilled high-
temperature polyester (TS) and epoxy resins, cast solid urethane, sprayed
metal, cast aluminum, cast porous aluminum, and machined steels. The
most common material is cast aluminum, which provides a good combi-
nation of durability, light weight, thermal conductivity, ease of manufac-
ture, and cost.
In tooling design, a male primary mold will allow a deeper draw than
a female mold because the plastic can be draped or prestretched over the
male mold. However, when a male plug-assist is used to prestretch the
sheet for a primary female mold, the advantage is nullified. In general,
female molds provide easier release, are less likely to get scratched or
damaged, produce thicker and stronger rims in containers, can use
smaller sheet blanks, and provide the sharpest definition on the outside of
the part. Female molds usually have the disadvantage of producing parts
with thin bottoms; however, good plug-assist design and operation can
largely eliminate this problem. Male molds are generally lower in cost.
Molds used with vacuum or pressure techniques require holes, chan-
nels, slits, ducts, and so on, to evacuate the air or to build up the pressure.
To avoid visible marks on the surface of thermoformed parts, holes
should be kept as small as possible, such as 10-25 mil (250-635 |iim). Care-
ful placement of the holes will be helpful in providing fast, efficient
airflow during forming. Logic and experience provide guidelines for the
placement of openings.
In cast-resin molds, vacuum holes can be provided by including
greased wires in the casting for later removal. Cast porous aluminum
molds (also used in blow molding) should be considered for greater
detail, such as graining, stitching, and relief work.
Undercuts can be included by the use of split molds. Some molds use a
removable section that pulls out of the mold after forming (or can be left
inside to provide a threaded insert, etc.). In the design of all molds one
should consider a draft angle of at least 2-3° per side for the female molds
and 5-7° for the male molds (the larger the better). A straight-sided angle
in the direction of the draw makes the parts difficult to release. This is
 Table 10.4 Shrinkage guide for thermoformed plastics

Plastics Shrinkage (%)

LDPE 1.6-3.0
HOPE 3.0-3.5
ABS 0.3-0.8
PMMA 0.2-0.8
SAN 0.5-0.6
PC 0.5-0.8
PS 0.3-0.5
PP 1.5-2.2
PVC, rigid 0.4-0.5
PVC, flexible 0.8-2.5

especially true with male molds, where the natural shrink is toward the
mold. With advanced forming techniques, such as collapsible molds,
parts with zero degrees of draft or even negative drafts can be successfully
formed.
Various sheet materials have different mold shrinkage factors, ranging
from almost no shrinkage up to as much as 3V2%. Typical basic shrinkage
values are given in Table 10.4. Shrinkage can be changed significantly
when additives or fillers are used in the resin blends; it can go from zero
to practically any preengineered value. However, the percentage of
shrinkage is not as important as the consistency of the factor. Molds can be
designed to allow for the shrinkage. Careful pretesting is required for
precision parts.
Cooling conditions also affect the rate of shrinkage. Restraining the
part, either before or after release, will tend to limit the total shrinkage.
The mold heat, cooling speed, and cooling fixtures should remain con-
stant to ensure the uniformity of final part shapes. About 70-80% of the
dimensional change due to shrinkage occurs as the sheet cools from its
forming heat to its set heat. Stabilization to the final dimension can take
several hours, or even longer. Most of the change may be due to plastic
relaxation once forming stresses are removed.

DESIGNS
Designers should consider the nature of thermoforming [3] which uses
flat panels instead of the solid, enclosed, boxlike, cylindrical, rodlike, or
structural shapes of other processes. They should be aware of and observe
the material's depth-of-draw limitations, which can vary depending on
the type of TP, the thickness tolerance of the sheet, and the degree of
pinhole freedom it enjoys. For straight vacuum forming into a female
mold, the depth/width ratio should generally be ^0.5. For drape forming
over a male mold, this ratio should be ^L For parts to be used with the
plug-assist, slip-ring, or one of the reverse-draw methods, the ratio can
exceed 1 and may even reach 2 under normal circumstances. However,
shallow drafts are generally formed more readily than deep drafts and
they produce more uniform wall thicknesses.
Undercuts and reentrant shapes are possible in many designs. They
require movable or collapsible mold members, but with small undercuts
they can often be sprung from a female mold while the formed part is still
warm. This type of action works best when the plastic has some flexibility,
as do the TPEs, or is very thin. Guidelines for the maximum amounts of
undercutting that can be stripped from a mold are as follows: 0.04 in.
(1.02mm) for acrylics, PCs, and other rigid plastics; 0.060 in. (1.52mm) for
PEs, ABSs, and PAs; and 0.100 in. (2.54mm) for flexible plastics such as the
PVCs.
As reviewed on p. 253, coextruded films and sheets are used to gain
product performances. The coextrusion can also be sectionalized to gain
product advantages (Figs 10.19 and 10.20).
When female tooling is split to permit the removal of parts with under-
cuts, a parting line of the split halves becomes visible on the formed part.
If this is objectionable, the designer can sometimes incorporate the parting
line in the decoration of the part or at some natural line on the part.

CLEAR WHITE

COLOR
Figure 10.19 A coextruded sheet for producing a three-color thermoformed
container with an integrally hinged lid.

CLAMPSTRIP CLAMPSTRIP
(RECLAIMABLE) (RECLAIMABLE)
COLOR OR CLEAR

COLORORCLEAR
Figure 10.20 Addition of a single-plastic clamping strip at each side of a
coextruded sheet permits scrap reclaim of the thermoformed trim waste.
 Sharp corners should never be specified, since they hamper the flow of
material into the mold's corners. This results in excessive thinning of the
materials and causes concentrations of stress. A minimum radius of twice
the stock thickness is recommended. It is also more desirable from several
standpoints to have large, flowing curves in a thermoformed part than to
have squared corners or rectangular shapes. The best parts have smooth,
natural curves and drawn sections that are spherical or nearly spherical.
Their walls will be more uniform, they will be more rigid, their surfaces
will have a lower tendency to show tool marks, and their tooling and
molds will be lower in cost. Notches or square holes should be avoided
when punching formed parts. Round holes are preferred to oval ones for
minimizing stress buildup.
Some draft is required in sidewalls to facilitate the easy removal of the
part from the mold. Female molds require less draft since parts tend to
pull away from mold walls as they shrink during cooling. With female
tooling, for most plastics the draft on each sidewall should be at least 1^ °.
For male tooling, it should be 1° (Fig. 10.21).
Metal inserts are usually not feasible, because thin walls are not suffi-
ciently strong to hold inserts, particularly if thermal expansion and con-
traction take place. Figure 10.22 shows a method of holding metal fittings.
It may be desirable to increase the stiffness of thermoformed parts. Many

Draft angle V40 min. for female tooling,

1° min for male tooling

- Sharp
corners R - 2 T or greater

Not this This

Figure 10.21 The draft required in sidewalls to facilitate easy removal of a
thermoformed part from a mold.
 Figure 10.23 A boss design can stack thermoformed parts without jamming.

such parts are panel shaped and made of thin walls, so they may lack
rigidity. It corrugations are used it is preferable to have them in two
directions, or an embossed pattern can add to their rigidity [3]. With short-
run production it may be more economical just to use thicker sheet plastic
to gain stiffness. If the function of the part permits, use curved, dished, or
domed surfaces to gain stiffness (Fig. 10.23).
When thermoformed parts are stacked, without controlled spacing,
they will jam together, which could create sufficient stress to cause them
to split. To avoid jamming and control the space between parts, a stacking
boss or shoulder system can be used (Fig. 10.23). Within this stacking area
the plastic must be sufficiently rigid to prevent the deflection of bosses
that would cause jamming. The height of the bosses is generally greater
than their vertical cross sections at the point of least taper; otherwise the
tapered walls will interfere before the stacking sections can engage. Other
designs can also be used to eliminate jamming.

Tolerances
Thermoformed parts lack the dimensional accuracy of injection- and
compression-molded parts. With its low pressure, thermoforming re-
duces the degree to which the sheet being formed is forced to conform to
the mold. Sheet variations, mainly in their thickness and degree of exist-
ing pinholes, affect the final accuracy of the part. This is particularly true
because tooling is generally one-sided. The objective should be to use a
sheet with tight thickness controls which is pinhole-free, rather than just
to determine its weight (some fabricators 'buy' by the lower-cost method,
where weight is the controlling factor).
Parts are dimensionally affected by the difference between their form-
ing temperature and their product-use temperature. Thus, a plastic's
coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction has a significant effect.
The chosen tooling is generally inexpensive. High-precision tooling is
usually not produced.
The pressure, time, and temperature variations that can exist will affect
the final part dimensions. Of these factors, evenness in heating the sheet
before forming is usually the most important. An allowance must also be
made for postforming shrinkage (Chapter 12). Molds should be designed
oversize so that, when shrinkage is complete, the part dimensions will be
correct to within the design tolerances.
Accuracy is much more prevalent with really precise tooling, especially
with matched male and female molds and careful control of temperature,
time, and pressure. The dimensional tolerances with the more conven-
tional single-mold system are generally ±0.6% (±0.35% for close toler-
ances) with female molds, ±0.5% (±0.3% close) with male molds under 3ft
(0.9m), ±0.8% (±0.4% close) with male molds over 3ft (0.9m), and ±30%
(±10% close) for wall thicknesses.

COSTING
The central element of any thermoforming system is the tooling, compris-
ing the mold and trimming means. The design of the product will deter-
mine the thermof orming technique to be used. Cost and volume will
influence the size of the forming machinery, the number of mold cavities,
and the rate of production.
The selection of a thermoplastic material for a thermoformed product
first requires that it be extrudable into sheet form. Then its cost, availabil-
ity, and manufacturing continuity are considered. The performance re-
quirements of the product dictate the selection of the lowest-cost plastic
that offers adequate formability; tensile, elongation, and impact strength;
chemical resistance, low or high temperature resistance, and other proper-
ties that may apply; clarity; dielectric strength; moisture, vapor, and oxy-
gen permeability; and recyclability.
If the properties of expensive engineering plastics are required, they
may be achievable through multilayer extrusion or lamination or by alloy-
ing to achieve such properties at lower cost with a structure composed
mainly of commodity plastics. Other alternatives to lower the cost of the
product material include density reduction by introducing foaming
agents, and incorporating inexpensive fillers to extend the primary resin.

TROUBLESHOOTING
This chapter has presented different problems and solutions along with
some guidelines. Like other processes, forming is subject to many vari-
ables that influence appearance, performance, and cost. All the variables
Table 10.5 Troubleshooting guide for thermoforming

Problem Cause(s) Solution(s)

Blisters or bubbles Overheating Lower the heater temperature

Increase distance of heater from
sheet
Attach masks or baffles
Wrong sheet type or Obtain correct formulation
formulation
Poor storage conditions Do not remove material from
moistureproof wrap until
ready to use
Blush or change in Insufficient heating Lengthen heating cycle
color intensity Mold is too cool Warm the mold
Assist is too cool Warm the assist
Sheet cools before it is Speed the drape action
completely formed Add vacuum holes
Too deep a draw Use heavier-gauge sheet
Poor mold design Use mold of proper design
Sticking to the Rough or improperly Make mold smoother
mold designed mold Increase the taper of male plugs
Use mechanical release assists
Use air pressure to blow piece
from mold
Use mold-release agents
Incompletely or Sheet is cold Lengthen the heating cycle
improperly Bring heater closer to sheet
formed pieces Insufficient vacuum Check vacuum system
Vacuum holes are Clean, relocate, or add vacuum
plugged up holes
Warped or Poor mold design Redesign mold using proper
distorted pieces Sheet removed while tapers and ribs
too hot Increase cooling cycle
Use water-cooled molds
Webbing or Insufficient vacuum Check vacuum system
bridging Add more vacuum holes
Sheet is overheated Shorten heating cycle
Increase heater distance from
the sheet
Long parallel molds Move sheet 90° in relation to
with extrusion mold
direction parallel
Poor mold layout or Use mechanical drape or plug
design assists
Table 10.5 Continued

Problem Cause(s) Solution(s)

Sharp corners on deep Increase radius

draw
Bad surface Markoff (due to Slow draping action
markings trapped air) Add more vacuum holes
Markoff (due to Use a temperature-controlled
accumulation of mold
plasticizer on mold) Have mold as far away from
the sheet as possible during
the heating cycle
Shorten the heating cycle (if too
long)
Wipe the mold
Mold is cool Warm the mold
Bring the heater closer to the
sheet
Mold is too hot Provide cooling for mold
Improper mold Avoid phenolic molds with
composition clear transparent sheet
Mold surface too highly Remove high surface gloss from
polished mold
Mold surface too rough Smooth surface
Excessive post Sheet removed from Increase cooling time
shrinkage mold while still hot
Pinholing or Vacuum holes too large Partially plug up holes with
rupturing wood or solder or completely
plug and redrill
Uneven heating Attach baffles to the top
clamping frame

are controllable, and logical steps can be taken to manage them, as re-
viewed in Chapters 2 through 4.
Major influences are sheet thickness, plastic viscosity, and melt index
(Chapter 1), regrind (Chapter 16), sheet orientation (Chapter 1), draw
ratio, forming temperature and pressure, and surface blemishes, blisters,
blushing, scratch marks, and so on. A guide to troubleshooting the
thermoforming process is given in Table 10.5.