Basic Polynomial Class Notes

Definition of Polynomial
• A polynomial is an equation in the form:
P(x) = anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a1x + a0 = 0
Where n = a non-negative integer
• Name of terms:
an, an+3,…= coefficients
a0 = constant
an = leading coefficient
n = degree
anxn = leading term

• All powers of x are either zero or positive integers.

Examples:

1. Which of the following are polynomials?

a. x3 – 4x + 1
#
b. √𝑥+3
c. 4

2. State the degree, constant term and leading coefficient of the following:
a. x3 – 2x2 + 1

b. −2𝑥 & − 3𝑥 + 3

3. Given f(x) = 2x3 – 2x + 1, find:

a. f(-3)

b. 𝑓(0)

Practice:
1. Which of the following are polynomials?
1
a. 𝑃(𝑥) = −2𝑥 / + √5𝑥 −
2
b. 𝑀(𝑥) = −𝑥 /
1
c. 𝑄(𝑥) = 5 6 − 2𝑥 + 1

2. State the degree, constant term and leading coefficient of the following:
 a. 𝑥 8 + 4𝑥 / − 2𝑥 + 3

/
b. − 2 𝑥 − 4

3. Given f(x) = 5x2 + x, find:

a. 𝑓(1)

b. 𝑓(−1)

Congruent Polynomials

Note: “=” à equal sign means true for some values of x

“≡ " à congruent sign: true for all values of x

If, anxn + an-1xn-1 + … + a1x + a0 ≡ bnxn + bn-1xn-1 + … + b1x + b0 = 0 then an=bn, an-1=bn-1, ….. a0=b0

1. Identify the following and hence find the pronumerals

a. 3x2 – x + 1 = (a-2)x2 + bx + c

b. ax3 + bx2 + cx + d º (x – 2)(x + 1)(x – 1)

Practice:
2. Identify the following and hence find the pronumerals:

a. 2𝑥 / + 𝑥 = (𝑎 − 1)𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥

b. (1 − 𝑥)(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 2) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 / + 𝑐𝑥 − 𝑑

Adding, Subtracting and Multiplying

1. Given 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 and 𝑄(𝑥) = −2𝑥 / + 3𝑥 + 1 find

a. 𝑃(𝑥) + 𝑄(𝑥)

b. 𝑄(𝑥) − 𝑃(𝑥)

c. 𝑥𝑄(𝑥) − 2𝑃(𝑥)

2. Expand the following

a. (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 / − 2𝑥 + 1)

b. (𝑥 / − 𝑥)(𝑥 / − 3𝑥 + 1)
3. Find the degree of the following polynomial given that
𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 / − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2
a. 𝑃(𝑥) × 𝑄(𝑥)
b. 3 × 𝑃(𝑥)
c. 𝑅(𝑥)/
d. 𝑅(𝑥) + 𝑃(𝑥)

4. Find the constant term when expanding (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 2)

5. Find the x term in the expansion (𝑥 / − 𝑥 + 2)(3𝑥 − 1)

6. Find the 𝑥 / term in the expansion (2𝑥 / − 𝑥 + 1)(−2𝑥 / − 3𝑥 + 1)

7. * Find the 𝑥 / in the expansion (𝑥 / − 𝑥 + 1)/

Practice
1. Given 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 / − 5 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2 − 3𝑥 find:
a. 𝑃(𝑥) − 𝑄(𝑥)
b. 𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑃(𝑥)
c. 3𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)

2. Expand the following

a. (2 − 𝑥)(𝑥 / + 2𝑥 − 3)
b. (2𝑥 / + 𝑥)(3𝑥 + 1)

3. Find the degree of the following polynomial given that

 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥
𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑥 / + 1
𝑅(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 / − 2
a. 𝑃(𝑥) × 𝑄(𝑥)
b. 3 × 𝑃(𝑥)
c. 𝑄(𝑥)/
d. 𝑅(𝑥) + 𝑃(𝑥) − 𝑄(𝑥)

4. Find the constant term when expanding (4𝑥 & − 𝑥 / + 1)(𝑥 + 1)

5. Find the x term in the expansion (𝑥 − 7)(1 + 2𝑥)

6. * Find the 𝑥 / term in the expansion 𝑥(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)

7. * Find the 𝑥 & term in the expansion (5𝑥 / − 1)(5𝑥 / + 1)

 Long division

1. Perform the following using long division

a. 𝑥 / + 5𝑥 + 4 ÷ (𝑥 + 4)
b. 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 / − 2𝑥 + 1 ÷ (𝑥 + 1)

2. Find the quotient and remainder when 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 / − 𝑥 + 1 is divided by 2𝑥 + 1

3. Divide the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 / + 5 by the linear expression (𝑥 + 1) and express P(x) in the form 𝑃(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑏

4. Given that 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 / + 𝑥 + 1 = (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑎𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑, find the value of a, b, c and d.

Practice:
1. Perform the following using long division
a. 3𝑥 / + 7𝑥 + 2 ÷ (𝑥 + 2)
b. 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 / − 12𝑥 − 4 ÷ (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 2)

2. Find the quotient and remainder when −4𝑥 / + 10𝑥 − 3 is divided by 4𝑥 − 2

3. Divide the polynomial 𝑃(𝑥) = 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 / − 𝑥 by the linear expression (2𝑥 − 1) and express P(x) in the form 𝑃(𝑥) =
(𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑏

4. Given that 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 / + 𝑥 + 3 = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑎𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + 𝑑, find the value of a, b, c and d

 Remainder Theorem
When P(x) is divided by x-a, then the remainder is P(a)
To use, need to have
a. the polynomial P(x)
b. a linear divisor

Examples

1. Find the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 / − 4𝑥 + 1 is divided by (𝑥 − 1)

2. Find the remainder when 𝑄(𝑥) = −2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 is divided by (2𝑥 − 1)

3. Find the value of k given that when 2𝑘𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 is divided by (𝑥 − 2) the remainder is 4

4. Find the value of a given that when 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 / + 7𝑥 − 3 is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑎) the remainder is 1

5. When 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥 − 1 is divided by (𝑥 − 2) the remainder is 2 and when divided by (2𝑥 − 1) the remainder is
-1, find the value of a and b.
6. When 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 / − 2𝑥 + 𝑐 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 2𝑥 / − 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑐 is divided by (𝑥 − 2) the remainders are 2 and -1. Find the
value of a and c.

Practice

1. Find the remainder when 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 / − 𝑥 + 3 is divided by (2𝑥 + 1)

2. Find the remainder when 𝑄(𝑥) = −𝑥 G + 𝑥 − 15 is divided by (𝑥)

3. Find the value of k given that when 𝑘𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 / + 5 is divided by (2𝑥 + 3) the remainder is 5

4. Find the value of 𝑎 given that when 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 / − 𝑥 + 3 is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑎) the remainder is 5

5. * When 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥 + 3 is divided by (𝑥 + 1) the remainder is 7 and when divided by (2𝑥 − 1) the remainder
is 4, find the value of a and b.
6. When 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 / + 𝑏𝑥 − 6 and 𝑄(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 / − 7𝑥 − 3 is divided by (𝑥 − 4) the remainders are 2 and 1. Find the
value of a and b

Factor Theorem
• (x-a) is factor of P(x) if
P(a) = 0 (i.e. it is the remainder theorem but here the remainder is 0) and if P(a)=0 then (x-a) must be a factor.
• To use the factor theorem, we need
a. know P(x)
b. what we are dividing must be linear
• the symbol
Þ (x-a )|P(x) means (x-a) is a factor of P(x)

Examples
1. Prove that (𝑥 + 4) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑥 & + 16𝑥 2 − 15𝑥 / + 8𝑥 + 16

2. Prove that (𝑥 − 1) is not a factor of P(x)=2𝑥 & + 3𝑥 / − 5𝑥 + 7

3. Prove that 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 / − 5𝑥 − 3 is divisible by (2𝑥 + 1)

4. Prove that (𝑥 + 2) and (3𝑥 − 1) are factors of 𝑃(𝑥) = 3𝑥 & + 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 / + 5𝑥 − 2 and hence state why (3𝑥 / + 5𝑥 − 2)
is a factor of P(x).
5. *Show that (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 / − 𝑥 + 30 and hence find a quadratic factor of P(x).

6. *Find a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 / − 7𝑥 + 2 = 0 and hence factorise 𝑓(𝑥) completely.

7. * Solve 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 / + 11𝑥 + 6 = 0 .
8. Given that (𝑥 − 1) and (𝑥 + 2) are factors of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 2 − 2𝑛𝑥 + 1 find the value of m and n.

9. Given that 𝑃(𝑥) = (2 − 𝑎)𝑥 / − 𝑏𝑥 + 1 = 0 have factors (2 − 𝑥) and (2𝑥 − 1) find the value of a and b.

10. * (𝑥 / − 4) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 / − 𝑏 = 0 find the value of a and b.

11. * 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 / + 4𝑥 − 1 = 0 has a quadratic factor (𝑥 / + 𝑥 − 2), find the value of a and b.

12. When 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 2 − 𝑛𝑥 + 1 = 0 is divided by (𝑥 − 1) the remainder is 3. Find the value of m and n given also that
𝑃(𝑥) has (𝑥 + 2) as a factor.

Practice:
1. Prove that (𝑥 − 5) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 & − 14𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 / + 14𝑥 − 20

2. Prove that (2𝑥 − 1) is not a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 2𝑥 & − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 /

3. Prove that 𝑓(𝑥) = −𝑥 / + 3𝑥 − 2 is divisible by (2 − 𝑥)

4. Prove that (𝑥 + 1) and (𝑥 − 1) are factors of 𝑃(𝑥) = −10𝑥 & + 7𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 / − 7𝑥 + 1 and hence state why (𝑥 / − 1) is
a factor of P(x).

5. * Show that (𝑥 + 2) is a factor of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 / + 3𝑥 + 18 and hence find a quadratic factor of P(x).

6. * Solve 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 / − 7𝑥 − 2 = 0 . ( Hint: guess a root)

7. Given that (𝑥 + 1) and (3𝑥 − 2) are factors of 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑥 / − 2𝑛𝑥 find the value of m and n.

8. Given that 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑎 − 1)𝑥 / + (𝑏 + 2)𝑥 + 2 = 0 have factors (1 − 2𝑥) and (2𝑥 + 2) find the value of a and b.

9. * (𝑥 / − 25) is a factor of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑥 / − 25 + 𝑏 = 0 find the value of a and b.

10. * 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 / − 𝑥 − 6 = 0 has a quadratic factor (𝑥 / − 2𝑥 − 3), find the value of a and b.

11. When 𝑃(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 2 − 𝑛𝑥 + 1 = 0 is divided by (𝑥 − 2) the remainder is 1. Find the value of m and n given also that
𝑃(𝑥) has (𝑥 + 1) as a factor.
 Sketching Cubic Equations
A. The curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and its transformation

1. Sketch 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and hence sketch

a. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 2)2
b. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2
c. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2
d. 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2
e. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2
f. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2
1
g. 𝑦 = − / 𝑥 2 + 2
h. * State the sketching relationship between 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 = (2𝑥 − 1)2
 B. . Factorise form of Cubic equations

To sketch factorized forms of cubic

1. Find the x intercept by letting y=0
2. Let 𝑥 = −∞ to see if it starts high or low

If there is a perfect square factor, then it bounces on the x-axis.

Example

1. Sketch the following curves

a. 𝑦 = (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 − 1)

b. 𝑦 = −2(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 − 1)

c. 𝑦 = 2𝑥(𝑥 − 2)/ and hence solve 2𝑥(𝑥 − 2)/ ≥ 0

 1 1
d. 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)/ and hence solve (𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1)/ < 0
/ /

Practice:
1. 𝑦 = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) and hence solve 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) ≤ 0

2. 𝑦 = 3(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)(3 − 𝑥) and hence solve 3(𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 − 1)(3 − 𝑥) > 0
3. Sketch 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)/ (𝑥 − 1)

1
4. Sketch 𝑦 = 2 (2𝑥 − 3)𝑥 /

5. * Sketch 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 / + 7𝑥 − 10 ( Hint show that x=1 is a root)

 6. *Sketch 𝑦 = 2𝑥(𝑥 / − 3𝑥 + 2)

The form P(x) = S(x). Q(x) + R(x)

• All polynomials can be written in the form!

P(x) = S(x) Q(x) + R(x)

Where P(x) = dividend

S(x) = divisor
Q(x) = quotient
R(x) = remainder
For eg
x3 + 6x2+12x+2 = (x2+3x+1)(x+3) + 2x – 1
P(x) = x3 + 6x2 + 12x + 2
S(x) = x2 + 3x + 1
Q(x) = x + 3
R(x) = 2x – 1

properties of the form:

• Degree S(x) + Degree Q(x) = degree P(x)
• Degree R(x) < Degree S(x)
(or else we can keep dividing)

Rule : Used when cant use remainder or factor theorem

Examples

1. Without using long division, find 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 / − 4 ÷ (𝑥 − 3)

2. Without using long division find 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 / − 𝑥 − 2 ÷ (𝑥 / + 𝑥 + 1)

3.

a. Find 𝑎 and 𝑏 given that 𝑥 / + 4𝑥 + 3 is a factor of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 / − 𝑏𝑥 − 3 = 0.

b. Determine the constants a and b such that the polynomial A(x) = x4 +3x3 +𝑎𝑥 / − 𝑏 may be divisible by x2 +
2x +2

4.
a. A monic cubic polynomial when divided by 𝑥 / + 1 leaves a remainder of (𝑥 − 1) and when divided by (𝑥 + 1)
leaves a remainder of 2. Find the polynomial in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 / + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑.
 b. A monic cubic polynomial when divided by (𝑥 − 1) leaves a remainder of -2 and when divided by 𝑥 / − 3𝑥 + 1
leaves a remainder of 𝑥 − 2 find the polynomial.

5. When P(x) is divided by (x-2) and (x-3) the remainders are 4 and 9 respectively what is the remainder when
P(x) is divided by (x – 2)(x – 3)

Practice

1. Without long division find the quotient and remainder when 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 / + 2 is divided by 𝑥 / + 𝑥 − 1
2. Find a and b given 𝑥 / − 4𝑥 − 5 is a factor of 𝑎𝑥 2 − 𝑏𝑥 + 1 = 0.

3. Find a and b given 𝑥 / − 𝑥 − 1 is a factor of 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 / + 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏 = 0

4. A monic cubic equation when divided by 𝑥 / + 1, the remainder is 2𝑥 − 1. When the polynomial is divided by
𝑥 − 1, the remainder is 2. Find the polynomial.
5. A monic cubic polynomial when divided by 𝑥 / + 3 leaves a remainder of (𝑥 + 2) and when divided by (𝑥 − 1)
leaves a remainder of 3. Find the polynomial in the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 / + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑

6. A monic cubic polynomial when divided by x2 – 1 leaves a remainder of (2x – 3) and when divided by (x+1)
leaves a remainder of 2. Find the polynomial.
7. When the polynomial P(x) is divided by (𝑥 + 4) the remainder is 5 and when it is divided by (𝑥 − 1) the
remainder is 9. Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by (𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 4)

8. When polynomial P(x) is divided by (𝑥 + 1)𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑥 − 3) the espective remainder are 1 and 3. Determine what
the remainder must be when P(x) is divided by (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 3)