Final Year Project Report

Department of Chemical and Mechanical Engineering

Down Flow Hanging Sponge Reactor

Muhammad Amr Gomaa

Ali Amen Mahmoud Khaled Adel Eltahery

Ahmad Abd-el-Kader gasser Hazem Tamer Borhan

Muhammad Gamal Muhammad

A report submitted in part fulfilment of the degree of

BSc in Chemical and Mechanical Department
Supervisors:
DR. Basma El-dakiky
DR. Sara M. Younes DR. Eman R. Sadik
2020
Declaration
This report has been prepared on the basis of our own project. Where other published and
unpublished source materials have been used, these have been acknowledged.

Student Name: Signature:

1- Muhammad Amr Gomaa

2- Ali Amen Mahmoud

3- Ahmad Abd-el-Kader gasser

4- Khaled Adel Eltahery

5- Muhammad Gammal Muhammad

6- Hazem Tamer Borhan

Date of Submission:
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to express my sincere gratitude to several individuals and for supporting us
throughout our Graduate study. First, we wish to express our sincere gratitude to our
supervisor, Dr. Eman R. Sadik, Dr. Basma El-dakiky, Dr. Sara M. Younes, for their
enthusiasm, patience, insightful comments, helpful information, practical advice and
unceasing ideas that have helped us tremendously at all times in my research and writing of
this thesis. their immense knowledge, profound experience and professional expertise in
Data Quality Control has enabled us to complete this research successfully. Without their
support and guidance, this project would not have been possible. we could not have
imagined having a better supervisor in our study.
 Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................................................3

PROJECT SPECIFICATION ………….……………………………………………...…………4

1. CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………. ............ 5

1.1. What is waste water? …………………….………… ..................................6

1.2. COMPONENTS PRESENT IN WASTEWATER ...................................................6

1.2.1. BOD (BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND) …………................................7

1.2.2. COD (CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND) ……………………………….…….7

1.2.3. T-N (TOTAL NITROGEN) …………………………………….………….……9

1.2.4. F. COLI (ESCHERICHIA coli) ……………………………………………….10

1.2.5. S.S (SUSPENDED SOLIDS) ……………………………………….….……11

1.3. IMPACTS AND HAZARDS OF WASTEWATER................................................12

2. Chapter 2: Physical Methods of Water Treatment ………………………… .......13

2.1. MICROBE SIZE AND PHYSICAL REMOVAL ..............................................14

2.2. PLAIN SEDIMENTATION OR SETTLING ...................................................15

2.3. FILTRATION…………….……………………………………………………….……17

2.4. GRANULAR MEDIA, RAPID RATE FILTERS AND FILTER MEDIA……......….18

2.4.1. BUCKETFILTERS…………………….….………………......………….…...18

2.4.2. DRUM OR BARREL FILTERS……………………...………………….…….19

2.4.3. ROUGHING FILTERS………………………...…………………………...….21

2.4.4. FILTER-CISTERNS……………………………………………….……….….22

2.4.5. BIOMASS AND FOSSIL FUEL GRANULAR MEDIA FILTERS………….23

2.4.6. MICROBIAL REDUCTIONS BY RAPID GRANULAR MEDIA FILTER….23

2.5. SLOW SAND FILTERS…………………………………………………...…........25

2.6. FIBER, FABRIC AND MEMBRANE FILTERS……………………………..…...26

2.7. POROUS CERAMIC FILTERS………………………………………..………….27

2.8. DIATOMACEOUS EARTH FILTERS……………………………….……………28

3. Chapter 3: Chemical Methods of Water Treatment .........................................31

 3.1. CHEMICAL COAGULATION, FLOCCULATION AND PRECIPITATION……..32

3.1.1. MICROBIAL REDUCTIONS BY COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION….…34

3.1.2. ALUM AND IRON COAGULATION ....................................................34

3.1.3. SEED EXTRACT COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION ...........................35

3.2. ADSORPTION PROCESSES ...............................................................36

3.2.1. CLAY ADSORPTION .......................................................................36

3.2.2. CHARCOAL AND ACTIVATED CARBON ADSORPTION ......................37

3.2.3. VEGETATIVE MATTER ADSORBENTS…………………………………….38

3.3. ION EXCHANGE PROCESSES……………………………………...…....38

3.3.1. SOFTENING, DEIONIZING AND SCAVENGING RESINS………….…….39

3.3.2. ION EXCHANGE DISINFECTION…………………………………………….39

4. Chapter 4: biological Methods of Water Treatment ..........................................41

4.1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................42

4.2. TYPES OF BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT ....................................................42

4.2.1. ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS………………………………...……...….43

4.2.2. ROTATING BIOREACTOR CONTACTOR (RBC)…………………….…….44

4.2.3. FIXED (PACKED) BED REACTORS………………….………………...……45

4.2.4. FLUIDIZED BED REACTORS……………………………………...……….45

4.2.5. MEMBRANE BIOREACTORS…………………………………….………...46

4.2.6. TRICKLING FILTER……………………………………………………….…...47

5. Chapter 5: using of (DHS) Reactor for Wastewater Treatment ...........................48

5.1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................49

5.2. DOWN FLOW HANGING SPONGE (DHS) REACTOR ................................50

5.3. PROCESS DEVELOPMENT OF DHS REACTOR.......................................51

5.3.1. DHS-GENERATION ONE .................................................................52

5.3.2. DHS-GENERATION TWO ................................................................ 52

5.3.3. DHS-GENERATION THREE…………………………………………..………53

5.3.4. DHS-GENERATION FOUR…………………………………………...……….53

 5.3.5. DHS-GENERATION FIVE…………………………………….....….…………53

5.3.6. DHS-GENERATION SIX……………………………………….………………54

5.4. APPLICATION OF DHS REACTOR………………………………….….55

5.5. CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………….…….57

CHAPTER 6: DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF THE (DHS) REACTOR…………59

6.1.FUNCTION………………………………………………………...……………….60

6.2. OVERALL SHAPE……………………………………………………..….…...…60

6.3. MATERIAL AND COST…………………………………...…………..…………61

6.3.1. THE REACTOR……………………………………….………………...………61

6.3.2. TANK…………………………………………….….……………….…….….…67

6.3.3. STAND………………………………………………………...…….….………69

6.4. TYPES OF PACKING…………………………………………………….…….70

6.4.1. WEARING RINGS…………………………………..………..……..……….70

6.4.2. STUFFING BOX…………………………………………………..….………71

6.4.3. LANTERN RING…………………………………………………….………..72.

6.4.4. MECHANICAL SEALS………….…………………………….……………..72

6.4.5. SILICONE ADHESIV………………………………………………..……….73

6. Chapter 7: Design modifications and Final design ..........................................75

7. 7.1. The tank…………………………………………………………………………..75

8. 7.2. The stand ………………………………………………………………..……….76

9. 7.3. Modifications of the reactor and its dimensions………………………………78

10. 7.4. The difference between the new and the old design…………...……………81

11. 7.5. The expected final results of the process…………………………..…………83

12. 7.6. Conclusion…………………………………………………………….………….84

13. Bibliography………………………...………………………………….………………….85
 Abstract

A combination of up flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) and down flow hanging
sponge (DHS) reactor has emerged as an interesting alternative wastewater treatment
process. The combined system not only exhibited good organic removal performance in
pilot scale experiment, moreover, several studies in the last decades also showed the
good efficiency and robustness of DHS reactor in full-scale operation for wastewater
treatment. This paper provides a review on the basic concept, historical process
development and application of the DHS reactor for wastewater treatment. Over
twenty-year development of DHS technology suggests that DHS reactor had become a
viable alternative not only solving the sanitation problems in developing countries but
also great further potential development in the field of resources recovery technologies
from wastewater.

3
Project Specification:

4
 Chapter 1
introduction

T he major aim of wastewater treatment is to

protect human health and prevent environmental
Objectives
•
•
Definition of waste water,
BOD (Biochemical oxygen demand( ,
degradation by the safe disposal of domestic and
industrial wastewater generated during the use of • COD (Chemical oxygen demand( ,
water . • T-N (Total Nitrogen (
• F. COLI (Escherichia coli
• S.S (Suspended Solids(
• hazards of wastewater

5
Chapter One: Introduction
Freshwater availability is one of the major problems facing the world, and
approximately, one‐third of drinking water requirement of the world is obtained from
surface sources like rivers, dams, lakes, and canals. These sources of water also serve
as best sinks for the discharge of domestic and industrial wastes. The biggest threat to
sustainable water supply in South Africa is the contamination of available water
resources through pollution.
The major aim of wastewater treatment is to protect human health and prevent
environmental degradation by the safe disposal of domestic and industrial wastewater
generated during the use of water. One of the objectives of wastewater treatment is to
recycle wastewater for reuse in irrigation, thereby preserving water resources, which
is scarce in arid and semiarid regions of the world. In ancient times, there was no
specific treatment given to wastewater. Instead, wastewater was channeled from
buildings into waterways through gutters and canals, which eventually ended up in
rivers, streams, lakes, and oceans, which were used by people. This natural treatment
process based on dilution was adequate presumably due to a smaller population and
low population density as well as human activities, resulting in lower pollution load as
compared to the present times.

1.1. What is waste water?

 Domestic effluent consisting of Blackwater and graywater.
 Water from commercial establishments and institutions,
including hospitals.
 Industrial effluent, storm water and other urban run-off.
 Agricultural, horticultural and aquaculture effluent, either
dissolved or as suspended matter.
 Industrial water borne wastes: acids, oils, greases.

1.2. Components present in wastewater

 BOD
 COD
 T-N
 F. Coli
 Inorganic material
 SS

6
1.2.1. BOD (Biochemical oxygen demand)

Aerobic bacteria use dissolved oxygen of water when converting organic

waste into nutrients. The quality of oxygen used up by microorganisms in the
degradation of organic wastes in a water body is called biological oxygen
demand (BOD). The greater the amount of organic waste in the water body,
the greater is the amount of oxygen required to break it down biologically and
therefore higher is the biological oxygen demand. The BOD value is a good
measure in evaluating the degree of pollution in a water body.
BOD reduction is used as a gauge of the effectiveness of wastewater
treatment plants. BOD of wastewater effluents is used to indicate the short-
term impact on the oxygen levels of the receiving water.

Figure 1 BOD Level

1.2.2. COD (Chemical oxygen demand)

the chemical oxygen demand (COD) is an indicative measure of the amount

of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions in a measured solution. It is
commonly expressed in mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution

7
which in SI units is milligrams per liter (mg/L). A COD test can be used to
easily quantify the amount of organics in water. The most common application
of COD is in quantifying the amount of oxidizable pollutants found in surface
water (e.g. lakes and rivers) or wastewater. COD is useful in terms of water
quality by providing a metric to determine the effect an effluent will have on
the receiving body.

High COD/BOD levels in storm water runoff are cause by the residual food
and beverage waste from cans/bottles, antifreeze, and emulsified oils from
industrial food processing and agricultural activities. As most forms of COD
are water soluble, this pollutant spreads easily via storm water to waterways.

The greater the BOD, the more rapidly oxygen is depleted in the stream. This
means less oxygen is available to higher forms of aquatic life. The
consequences of high BOD are the same as those for low dissolved oxygen:
aquatic organisms become stressed, suffocate, and die.

A chemical oxygen demand (COD) test is used to measure the amount of

organic compounds in a water sample. It measures the capacity of water to
consume oxygen during the decomposition of organic matter and the oxidation
of inorganic chemicals such as Ammonia and nitrate.

Figure 2

8
 Figure 3 determination of Chemical oxygen demand test

1.2.3. T-N (Total Nitrogen)

Total Nitrogen (TN) is the sum of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N), nitrite-

nitrogen (NO2-N), ammonia-nitrogen (NH3-N) and organically bonded
nitrogen. Total Nitrogen (TN) should not be confused with TKN (Total
Kjeldahl Nitrogen) which is the sum of ammonia-nitrogen plus organically
bound nitrogen but does not include nitrate-nitrogen or nitrite-nitrogen.

Total N = Organic N + NO3–-N + NO2–-N + NH3-N

N = Nitrogen
NO3–-N = Nitrate nitrogen,
NO2–-N = Nitrite nitrogen,
NH3-N = Ammonia nitrogen

Figure 4 Nitrogen detector for Total Nitrogen

analyzer

9
1.2.4. F. COLI (Escherichia coli)

E. coli (Escherichia coli), is a type of bacteria that normally lives in your

intestines. It's also found in the gut of some animals. Most types of E. coli are
harmless and even help keep your digestive tract healthy.

Most types of E. coli are harmless and even help keep your digestive tract healthy.
But some strains can cause diarrhea if you eat contaminated food or drink
fouled water.

Coli can cause disease if they spread outside of the intestines, for example,
into the urinary tract (where they cause bladder or kidney infections), or into
the blood stream.

E. coli bacteria are a common cause of urine infections, for example, cystitis.
The exit of the urinary tract is near the anus, and so the bacteria can spread
from the GI tract to the urinary tract.

The group of E. coli that includes 0157:H7 produces a potent toxin called
Shiga. This toxin can harm the lining of the small intestine.

Figure 5 e. coli

Figure 6 e. coli

10
1.2.5. S.S (Suspended Solids)

refers to small solid particles which remain in suspension in water as

a colloid or due to the motion of the water, suspended solids can be removed
by the sedimentation because of their comparatively large size. [1] It is used as
one indicator of water quality. The amount of suspended solids indicates how
cloudy the water is. It is generally used on waste water as it has a direct effect
on the cost of treating the water

Suspended solids are important as pollutants and pathogens are carried on the
surface of particles. The smaller the particle size, the greater the total surface
area per unit mass of particle in grams, and so the higher the pollutant load
that is likely to be carried.

Removal of suspended solids is generally achieved through the use

of sedimentation and/or water filters .

Figure 7 Suspended Solids

11
1.3. Impacts and hazards of wastewater

 Loss of blue carbon sink

 Ecological Imbalance
 Biodiversity
 Loss of fisheries livelihood
 Climate change
 Water pollution
 Due to Biological agents:
contamination of food and water, vector
mediated disease.
 Due to chemicals present in wastes:
solids, liquids or gases which are relatively
toxic or nontoxic can pose a serious danger to life.

12
 Chapter 2
Physical Methods of Water
Treatment

T he purposes of Physical water treatment is

to eliminate unwanted impurities from water.
Objectives
•
•
Microbe size and physical removal,
Plain sedimentation or settling,
There are several different methods of water • Granular media, rapid rate filters and filter
treatment; include, physical equipment. This media
CHAPTER focuses on the various methods
• Slow sand filters
of physical water treatment. Physical water
• Fiber, fabric and membrane filters
treatment typically consists of filtration
techniques that involve the use of screens, sand • Diatomaceous earth filters
filtration or cross flow filtration membranes.

13
Chapter Two: Physical Methods of Water
Treatment

2.1. Microbe size and physical removal

Microbes and other colloidal particles can be physically removed from water by
various processes. The sizes of the microbes are especially important for their
removal by sedimentation and filtration. Viruses are the smallest waterborne
microbes (20 to about 100 nanometers in size) and the most difficult to remove by
filtration and other size exclusion methods. Bacteria are somewhat larger than viruses
(about 0.5 to 3 micrometers) but too small to be readily removed by plain
sedimentation or settling. Protozoan parasites are the next largest in size (most are
about 3 to 30 micrometers) and only the largest ones are likely to gravity settle at
appreciable rates. Protozoan removal efficiency by filtration varies with parasite size
and the effective pore size of the filter medium. Helminths are multicellular animals,
but some are important waterborne pathogens because their eggs (ova) and
waterborne larval stages can be waterborne. Most helminths of concern in water are
large enough to gravity settle at appreciable rates; they are readily removable by
settling and various filtration processes.
Although viruses, bacteria and the smaller protozoans are too small to gravity settle,
these waterborne pathogens are often associated with larger particles or they are
aggregated (clumped). Aggregated or particle-associated microbes are easier to
remove by physical processes than the free or dispersed microbes. Consequently,
observed reductions of waterborne microbes by physical removal processes are
sometimes greater than expected or anticipated based strictly on their individual sizes.
In some situations, efforts are made to promote the association of pathogens with
larger particles, such as by coagulation-flocculation, to promote their physical
removal. Such methods will be described in later sections of this report.

Figure 8 Microbe size

14
2.2. Plain sedimentation or settling
The microbial quality of water sometimes can be improved by holding or storing it
undisturbed and without mixing long enough for larger particles to settle out or
sediment by gravity. The settled water can then be carefully removed and recovered
by decanting, ladling or other gentle methods that do not disturb the sedimented
particles. Sedimentation has been practiced since ancient times using small water
storage vessels or larger settling basins, reservoirs and storage tanks. The advantages
and disadvantages of plain sedimentation for household treatment of water are
summarized in Table 1.

Storing water for as little as a few hours will sediment the large, dense particles, such
as inorganic sands and silts, large microbes and any other microbes associated with
larger, denser particles. However, clay particles and smaller microbes not associated
with large or dense particles will not settle under these conditions. Longer settling
times, such as overnight or for 1-2 days, will remove larger microbes, including
helminth ova and some parasites, some nuisance microbes, such as certain algae, and
the larger clay particles. Most viruses and bacteria and fine clay particles are too
small to be settled out by simple gravity sedimentation. Therefore, microbial
reductions by plain sedimentation or gravity settling are often low and inconsistent.
Overall reductions of viruses and bacteria by sedimentation rarely exceed 90%, but
reductions of helminth ova and some protozoans can exceed 90%, especially with
longer storage times of 1-2 days.
Sedimentation of household water can be done in simple storage vessels, such as pots
and buckets. Care must be taken to avoid disturbing the sedimented particles when
recovering the supernatant water by decanting or other methods. Typically, at least
two containers are needed to settle water: one to act as the settling vessel and another
to be the recipient of the supernatant water after the settling period. Water also can be
settled in larger bulk storage systems, such as cisterns, basins and tanks. Regardless
of the sedimentation vessel, it is essential that solids are removed and the vessel

15
cleaned on a regular basis. When water is sedimented in small collection or storage
vessels, the sediment should be removed and the vessel cleaned after each use. At
minimum, cleaning should be by rinsing with freshly collected source water. More
rigorous physical or chemical cleaning is recommended to avoid the microbial
colonization of the vessel surfaces and the resulting accumulation of a biofilm. For
sedimentation in larger, stationary vessels and basins, such as cisterns and
sedimentation tanks (some of which are designed to collect and store water for
individual or small groups of households), protection of the water during storage,
sanitary collection of the supernatant water after settling, and systems and procedures
to clean the storage vessel also are critical
Sedimentation often is effective in reducing water turbidity, but it is not consistently
effective in reducing microbial contamination. However, turbidity reductions often
improve microbial reductions by physical and chemical disinfection processes, such
as solar treatment and chlorination, respectively. Hence, plain sedimentation or
gravity settling of highly turbid water for household use is recommended as a
pretreatment for systems that disinfect water with solar radiation, chlorine or other
chemical disinfectants. Furthermore, sedimentation of particles improves the aesthetic
qualities of the water and thereby increases its acceptance by consumers. Pretreatment
of turbid household water by sedimentation is recommended because is
easy to perform and requires a minimum of materials or skill. It can be done with as
little as two or more vessels by manually transferring (e.g., pouring and decanting) the
water. For turbid waters containing non-settable solids, sedimentation will be
ineffective and alternative methods of particle removal, such a filtration, are needed .

Figure 9 Plain sedimentation or settling

16
2.3. Filtration
Filtration is another ancient and widely used technology that removes particles and at
least some microbes from water. As shown in Table 2, a variety of filter media and
filtration processes are available for household or point-of-use treatment of water.
The practicality, ease of use, availability, accessibility and affordability of these
filtration media and methods vary widely and often depend on local factors. The
effectiveness of these filtration methods in reducing microbes also varies widely,
depending on the type of microbe and the type and quality of the filtration medium or
system .

* Moderate typically means 90-99% reductions of larger pathogens (helminth ova and
larger protozoans) and solids-associated pathogens, but low (<90%) reductions of
viruses and free bacteria, assuming no pre-treatment. With pre-treatment (typically
coagulation), pathogen reductions are typically >99% (high).
**High pathogen reduction means >99% .

17
2.4. Granular media, rapid rate filters and filter media
Filtration through porous granular media, typically sand or successive layers of
anthracite coal and sand, is the most widely used physical method for water treatment
at the community level, and it has been used extensively for on-site treatment of both
community and household water since ancient times (Oza and Chaudhuri, 1975;
Chaudhuri and Sattar, 1990; Logsdon, 1990; LeChevallier and Au, 2002). A number
of different granular media filters for household and other small-scale uses have been
described, including so-called bucket filters, drum or barrel filters, roughing filters in
the form of one or more basins, and above or below grade cistern filters. Granular
media used for water filtration include sand, anthracite, crushed sandstone or other
soft rock and charcoal. In recent years, efforts have been made to improve the
performance of granular filter media for removing microbial contaminants by coating
or co-mingling sand, coal and other common negatively charged granular media with
metal oxides and hydroxides of iron, aluminum, calcium or magnesium (Chaudhuri
and Sattar, 1990; Chaudhuri and Sattar, 1986; Prasad and Chaudhuri, 1989). Such
modified media are positively charged and therefore, more effective for removing and
retaining the negatively charged viruses and bacteria by electrostatic adsorption
(Chaudhuri and Sattar, 1986). Some improved granular media filter-adsorbers have
incorporated bacteriostatic agents, such as silver, in order to prevent the development
of undesirable biofilms that release excessive levels of bacteria into the product water
(Ahammed and Chaudhuri, 1999). The production of these more advanced filter
media containing charge-modified materials and bacteriostatic agents requires
specialized skills and facilities, which are beyond the capabilities of most household
users. Such media would have to be prepared and distributed to communities and
households from specialized facilities. However, naturally occurring, positively
charged granular media, such as naturally occurring iron oxide-coated sands or
deposits of iron, aluminum, calcium or magnesium minerals, may be no more difficult
or costly to obtain and prepare for household water filtration than otherwise similar
negatively charged granular media.
A number of different designs and scales (sizes) of rapid, granular media filters are
available for household and community water treatment. For household use bucket
filters, barrel filters and small roughing filters are the main choices. The advantages
and disadvantages of these filter designs are summarized in Table 3 .
2.4.1. Bucket filters

Bucket filter systems of granular media for

household use usually require two or
three buckets, one of which has a perforated
bottom to serve as the filter vessel.
The bucket with the perforated bottom is
filled with a layer of sand, layers of both
sand and gravel, or other media. Gravel and
sand media of specified sizes often can be
Figure 10 Bucket filter purchased locally. Alternatively, these

18
media can be prepared locally by passing sand and gravel through metal sieves of
decreasing mesh size and retaining the material in the appropriate size ranges
(between 0.1 and 1 mm for sand and about 1-10 mm for gravel). Sand or other local
granular media are placed in plastic or metal buckets approximately 2.5-gallon (10-
liter) to 10-gallon (40-liter) capacity and having bottoms with perforations (punched
with small holes and fitted with a mesh strainer, such as window screen or piece of
cloth) to allow water to drain out. Buckets are filled with several cm of gravel on the
bottom and then a deeper layer of sand (about 40 to 75 cm) on top of the gravel. The
granular medium bucket filter is suspended above a similar size empty bucket with a
solid bottom to collect the water that drains from the filter as water is poured through
it. The media of newly prepared bucket filters, as well as that of larger drum and
roughing filters, must be cleaned initially with water to remove fine material and other
impurities. So, the dirty water draining from new filters is discarded until the filtrate
water has a low turbidity. The media of bucket filters must be cleaned or replaced on
a regular basis to remove accumulated particles and to prevent the development of
excessive microbial growths that will degrade water quality. The frequency of filter
media replacement and cleaning depends on local conditions, but typically it is after a
use period of perhaps several weeks.
A number of commercial sources of bucket filters are available and some have been
used in both developing countries for small community and household water
treatment.
One of the better known and more widely distributed of these is the so-called
commercial, two-bucket, point-of- use, media filter system. It consists of two
5-gallon plastic buckets with lids, filters and accompanying assembly fittings and
contains both a particulate and a carbon filter. It is recommended that water be
chlorinated before filtration. Use of chlorination adds complexity to the operation of
the filter system and make its use more difficult, less practical and more costly,
especially for the developing world. The system sells for about $US 50.00 and is
designed to provide drinking water for up to 10 people per day. Replacement filter
units are about $US 20.00 plus shipping. These costs are beyond the means of the
world's poorest people in developing countries. However, the commercial, two
bucket, point-of-use, media filter system has been subsidized and distributed in
developing countries by NGOs and is used in small communities, primarily in disaster
relief settings.

2.4.2. Drum or barrel filters

A number of different designs for drum or barrel filters having either up-flow or
down-flow of water have been described for use as rapid granular medium filters.
These filters are usually 55-gallon (about 200-liter) capacity steel drums and contain
sand and gravel media similar to that used for bucket filters (Cairncross and
Feachem, 1986; IDRC, 1980; Schiller and Droste, 1982). The filters generally have a
cover to prevent the introduction of airborne and other contaminants.

19
 Figure 11 Drum or barrel filters

Down-flow filters have a perforated pipe at the bottom to collect the water passing
through the medium and discharge it from the side of the drum. The outlet pipe for
filtered water may discharge the water at the bottom of the drum or it may be
configured with an upward bend or loop to discharge the water at the same level as
the top of the media in the filter. Upward flow filters have a bottom inlet and a rigid
perforated or porous plate to support the filter media, which is usually coarse sand.
Water flows in an upward direction and discharged through a side opening near the
top of the drum.
As with other granular media filters, the media of drum filters must be cleaned
initially and on a regular basis. Cleaning down-flow filters tends to be technically
more difficult and inconvenient. Water either has to be forced through the filter media
in an up-flow direction in place, so-called backwashing, and the backwash water
discarded, or the media has to be physically removed and replaced with cleaned or
fresh media. Stopping the upward flow of product water and opening a bottom drain
plug to discharge down-flowing dirty water that passes through the filter medium
more easily cleans up-flow filters. An upward flow granular medium filter consisting
of two tanks in a vertical series, with the lower tank containing a layer of charcoal
sandwiched between two layers of fine sand and the upper tank the collector of the
filtrate has been designed by UNICEF to treat 40 L of water per day (Childers and
Claasen, 1987). The extent to which this filter reduces microbial contaminants in
water has not been reported. However, if it is anticipated these filters function as
typical rapid granular media filters, pathogen reductions are likely to be no more than
90% and even less (~50%) for the smallest pathogens, the enteric viruses.

20
2.4.3. Roughing filters

Figure 12 Roughing filters

Simple, low cost, low-maintenance, multi-stage roughing filters for household and
community use have been described and characterized (Galvis et al., 2000; Wegelin
and Schertenlieb, 1987; Wegelin et al., 1991). Typically, these filters are rectangular,
multi-compartment basins constructed of concrete or other materials. They require
modest skills for operation and maintenance, and therefore, are best suited for use by
communities or at least multiple households. However, it is possible for these
multicompartment tanks to be centrally fabricated and distributed at low cost for
placement and final installation at their locations of use. Many of these filters are
designed to use two different sizes of low cost, coarse granular media in two or three
compartments or stages, and such media are generally locally available. In a typical,
design water flows horizontally (or vertically in either an upflow or downflow mode)
into an initial chamber containing fine gravel or coarse sand and then into another
chamber or (two successive chambers) containing coarse or medium sand having
smaller particle sizes than the initial chambers and from which is then discharged as
product water. For highly turbid water containing settleable solids, a horizontal or
vertical sedimentation basin to remove this coarse material prior to filtration precedes
the filter. The filter has provision for backwashing the medium from a valved inlet (at
the bottom of the filter medium chamber in the horizontal and downflow filter
designs). Roughing filters usually consist of differently sized filter material

21
decreasing successively in size in the direction of flow. Most of the solids are
separated by the coarse filter medium near the filter inlet, with additional removal by
the subsequent medium and fine granular media in subsequent compartments.
Roughing filters are operated at relatively low hydraulic loads or flow rates. Regular
backwashing is required to main flow rates and achieve efficient particulate removals,
and therefore, some skill and knowledge is required to properly operate and maintain
a roughing filter. Removal of indicator bacteria by roughing filters has been reported
to be 90-99%. Although not reported, it is expected that compared to bacteria
removals, virus removals would be lower and parasite removals would be similar to or
higher.

2.4.4. Filter-cisterns

Filter-cisterns have been in use since ancient times in areas heavily supplied with
rainwater or other water sources but lacking land area for reservoir or basin storage
(Baker, 1948). In this filtration system cisterns or large diameter well casings,
partially below grade, are surrounded by sand filters, such that water flows through
the sand and into the casing or cistern either from the bottom or though side of the
casing near the bottom. Such filter-cisterns function as infiltration basins to remove
turbidity and other particulates.

22
Among the best known of these filter-
cistern systems
were those of the city of Venice, which
date back at least several hundred
years (to
the mid-15th century). The sand filter
rings were several meters deep and in
the shape of an inverted cone or
pyramid in the center of, which was a
cylindrical cistern or well
casing that, collected the filtered
water. The Venetian filter-cisterns
were recognized
for their ability to provide "clear and
pure" water free "bad qualities".
Today, filter cisterns are being used in
Sri Lanka to treat and store rainwater Figure 13 Filter-cisterns
from roof catchment
systems.
2.4.5. Biomass and fossil fuel granular media filters

Historically, depth filters composed of filter media derived from vegetable and animal
matter have been employed for water treatment. Coal-based and charcoal filter media
have been used since ancient times and carbon filter media are widely used today for
both point-of-use and community water filtration systems (Argawal and Kimondo,
1981; Baker, 1948; Chaudhuri and Sattar, 1990). Filters containing sponges were
widely used for on-site or point-of-use household and military water treatment in 18th
century France. Water vessels had holes in their sides into which sponges were
pressed, and water was filtered as it passed through the compressed sponges. Other
filter designs consisted of sponges compressed into a perforated plate through which
water was poured. Sponge filters imparted objectionable tastes and odors to the water
unless they were cleaned regularly, indicating that microbial growths and biofilms
probably were a major problem with these filters. Other media also employed in
these point-of-use filters included sand, cotton, wool, linen, charcoal and pulverized
glass, either individually or in various combinations as successive layers. These
media also were used in larger scale filters for community water supply. Other
examples of vegetable matter depth filters are those containing burnt rice hulls (as
ash) or those consisting of vessels or chambers containing fresh coconut fibers and
burnt rice husks in series (Argawal and Kimondo, 1981; Barnes and
Mampitiyarachichi, 1983).
2.4.6. Microbial reductions by rapid granular media filters and recommended
uses

Rapid granular media filters of the types described above are capable of reducing
turbidities and enteric bacteria by as much as 90% and reducing larger parasites such
as helminth ova by >99%. Because of their small size (typically <0.1 micrometer),

23
enteric viruses are not appreciably removed by rapid granular media, with typical
removals of only 50%-90%. These filters remove only viruses associated with other,
larger particles or aggregated in larger particles. When roughing filters have been
applied to highly turbid surface waters, removals have ranged from about 50 to 85%
for bacteria and yeast's, with microbial removal efficiency depending on the type of
filter medium (El-Taweel and Ali, 2000). The reduction of viruses and bacteria in
rapid granular medium filters can be greatly increased (to >99%) if the filter medium
is positively charged. This is accomplished by combining granular media such as coal
(lignite, anthracite, etc.) with positively charged salts, such as alum, iron, lime or
manganese. In positively charged filter media virus and bacteria reductions of 90-
>99% have been reported (Gupta and Chaudhuri, 1995; Chaudhuri and Sattar, 1990;
Chaudhuri and Sattar, 1986; Prasad and Malay, 1989). Coal treated with alum or a
combination of alum and silver was most effective for microbial reductions.
Vegetable matter filters, such as those composed of burnt rice hull ash, have been
reported to dramatically reduce turbidity, reduce bacteria by about 90% and require
media replacement only every 2-4 months in southeast Asia (Argawal et al., 1981).
Rice hull ash filters operated at a flow rate of 1 m3/m2/hr reduced by 90 to
99%, which was higher than the removal by a sand filter tested under similar
conditions (Barnes and Mampitiyarachichi, 1983). However, such vegetable matter
filters, as well as many of the other designs of low cost granular media filters, have
not been adequately evaluated for their ability to reduce a wide range of enteric
pathogens, including enteric viruses, or their susceptibility to microbial growths and
biofilms that can degrade the quality of the filtered water. Technological methods to
modify granular media, such as chemical modification to impart positive surface
charges, can improve microbial removals by filtration. However, such modifications
are to technically demanding to be applied at the household level and therefore, are
recommended primarily for piped community water supply systems.
Overall, simple granular media filters, including bucket, barrel or drum and roughing
filters, are appropriate technologies for water treatment in at the community and
perhaps the household level. They are effective in reducing turbidity but achieve only
low to moderate microbe reductions, unless modified to make the media positively
charged. Of these filter designs, the bucket filter is probably the most appropriate for
household use because of its small scale, simplicity and manual application to
quantities of water collected and used by individual households. Barrel or drum
filters and roughing filters are more appropriate for community use or for sharing
among several households within a community. However, none of these filtration
methods achieve consistently high reductions of pathogens, unless chemically
modified filter media are employed or the filtration process is combined with
chemical disinfection such as chlorination. Therefore, granular media filters are best
used at pre-treatment processes to reduce turbidity and provide product water that is
more amenable to pathogen reductions by disinfection processes, such as solar
radiation or chlorination. Due to their variable and potentially low microbe
reductions, typical granular medium filters (not containing chemically modified
media) are not recommended a standalone treatment for household water supplies.

24
2.5. Slow sand filters
Slow sand filtration of drinking water has been practiced since the early 19th century
and various scales of slow sand filters have been widely used to treat water at the
community and sometimes local or household level (Cairncross and Feachem, 1986;
Chaudhuri and Sattar, 1990; Droste and McJunken, 1982; Logsdon, 1990). Most are
designed as either barrel filters, basins or galleries containing a bed of about 1-1.25
meter of medium sand (0.2 to 0.5mm) supported by a gravel layer incorporating an
underdrain system. The filters operate with a constant head of overlying water and a
flow rate of about 0.1 m/hour. Slow sand filtration is a biological process whereby
particulate and microbial removal occurs due the slime layer ("schmutzdecke") that
develops within the top few centimeters of sand. Reductions of enteric pathogens and
microbial indicators are relatively efficient and generally in the range of 99% or more,
depending on the type of microbe. Therefore, microbial reductions by slow sand
filtration can be high, if the filters are properly constructed, operated and maintained.
However, slow sand filters often do not achieve high microbial removals in practice,
especially when used at the household level. This is because of inadequacies in

Figure 14 Slow sand filters

construction, operation and maintenance and the lack of institutional support for these
activities.
Because of the development of the schmutzdecke and its accumulation of particles
removed from treated water, the top layer (5-10 cm) of sand must be manually
removed and replaced on a regular but usually infrequent basis. The removed sand is
generally cleaned hydraulically for later reuse. Labor to clean larger scale community
sand filters has been estimated at 1 to 5 hours per 100 m2 of filter surface area.
Freshly serviced slow sand filters require time for reestablishment of the
schmutzdecke or "ripening" to achieve optimum performance, and therefore, multiple
filter units are recommended. The performance and operation cycles of slow sand
filters is influenced by raw water quality. Highly turbid waters are difficult to filter
directly and may require a pre-treatment procedure, such as sedimentation or roughing

25
filtration, to reduce turbidity. Slow sand filters are an appropriate, simple and low
cost technology for community water treatment in developing countries. However,
they are not recommended for individual household use because of their relatively
large size (surface area), and the needs for proper construction and operation,
including regular maintenance (especially sand scraping, replacement and cleaning)
by trained individuals. Such demands for achieving good performance are unrealistic
because they are beyond the capacities and capabilities of most households.

2.6. Fiber, fabric and membrane filters

Filters composed of compressed or cast fibers (e.g., cellulose paper), spun threads
(cotton) or woven fabrics (cotton, linen and other cloths) have been used to filter
water and other beverages (e.g., wine) since ancient times. The use of wick siphons
made of wool thread and perhaps other yarns to filter water was well known in the
days of Socrates and Plato (about 350 to 425 BCE) (Baker, 1948). Various
compositions, grades and configurations of natural fiber and synthetic polymer filter
media materials continue to be widely used today for point-of-use and small
community water supply systems. In their simplest applications these filters are
simply placed over the opening of a water vessel through which particulate-laden
water is poured. Another simple application is to place a cone shaped filter in a
funnel through which water is poured and collected in a receiver vessel. The particles
are removed and collected on the filter media as the water is poured into the vessel.
Other paper and fibrous media filters are in the form of porous cartridges or thimbles
through which water is poured to exit from the bottom, or alternatively, which are
partially submerged in are water so that filtered water passes to the inside and
accumulates within. More advanced applications employ filter holders in the form of
porous plates and other supports to retain the filter medium as water flows through it.
Paper and other fibrous filter media retain waterborne particles, including microbes,
by straining them out based on size exclusion, sedimenting them within the depth of
the filter matrix or by adsorbing them to the filter medium surface. Therefore,
removal is dependent on the size, shape and surface chemistry of the particle relative
to the effective pore size, depth and surface physical-chemical properties of the filter
medium. Most fabric (cloth) and paper filters have pore sizes greater than the
diameters of viruses and bacteria, so removal of these microbes is low, unless the
microbes are associated with larger particles. However, some membrane and fiber
filters have pore sizes small enough to efficiently remove parasites (one to several
micrometers pore size), bacteria (0.1-1 micrometer pore size) and viruses (0.01 to
0.001 micrometer pore size or ultrafilters). Typically, such filters require advanced
fabrication methods, special filter holders and the use of pressure to force the water
through the filter media. For these reasons, such filters and their associated hardware
are not readily available and their costs generally are too high for widespread use to
treat household water in many regions and countries. However, simple fiber, fabric,
paper and other filters and filter holders for them are available for widespread,

26
practical and affordable household treatment of collected and stored water throughout
much of the world.

Figure 15 membrane filters Figure 16 Fiber filters

2.7. Porous ceramic filters

Figure 17 Porous ceramic filters

Porous ceramic filters made of clay, carved porous stone and other media have been
used to filter water since ancient times and were cited by Aristotle (322-354 BCE).
Modern accounts of ceramic filters for household use date back to at least the 18th
century (Baker, 1948). Most modern ceramic filters are in the form of vessels or
hollow cylindrical "candles". Water generally passes from the exterior of the candle
to the inside, although some porous clay filters are designed to filter water from the
inside to the outside. Many commercially produced ceramic filters are impregnated
with silver to act as a bacteriostatic agent and prevent biofilm formation on the filter

27
surface and excessive microbial levels in the product water. However, all porous
ceramic media filters require regular cleaning to remove accumulated material and
restore normal flow rate. Porous ceramic filters can be made in various pore sizes and
most modern ceramic filters produced in the developed countries of the world are
rated to have micron or sub-micron pore sizes that efficiently remove bacteria as well
as parasites. Many ceramic filters are composed of media capable of adsorbing
viruses and in principle can achieve high virus removal efficiencies. However,
because adsorption sites for viruses often become occupied by competing adsorbents,
virus adsorption efficiency decreases with increased use and may become inefficient,
unless physical or chemical cleaning procedures can restore the virus adsorption sites.

2.8. Diatomaceous earth filters

Diatomaceous earth (DE) and other fine granular
media also can be used to remove
particulates and microbial contaminants from water
by so-called precoat and body
feed filtration. Such filters have achieved high
removal efficiencies of a wide range
of waterborne microbial contaminants without
chemical pre-treatment of the water
(Cleasby, 1990; Logsdon, 1990). A thin layer or cake
of the fine granular or powdery
Figure 18 Diatomaceous earth
filter medium is precoated or deposited by filtration
filters
onto a permeable material held by
a porous, rigid support to comprise a filter element.
The water to be filtered often is
supplemented with more filter medium as so-called body feed. As water passes
through the filter, particulates are removed along with the body feed filter medium.
This system maintains target flow rates while achieving high efficient particulate
removal. DE filters also are capable of moderate to high pathogen removals (Logsdon,
1990). Eventually, the accumulation of impurities requires the removal of
accumulated filter medium, cleaning of the filter medium support and reapplication of
filter medium precoat to start the process over again. Although such DE and other
precoat-body feed filter systems are used for small scale and point-of-use water
treatment, they require a reliable, affordable source of filtration medium, regular care
and maintenance, and they produce a spent, contaminated filter medium that may be
difficult to dispose of properly. In addition, the filter media are difficult to handle
when dry because as fine particles they pose a respiratory hazard. Because of these
drawbacks, DE filters are not likely to be widely use for household water treatment in
many parts of the world and in many settings, and therefore, they are not
recommended for this purpose.

28
Table 4 Types, Performance Characteristics, Advantages and
Disadvantages and Costs of Alternative Filters for Household Water
Treatment.
Filter Type Advantages Disadvantages Comments

Slow Sand Filters Useable on a small Requires some Simple, affordable and
scale at community technical know- appropriate
and how for fabrication technology at the
maybe household and use; initial community level;
level; education and less appropriate for
relatively simple; training needed; treating
can requires user individual household
use local, low cost maintenance to water, unless
construction clean and operate by a collection of
materials (materials, skill, households.
and filter media; labor and time).
relatively easy to
operate manually;
high
turbidity and
microbe
reductions

Fiber, fabric and Usable at household Wide range of filter Has been effective in
membrane filters level if filter media media, pore reducing guinea worm,
is sizes and formats; and
available, easy to microbe schistosomiasis; can be
use removal varies with coupled with other
and affordable filter media; treatment methods
best used to remove (coagulation and
large and disinfection) to
particle-associated improve overall
microbes; not microbe
practical, available reductions
or affordable
for efficient
removal of all
waterborne
pathogens

Porous ceramic Simple and effective Quality ceramic Greater efforts are
filters technology for use at filters may not be needed to promote the
the household level; available or development of
extensive microbe affordable in some effective ceramic
reductions by Quality of local filters for household
quality made filters may be water treatment in
filters; filters can be difficult to developing countries
locally made from document unless by adapting the local
local materials, if testing is available production of clay and
to verify microbe other ceramic ware

29
 education and reductions; need now used for
training provided criteria and systems other purposes to
to assure quality water treatment
and
performance of
filters

Diatomaceous earth Efficient (moderate Not practical for Pre-fabricated,

filters to household use; commercial DE
high) removals of need specialized filters and media are
waterborne materials, available in
pathogens construction and some countries but
operations high costs and
including regular low availability may
maintenance; dry limit
media a respiratory household use in other
hazard places

30
 Chapter 3
Chemical Methods of
Water Treatment

A number of chemical methods are used for

water treatment at point-of-use or entry
Objectives
• Chemical coagulation, flocculation and
precipitation,
and for community water systems. These • Adsorption processes,
methods can be grouped into several main
• Ion exchange processes,
categories with respect to their purpose and the
nature of the technology.

31
Chapter Three: Chemical Methods of Water
Treatment
A number of chemical methods are used for water treatment at point-of-use or entry
and for community water systems. These methods can be grouped into several main
categories with respect to their purpose and the nature of the technology. The main
categories to consider here are :
(1) chemical pre-treatments by coagulation flocculation or precipitation prior to
sedimentation or filtration
(2) adsorption process
(3) ion exchange processes
(4) chemical disinfection processes.
All of these processes can contribute to microbial reductions from water, but the
chemical disinfection processes are specifically intended to inactivate pathogens and
other microbes in water. Therefore, chemical disinfection processes appropriate for
household water treatment in the developing world will be the focus of attention in
this section of the report. Other chemical methods for water treatment will be
examined for their efficacy in microbial reductions and their applicability to
household water treatment.

3.1. Chemical coagulation, flocculation and

precipitation
Chemical precipitation or coagulation and flocculation with various salts of aluminum
(e.g., alum), iron, lime and other inorganic or organic chemicals are widely used
processes to treat water for the removal of colloidal particles (turbidity) and microbes.
Treatment of water by the addition of chemical coagulants and precipitants has been
practiced since ancient times, even though the principles and physico-chemical
mechanisms may not have been understood. Sanskrit writings refer to the use of
vegetable substances, such as the seed contents of Strychnos potatorum and Moringa
oleifera, which are still in use today for household water treatment (Gupta and
Chaudhuri, 1992). Judeo-Christian, Greek and Roman records document adding
"salt", lime, "aluminous earth", pulverized barley, polenta as precipitants to purify
water. Although alum and iron salts are the most widely used chemical coagulants for
community drinking water treatment, other coagulants have been and are being used
to coagulate household water at point of use, including alum potash, crushed almonds
or beans and the contents of Moringa and Strychnos seeds. Table 5 lists some the
coagulants that have been and are being used for water treatment at the community
and household level, their advantages and disadvantages and their costs.

32
*Estimated Annual Cost: low is <US$0.001 per liter, moderate is 0.001-0.01$ per liter and
high is >0.01 per liter (corresponds to about <US$10, $10-100 and >$100, respectively,
assuming household use of about 25 liter per day)

Chemical coagulation-flocculation enhances the removal of colloidal particles by

destabilizing them, chemically precipitating them and accumulating the precipitated
material into larger "floc" particles that can be removed by gravity settling or filtering.
Flocculation causes aggregation into even larger floc particles that enhances removal
by gravity settling or filtration. Coagulation with aluminum or iron salts results in the
formation of insoluble, positively charged aluminum or iron hydroxide (or polymeric
aluminum- or iron-hydroxo complexes) that efficiently attracts negatively charged
colloidal particles, including microbes. Coagulation-flocculation or precipitation
using lime, lime soda ash and caustic soda is used to "soften" water, usually ground
water, by removing (precipitating) calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese and other
polyvalent, metallic cations that contribute to hardness. However, reductions in
microbial contaminants as well as turbidity, and dissolved and colloidal organic
matter are also achieved in this process.

33
3.1.1. Microbial reductions by coagulation-flocculation

Optimum coagulation to
achieve maximum reductions of
turbidity and microbes
requires careful control of
coagulant dose, pH and
consideration of the quality of
the
water being treated, as well as
appropriate mixing conditions
for optimum
flocculation. Lack of attention
to these details can result in
poor coagulation flocculation
and inefficient removal of
particles and microbes. Under
optimum conditions,
coagulation-flocculation and
Figure 19 Microbial reductions by coagulation-flocculation
sedimentation with alum and
iron can achieve microbial
reductions of >90 to >99% for all classes of waterborne pathogens
(Sproul, 1974, Leong, 1982, Payment and Armon, 1989). However, poor microbial
reductions occur (<90%) when coagulation-flocculation or precipitation conditions
are sub-optimal (Ongerth, 1990). Even greater microbial reductions (>99.99%) can
be achieved with lime coagulation-flocculation or precipitation if high pH levels are
achieved in the process (pH >11) to cause microbial inactivation as well as physical
removal.
3.1.2. Alum and iron coagulation

Because coagulation-flocculation
treatment with alum, iron and other
coagulants requires knowledge, skills
to optimize treatment conditions, it is
generally considered to be beyond
the reach of most consumers. Most
authorities consider such treatment
to be best performed in specialized
central facilities by trained
personnel. This type of treatment is
less likely to be performed reliably at
Figure 20 Alum and iron coagulation
point-of-use for household water
treatment. Furthermore, the limited availability and relatively high costs of alum and
ferric salts in some places present additional obstacles to widespread implementation
of this technology at the household level.

34
Despite the caveats and limitations, alum coagulation and precipitation to remove
turbidity and other visible contaminants from water at the household level has been
traditionally practiced for centuries in many parts of the world (Jahn and Dirar, 1979;
Gupta and Chaudhuri, 1992). When potash alum was evaluated for household water
treatment in a suburban community in Myanmar by adding it to water in traditional
storage vessels (160L capacity) at 500 mg/L, fecal coliform contamination was
reduced by 90-98% and consumer acceptance of the treated water was high (Oo et al.,
1993). The ability of the intervention to reduce diarrheal disease was not reported.
In another study, alum potash was added to household water stored in pitchers of
families with an index case of cholera and intervention and control (no alum potash)
households were visited to 10 successive days to track cases of enteric illness (Khan
et al., 1984). Illness among family members was significantly lower (p < 0.05) in
intervention households (9.6%) than in control households (17.7%). The authors
concluded that household water treatment by adding a pinch of alum potash was
effective in reducing cholera transmission during outbreaks and was an appropriate
and low cost (1 cent per 20 liters) intervention.
3.1.3. Seed extract coagulation-flocculation

Coagulation-flocculation with extracts from natural and renewable vegetation has

been widely practiced since recorded time, and appears to be an effective and
accepted physical-chemical treatment for household water in some parts of the world.
In particular, extracts from the seeds of Moringa species, the trees of which are
widely present in Africa, the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent, have the
potential to be an effective, simple and low-cost coagulant-flocculent of turbid surface
water than can be implemented for household water treatment (Jahn and Dirar, 1979;
Jahn, 1981; Jahn, 1988; Olsen, 1987). The effectiveness of another traditional seed or
nut extract, from the nirmali plant or Strychnos potatorum (also called the clearing
nut) to coagulate-flocculate or precipitate microbes and turbidity in water also has
been determined (Tripathi et al., 1976; Able et al, 1984). Microbial reductions of
about 50% and 95% have been reported for plate count bacteria and turbidity,
respectively. Despite the potential usefulness of Moringa oleifera, Strychnos
potatorum and other seed extracts for treatment of turbid water, there has been little
effort to characterize the active agents in these seed extracts or evaluate the efficacy
as coagulants in reducing microbes from waters having different turbidities. The
chemical composition of the coagulant in Strychnos potatorum has been identified as
a polysaccharide consisting of a 1:7 mixture of galactomannan and galactan. These
findings suggest that such seed extracts may function as a particulate, colloidal and
soluble polymeric coagulant as well as a coagulant aid. The presence of other
constituents in these seed extracts are uncertain, and there is concern that they may
contain toxicants, because the portions of the plant also are used for medicinal
purposes. Also, little has been done define, optimize and standardize conditions for
their use. Furthermore, there appears to be little current effort to encourage or
disseminate such treatment for household water or determine its acceptability,
sustainability, costs and effectiveness in reducing waterborne infectious disease.

35
3.2. Adsorption processes
Adsorption processes and adsorbents such as charcoal, clay, glass and various types of
organic matter have been used for water treatment since ancient times. Some of these
adsorption processes tend to overlap with either filtration processes, because the
media are often used in the form of a filter through which water is passed, or
coagulation processes, because they may be combined with chemical coagulants.
Therefore, adsorption processes can be carried out concurrently with filtration or
coagulation. The candidate media potentially used for adsorption treatment of
household water are shown in Table 7.

3.2.1. Clay adsorption

Clay continues to be used as an adsorption medium for household water treatment in

some regions and countries, with applications as clay particles in suspension, as filters
(usually fired ceramic) or in conjunction with a chemical coagulant. Porous, fired
ceramic clay filters (and adsorbers), typically as candles or other vessels have been
described in a previous section of this report. The use of clay in conjunction with
chemical coagulants also has been described elsewhere (Lund and Nissen, 1986;
Olsen, 1987). When used alone, clays can decrease turbidity and microbes in water
by about 90-95%. However, some microbes may not efficiently or consistently
adsorb to certain, which reduces the overall efficiency of clay adsorption as a
household water treatment process. Furthermore, the use of clay particles as
suspensions in water is limited by the availability of the material and by the need to
control the process so that the particles will settle, either alone or in the presence of a

36
coagulant or coagulant aid. The use of such technology for clay adsorption requires
training and is best supported by specialized equipment to carry out and monitor
treatment effectiveness. Therefore, clay adsorption is not well suited for household
water treatment.
3.2.2. Charcoal and activated carbon adsorption

Charcoal and activated carbon have been

used extensively as adsorbents for water
treatment in the developed and developing
world. The main application is the
reduction of toxic organic compounds as
well as objectionable taste and odor
compounds in the water. In developed
countries granular or powdered activated
carbon are used in community water
treatment and granular or pressed carbon
block is typically used for point-of-use or Figure 21 Charcoal and activated carbon
household water treatment (AWWA, 1999; adsorption
LeChevallier and McFeters, 1990.
Although fresh or virgin charcoal or activated
carbon will adsorb microbes, including pathogens, from water, dissolved organic
matter in the water rapidly takes up adsorption sites and the carbon rapidly develops a
biofilm. Therefore, carbon is not likely to appreciably reduce pathogenic enteric
microbes in water over an extended period of time. If anything, carbon particles are
prone to shedding heterotrophic plate count bacteria and other colonizing microbes
into the product water, thereby reducing the microbial quality. In many point-of-use
devices the carbon is impregnated or commingled with silver that serves as a
bacteriostatic agent to reduce microbial colonization and control microbial
proliferation in the product water. Fecal indicator bacteria, such as total and fecal
coliforms, and opportunistic bacterial pathogens, such as Aeromonas species are
capable of colonizing carbon particles and appearing in product water. For these
reasons, activated carbon is not recommended as a treatment method to reduce
pathogenic microbes in drinking water. Additional treatment, such as chemical
disinfection, often is needed to reduce microbe levels in carbon-treated water. Mixed
media containing carbon along with chemical agents effective in microbial retention
have been developed and evaluated. For example, carbon filters containing aluminum
or iron precipitates have been described, and these filters have achieved appreciable
microbial reduction in laboratory scale tests (Farrah et al., 2000). Therefore, it is
possible that granular activated carbon filter media prepared with chemical agents
more effective in retaining microbes may eventually become more widely available
for point-of-use treatment of household water. However, the conventional charcoal
and activated carbon media currently available for water treatment are not
recommended for use at the household level to reduce microbial contaminants. Only
charcoal or activated carbon media that been combined with other materials to
improve microbial reductions should be considered for household treatment of

37
collected and stores water and then only if there are performance data or certifications
to verify effective microbial reductions.
3.2.3. Vegetative matter adsorbents

Historically, other vegetative matter has been used as an adsorbent for water
treatment, as has been previously noted (Baker, 1948). Of these other plant media,
burnt rice hulls seems to have been the most widely used in recent times (Argawal
and Kimondo, 1981; Barnes and Mampitiyarachichi, 1983). The application of this
material has been in the form of a granular medium filter, either alone or in
conjunction with another filter medium, such as sand or activated (burnt) coconut
shell. Use of this water treatment medium is still limited, primarily to those parts of
the world where rice agriculture is widely practiced and where other filter media are
not readily available at low cost. However, these adsorbent materials and their
technologies require further development, evaluation and dissemination before they
can be recommended for household water treatment in other parts of the world.

3.3. Ion exchange processes

Ion exchange processes in water treatment have been used primarily for softening
(hardness removal) in both community and point-of-use treatment and for disinfection
in point-of-use treatment. Some ion exchange resins are used to deionize, disinfect or
scavenge macromolecules from water. The main classes of ion exchangers used in
water treatment and their advantages, disadvantages and costs are summarized in
Table 8.

38
39
3.3.1. Softening, deionizing and scavenging resins

Ion exchange typically employs synthetic

polymeric resins that must be centrally
manufactured in specialized production
facilities. The costs of these synthetic resins
are relatively high and their availability in
developing countries is limited. Ion
exchange using natural zeolites has been
applied to softening, chemical adsorption and
other purposes in water treatment. However,
natural zeolites have only limited
availability worldwide, they require mining
and processing systems that may be
beyond the capacity of developing countries,
and they have not been widely evaluated
or used for microbial reductions in drinking
water. The effects on long-term Figure 22 deionizing
consumption of deionised water on health are
not fully understood.
Water softening resins are intended to remove hardness and they do not remove or
inactivate waterborne microbes on a sustained basis. Furthermore, softening resins
often become colonized with bacteria, resulting in excessive bacterial levels in
product water, and they also increase the levels of sodium in the product water. In
developed countries, point-of-use water treatment systems employing softening or
scavenging resins often include addition treatment methods to reduce microbial loads
in product water. Softening resins are relatively expensive, require regular
monitoring and frequent replacement or recharging (regeneration of exchange
capacity of spent resin); therefore, they are not practical for widespread household use
to treated collected stored water. Because of their inability to reduce microbes, their
complexities and other limitations, as described in Table 14, softening and scavenging
resins are not recommended for household water treatment.
3.3.2. Ion exchange disinfection

Ion exchange disinfection is primarily

with iodine in the form of tri-iodide or
pentaiodide exchange resins. Portable
and point-of-use iodine exchange resins
have been developed and extensively
evaluated for inactivation of waterborne
pathogens, primarily in developed
countries. Most of these are in the form
of pour through cups, pitchers, columns
Figure 23 Ion exchange disinfection
or other configurations through which
water is passed so that microbes come in
contact with the iodine on the resin. Point-of-use iodine resins have
been found to extensively inactivate viruses, bacteria and protozoan parasites

40
(Marchin et al., 1983; 1985; Naranjo et al., 1997; Upton et al., 1988). While such
iodine exchange disinfection resins are both effective and convenient, they are too
expensive to be used by the world's poorest people and the production and
availability of these resins is limited primarily to some developed countries.
As described in the next section of this report, other chemical disinfection methods
besides ion exchange halogen resins are available and preferred for household
treatment to inactivate microbes in collected and stored drinking water.

41
 Chapter 4
Biological Methods of
Water Treatment

B iological wastewater treatment is a

process that seems simple on the surface since
it uses natural processes to help with the
Objectives
•
•
Activated sludge process,
Rotating bioreactor contactor (RBC),
decomposition of organic substances, but in fact, • Fixed (packed) bed reactors,
it’s a complex, not completely understood • Fluidized bed reactors,
process at the intersection of biology and
biochemistry. • Membrane bioreactors and
• Trickling filter .

42
Chapter Four: biological Methods of Water
Treatment

4.1. Introduction
Population growth in urban areas has led to an expansion in industrial
development. As a result, larger volumes of wastewater, with increasingly
complex compositions, are produced. The wastewater generated from
industrial processes is often discharged into water sources that supply
drinking water to other urban areas, causing increased levels of pollution.
One method of treating water and wastewater is to use biological processes.
The use of microbial degradation and removal of undesirable constituents in
industrial and municipal waste is not a new concept (Noyes, 1994). This
chapter discusses the principal biological options for water and wastewater.

4.2. Types of Biological treatment

There are two main types of biological process used for water and
wastewater treatment. In the first of these, known as suspended growth
processes, the microorganisms responsible for the treatment process are
maintained in liquid suspension by appropriate mixing methods. On the
other hand, in attached growth (biofilm) processes, the microorganisms
responsible for the conversion of organic material or nutrients are attached
to an inert packing material such as rock, gravel or slag, or to a wide range
of different plastics and other synthetic materials (Metcalf & Eddy Inc.,
2004). It is also possible to use both processes as part of the same treatment
procedure. Typical process applications for both methods are shown in
Table 9.

43
4.2.1. Activated sludge process

The activated sludge process is a suspended growth biological treatment process in

which a mixture of wastewater and biological sludge, composed of microorganisms,
is agitated and aerated. Air is provided through the use of diffused or mechanical
aeration. The microorganisms are mixed thoroughly with the organic compounds and
use this organic material as their food source. As the microorganisms grow and are
mixed by agitation of the air, the individual organisms clump together (a process
known as flocculation) to form a biological floc, an active mass of microbes called
activated sludge. A conventional activated sludge process includes aeration and
clarification tanks. Wastewater flows continuously into the aeration tank, at which
point air is injected in order to mix the activated sludge with wastewater and to supply
the oxygen needed for the organisms to break down the organic compounds to carbon
dioxide, water, ammonium and new cell biomass. The mixture of activated sludge and
wastewater in the aeration tank, called mixed liquor, contains a variety of
heterotrophic microorganisms such as bacteria, protozoa, fungi and larger
microorganisms. The mixed liquor flows from the aeration tank to the final clarifier
where the activated sludge is settled out. The activated sludge is separated from the
wastewater and most of the settled sludge (known as return sludge) is returned to the
aeration tank to maintain a high population of microbes. Because more activated
sludge than required is produced in the process, some of the return sludge is diverted
or wasted to sludge systems. If too much sludge is wasted, the concentration of
microorganisms in the mixed liquor will become too low for effective treatment. If
too little sludge is wasted, a large concentration of microorganisms will accumulate,
causing the secondary tank to overflow into the receiving system.
The return sludge is an important feature of the activated sludge process
as it ensures that the mean cell residence time or sludge age (defined as the
average amount of time that microorganisms are kept in the systems) is
much greater than the hydraulic retention time (the rate of wastewater being
treated). This practice helps to maintain a large number of microorganisms
able to effectively oxidize organic compounds in a relatively short time,
which can then be recycled. The retention time in the aeration tank varies
from 4 to 8 hours.

Figure 24 Activated sludge process

44
4.2.2. Rotating bioreactor contactor (RBC)

The rotating bioreactor contactor (RBC) process relies on a support medium available
in several different configurations, including disks, a lattice construction or a
container of plastic balls. The medium is mounted on a horizontal axis and rotated at a
speed of approximately 1 to 7 revolutions per minute. Around half of its surface area
is immersed in wastewater, as shown in Fig. 25. The microorganisms in the
wastewater begin to adhere to the rotating surfaces where they then grow until the
entire surface area is covered with a layer of biological film. As the media rotates,
the biological film passes through the wastewater and absorbs organic materials to be
broken down. In addition, a film of wastewater is carried into the air, absorbing
oxygen as it trickles down. When the media completes its rotation, the film of water
mixes with the reservoir of wastewater, thereby adding oxygen into the reservoir and
keeping the system as aerobic as possible. The excess growth of biological film is
sheared from the media as they move through the reservoir and is kept in suspension.
As the treated wastewater flows from the reservoir into the clarifier, the latter removes
any excessive growth. RBC systems can be run in either batch or continuous-flow
mode, and either aerobically or anaerobically. Their efficiency is controlled by the
hydraulic retention time and the rotation speed of the disks. Like all fixed film
systems, they require a fairly long start-up time while the biofilm grows and are also
sensitive to temperature, shock loading and extreme dryness.

Figure 25 (RBC)

Figure 26 (RBC)

45
There is no recycling of sludge or recirculation of treated effluent in an RBC
process. Several RBCs are often operated in series, with the effluent from the
last RBC being discharged directly into the environment.

4.2.3. Fixed (packed) bed reactors

A packed bed reactor consists of a bed of media in

which a biological mass is developed, overlaying a
support media and inlet chamber to which wastewater
influent is introduced through an up flow, as shown in
Fig. 27. Media that have been used include anthracite
coal, silica sand, stones, gravel and plastics. The
oxygen required for microorganism growth is supplied
by air. Air can either be injected into the inlet chamber
or distributed across the reactor floor.
Microorganisms, principally bacteria, actinomycetes
and fungi, are attached to the media. To ensure correct
operation of the system, it is important to maintain the
moisture content and temperature at steady levels.

4.2.4. Fluidized bed reactors

In fluidized bed reactors, a solid bed of media in

which a biological mass is developed is suspended by
water flowing upward through the tank. The solid
material is either inert (e.g. sand, coal or plastic) or
active (e.g. granular activated carbon (GAC)). Both
aerobic and anaerobic types of fluidized beds are in
use. In aerobic systems, air is diffused from the bottom Figure 27 Packed bed reactor
of the reactor through the bed. Fluidized beds offer
several advantages over packed beds. Because gas bubbles can pass through the bed
easily, smaller particles of bed media can be used; the use of smaller particles in turn
results in a larger biofilm surface area, which
can handle a greater organic loading.
Moreover, the beds expand as the biofilm
grows, rather than becoming clogged. Growth
can easily be controlled by removing particles
from the top of the bed, washing them and
returning the cleaned particles to the bottom
of the reactor.

Figure 28 Fluidized bed reactors

46
4.2.5. Membrane bioreactors

The MBR process involves a suspended growth activated sludge system with
biomass separation by membrane filtration. The first step involves the
biological treatment of the wastewater using microorganisms; this includes
the elimination of organics, nitrification and denitrification. Separation of
the biomass (activated sludge) from the treated wastewater is achieved with
the help of microporous membranes, while the conventional activated
sludge process instead relies on gravity. The MBR process produces effluent
of significantly higher quality, as filtration removes all suspended, colloidal
solids and bacteria including attached viruses or adsorbed compounds.

Figure 29 (MBRs)

Furthermore, the MBR process can be operated at a much higher concentration of

mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS) in the mixed liquor, meaning that higher
volumetric loads are feasible. There is also no requirement for a secondary
sedimentation tank. In the MBR process, the membrane separates the MLSS into a
particle-free permeate phase (consisting of filtrate and effluent) and a ‘concentrate’
phase (consisting of biomass, return sludge and MLSS) that remains in the bioreactor.
MBR systems can be divided into two major categories according to the location of
the membrane component: external membrane systems and internal membrane
systems. In the former, mixed liquor from the aeration tank is pumped into and
through the external membrane unit. The membrane is backwashed periodically to
remove the material that has accumulated on the membrane surface. In the internal
membrane system, on the other hand, the membranes are directly submerged in the
bioreactor. To facilitate cleaning, the membranes are located in compartments
(support structures). Frequent membrane back pulsing is used to minimize the buildup
of solids on the membrane surface

47
4.2.6. Trickling filter

A trickling filter is an aerobic attached

growth biological treatment process.
The system, shown in Fig. 30, consists
of a settling tank, a filter medium, an
influent wastewater distribution
system, an underdrain system, a
clarifier and a recirculation line. The
filter medium is composed of a bed of
an inert material such as rocks or
synthetic material (plastic rings and
saddles) to which the microorganisms
attach themselves. The wastewater is
distributed over the top of the filter
medium by a rotating or a fixed
distributor system, forming a thin layer
as it flows downward through the filter
and over the microorganism layer on Figure 30 Trickling filter
the surface of the medium. As the
distribution arm rotates, the microorganism layer is alternately exposed to a flow of
wastewater and a flow of air. In the fixed distributor system, the wastewater flow is
cycled on and off at specified times to ensure that an adequate supply of oxygen is
available to the microorganisms. Air reaches the microorganisms through the void
spaces in the medium. Recirculation is practiced to provide the wetting rate required
to keep the microorganisms alive, and higher removal levels can be achieved by
increasing the media depth and the recycle ratio. The main advantage of the trickling
filter process over other wastewater treatment systems is that no power is consumed
in agitation or aeration. Electricity is consumed only in transferring liquid to and from
the unit and in distributing it over the packed bed, leading to low operating costs.

Figure 31 Trickling filter

48
 Chapter 5
Down Flow Hanging
Sponge (DHS) Reactor

A combination of up flow anaerobic sludge

blanket (UASB) and down flow hanging sponge
(DHS) reactor has emerged as an interesting
Objectives
•
•
The basic principle of the DHS system,
Process Development of DHS Reactor,
alternative wastewater treatment process. The • Advantages and drawbacks of DHS reactor, and
combined system not only exhibited good organic • Application of DHS Reactor.
removal performance in pilot scale experiment,
moreover, several studies in the last decades also
showed the good efficiency and robustness of DHS
reactor in full-scale operation for wastewater
treatment. This paper provides a review on the basic
concept, historical process development and
application of the DHS reactor for wastewater
treatment. Over twenty-year development of DHS
technology suggests that DHS reactor had become a
viable alternative not only solving the sanitation
problems in developing countries but also great
further potential development in the field of resources
recovery technologies from wastewater.

49
Chapter Five: using of Down Flow Hanging
Sponge (DHS) Reactor for Wastewater
Treatment

5.1. Introduction
According to the WHO, 40% of the global population still suffering due to improper
sanitation and lack of wastewater treatment facilities that disrupting the quality of
water sources .Therefore, there is an urgent need to provide basic, affordable
wastewater treatment, especially in developing countries. In this regard, up flow
anaerobic sludge blanket reactor (UASB) has been selected as a possible technical
solution in developing countries due to its simplicity on operational and maintenance,
inexpensive construction, and stable operation without requirements for pumping and
electricity. Unfortunately, UASB advantages often associated with the favorable
environmental conditions for anaerobic bacteria, in a warm region where high
temperatures (>25 °C) prevail throughout the year. Moreover, operations of stand-
alone UASB reactor are often could not able to produce a high-quality effluent and
often does not meet the required water quality standards. To cope with this problem,
post-treatment systems are being employed extensively for UASB reactor
Various of commonly used post-treatment configurations for UASB effluent such as
stabilization pond, activated sludge, aerobic bio filter, and constructed wetland have
been reviewed elsewhere. Besides percentage removal of some common parameters,
some more aspects are also should be considered, like the land requirement, operation
and maintenance cost, and energy requirement. Those technical and non-technical
parameters of the process vary to be applicable in developing countries.
An affordable and promising treatment system namely down-flow hanging sponge
(DHS) reactor as a post-treatment in combination with UASB reactor as a pre-
treatment has been recently implemented for wastewater treatment in developing
countries. The combined system exhibited a good performance not only in organic
removal but also nitrogen and fecal coliform, as a result, the effluent quality can
sufficiently meet the discharge standards of most of the developing countries. Most
importantly, this system does not require any external aeration and thus the cost
associated with energy and devices required for aeration in which often becomes an
obstacle in developing countries was neglected. Moreover, excess sludge production
from the system is negligible compared to conventional activated sludge (CAS) that
could significantly reducing the cost for sludge handling process. The present paper
emphasizes the basic concept of DHS, historical process development, and application
of the DHS reactor for wastewater treatment for more
than 20 years of development.

50
5.2. Down Flow Hanging Sponge (DHS) Reactor
The basic principle of the DHS system is somewhat similar to the trickling filter (TF)
process in which the wastewater is supplied at the top
of supporting media, and trickles down toward bottom
part of the reactor. However, the main difference in the
DHS system is that use polyurethane sponge (sponge)
as supporting media instead of rock or hard-plastic
material. During this down-flow process (Fig.32) the
wastewater passes through the sponges since these
sponge carriers are exposed to air and are not
submerged in wastewater, oxygen can easily be
diffused from the atmosphere through natural
ventilation, and thus obviates the need for external
aerating device.
The sponge has void space more than 90%, and thus
created a large surface area which provides an excellent
site for microorganism’s growth. In the conventional Figure 32 Basic concept of
TF microorganisms grow only on the surface of DHS reactor
supporting media to form a biofilm. In contrast, high
porosity of sponge material ensures that active biomass is retained inside and
outside of the sponge, which leads to a significant increase in biomass concentration
and creates a long sludge resident time (SRT) typically more than 90 days. The long
SRT also provide adequate time for self-degradation of any attached biomass,
reducing the production of excess sludge from the process. The sponge media also
exhibit good water retention in their pores that created a longer hydraulic retention
time (HRT) of treated wastewater. It has been
proven that DHS can work at extremely long HRT
(up to 2 hours), henceforth DHS can be built in
smaller area compared to the other conventional
wastewater treatment process, and the most
important is that the sponge is no biodegradable
material, simple, cheap, and widely available.
Dissolved oxygen (DO) profiles within the DHS
reactor have been investigated by using
microelectrodes and is shown that the outer portion
of the sponge is aerobic with sufficient amount of
oxygen (DO 4-6 mg/L). Subsequently, the DO
concentration decreases toward the center of the
sponge until below detection limit, which indicate
the existence of anoxic or anaerobic zone in the
inner part of the sponge. The oxygen concentration
profile implies that both aerobic and anaerobic
treatments can be performed in a single DHS
reactor, which favorable for denitrification process. Figure 33 Sponge

51
Another advantage is that DHS only require electrical energy for wastewater
distribution (pump) but not for aeration devices. The estimated energy requirement
DHS systems were found to be approximately 75 % lower than CAS.

Figure 34 (DHS) Reactor

5.3. Process Development of DHS Reactor

DHS originated in Japan since the late 1990’s by a research group from Nagaoka
Institute of Technology lead by Prof Hideki Harada. Initially, DHS was proposed as
an alternative post-treatment process for UASB reactor which does not require any
external aeration, simple operation with compact design, and cheap in construction
process. The DHS system has been intensively evaluated through several pilot-scale
experiment in order to develop a more effective performance and practical in the
construction process. Different aspect on sponge media design and arrangement were
evolved throughout the years and thus named as the first to the sixth-generation of
DHS reactor (G1 to G6) as being presented in Fig. 35.

52
 Figure 35 Historical development of different DHS generation

5.3.1. DHS-Generation one

Study of DHS was initiated through the development of a hanging cube process,
which consisted of a series of cube shape polyurethane sponge (1.5 cm each) that
connected diagonally using nylon string (2 m height). This process was combined
with UASB reactor as pre-treatment and so-called as first-generation DHS (G1).
The first experimental pilot DHS-G1 was undertaken to test performance for organics
removal and nitrification merely by natural aeration process. During the six-month
operation, the whole system exhibits an excellent performance in both organic and
nitrogen removal. The combined UASB-DHS system could produce a remarkable
water quality with only 2 mg/L BOD remained in the final effluent. However, DHS-
G1 seems difficult to be constructed in full scale since cube and strings are
mechanically unstable for high rate wastewater. In addition, uniformity of wastewater
distribution through the hanging sponge could only be achieved
in a laboratory scale.

5.3.2. DHS-Generation two

DHS-G2 was developed to overcome some drawbacks points from the previous
generation. The sponge shape was changed from a cube into triangular prisms (75 cm
in length and triangular sides of 3 cm) attached on both sides of a plastic sheet (2 m
height) to form curtain shape. The DHS-G2 was also assessed as post-treatment unit
of UASB reactor fed with real sewage at pilot scale experiment. After 550 days’
operation, the results showed that DHS-G2 successfully achieved 83% of T-BOD
removal, 94% of T-COD removal, 67% of TSS removal, and 40% of NH4-N removal
comparable to the DHS-G1 (Table. 10). Nevertheless, the uniformity of wastewater

53
distribution still become a problem in DHS-G2 configuration. Another weak point is
that DHS-G2 causing more biomass washout as it easily detached from the curtain
like sponge media.

5.3.3. DHS-Generation three

The next generation of DHS reactor was designed little different from the former
DHS generation. Trickling filter concept was adopted in the DHS-G3, instead of using
gravel or plastic as filter media, it was replaced with small pieces of polyurethane
sponge (2.7 cm in height) encased in a polypropylene plastic net (Ø 2.7 cm) as a
supporting material on the outside. The sponge media was filled into the reactor
randomly and this configuration will allow us to upscale the reactor size much easier.
The DHS-G3 still operated without any external aeration as the natural air could
diffuse through some ventilation in the reactor. the DHS-G3 not only delivered
similar organic removal performance to the former generation but also was capable of
removing fecal coliform from wastewater.
The drawback from DHS-G3 was found in the declining DO concentration followed
by a decrease of nitrification activity after several month operations. The random
arrangement of sponge media was considered the reason for the lack of air transfer
between sponge media inside the reactor.

5.3.4. DHS-Generation four

The fourth generation of DHS reactor (DHS-G4) was constructed to improve the
design arrangement from previous DHS-G3. A similar sponge and plastic cover of
DHS-G3 was used in DHS-G4 but with longer length (50 cm). Several sponges were
then arranged in a row and stacked one above in order to create a gap in hope to
provide better air transfer into wastewater, which also should minimize the sludge
accumulation that caused reactor clogging in prior trials. The DHS-G4 was
constructed with four modules of sponge arrangement, which contained almost 300
sponge’s unit each, resulting in a total volume of 375 L. The UASB-DHS G4 system
exhibited excellent organic removal performance of more than 90% of total BOD (T-
BOD), total COD (T-COD), and suspended solid (SS).
However, nitrification efficiency was found to be low (21.3% NH4-N removal).
Construction of DHS-G4 from long sponge strip also caused problems. Deformation
of sponge module was observed in the reactor; this was due to the bigger load caused
the accumulation of active biomass inside the sponge strips over the time.

5.3.5. DHS-Generation five

made improvements to the sponge arrangement of DHS-G2 for more feasible in

reactor scale up. Several DHS curtains were assembled to construct a DHS module of
the fifth generation of DHS (DHS-G5) reactor. The DHS-G5 module was then
stacked one above the other for the construction of a pilot-scale DHS reactor (85 cm x

54
49.5 cm x 49.5 cm). Under this configuration, UASB-DHS system is quite
comparable to that of conventional activated sludge process. Moreover, the
nitrification efficiency also improved by 59.9% NH4-N removal. The main problems
for DHS-G5 are the bend of curtain holder and tear off sponge curtain after several
months of operation. The low material strength against the load accumulation of DHS
curtain after several month operations was considered as the reason for the bending.

5.3.6. DHS-Generation six

The newest DHS design (DHS-G6) reactor has the basic design similar to the trickling
filter type of DHS-G3. However, instead of using a soft polyurethane sponge medium,
DHS-G6 use rigid sponge medium by introducing epoxy resin into the polyurethane
network structure. The rigid sponge was developed in order to simplify the reactor
construction since it will not require any support materials, such as rigid plastic case,
to prevent sponge deformation. Without the plastic case, more sponge surface area is
exposed to wastewater, enhancing the interactions between the wastewater, air, and
biomass in the sponge. The result from pilot scale UASB-DHS experiment showed
that DHS-G6 performance was comparable with soft-sponge type (G1-G5). However,
DHS-G6 have less biomass retained inside the rigid sponge than any soft sponge used
in previous studies. Lower, biomass retention in the rigid sponge media is because of
lower void volume (at 70%) compared to its softer counterpart (>97%) [14]. The
process development and the advantages along with the drawbacks of DHS reactor is
being displayed in Table 10 and Table 11 respectively.

55
5.4. Application of DHS Reactor
Over twenty years, DHS has been well performed for polishing UASB effluent in a
pilot scale experiment. Recent studies have shown that DHS reactor exhibited stable
performance at full-scale application. Moreover, DHS reactor also have been adopted
in several countries, including India, Egypt and Thailand. The resume performance
parameters of DHS for domestic wastewater treatment is presented on Table 12.

56
Several attempts have been made to study the ability of DHS reactor for treating
various types of industrial wastewaters. This includes relatively high strength
wastewater from molasses based waste from a bioethanol plant with high sulfate
content and landfill leachates with high ammonia content [27]. It also applied in the
textile wastewater with a noticeable amount of color. The DHS reactor performance
on selected industrial wastewater is being displayed on Table 4. Most of the
experiments were conducted at the bench scale, and it seems that DHS reactor only
delivered limited
performance in
organic removal.
However, the
suitability of DHS
reactor with
another physicho-
chemical
wastewater
treatment process
like Fenton
oxidation,
acidification
indicated the
potential ability in
any other type of
wastewater
treatment.

57
5.5. Conclusion
Laboratory and full-scale works has shown that the DHS is capable for treating a
variety of wastewaters. The system also exhibits excellent performance that is almost
equivalent to that other similar type of attached growth process. Whereas, no need of
external aeration in the DHS operation, ensuring the low energy usage and reducing
operational cost. Moreover, the flexibility of DHS to be combined with various
treatment objectives including resources recovery from wastewater and as cultivation
bioreactor indeed gives big advantages than any other similar type of attached growth
process.

58
 Chapter 6
Design considerations of
the (DHS) reactor

D esign considerations are issues that need to

be evaluated when designing an integration
Objectives
•
•
function,
overall shape, and
solution. For example, qualities of service
• Material and cost.
performance, availability, reliability, scalability,
response times, security, logging, and auditing
must be defined, analyzed, and factored into any
integration solution design .

59
Chapter six: design considerations of the
(DHS) reactor
 function
 shape
 material
 cost

The basic principle of the Down Flow Hanging Sponge (DHS) system is somewhat
similar to the trickling filter (TF) process in which the wastewater is supplied at the
top of supporting media, and trickles down toward bottom part of the reactor.

6.1. function
A combination of up flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) and down flow hanging
sponge (DHS) reactor has emerged as an interesting alternative wastewater treatment
process.

then, reuse the treated water in some applications such as agriculture (Irrigation),
industry, power stations (cooling).

6.2. overall shape

a tank which contains waste water is based on the stand and feed the reactor with
water directly to be treated

these two aspects lead to

1- the device deals with waste water (choose chemically proper material to prevent
any interaction between the water contents and the interior reactor wall)

2- the reactor is not fixed (movable) (so choose relatively light material)

3- the pump can be eliminated by housing the tank above the reactor directly and
provides more simplicity for the design

4-calculate the dimensions as the flow have to be stable and not high.

60
6.3. Material and cost
There are many materials of high quality and efficiency that range in quality and
durability

Therefore, it is necessary to identify the types used and available in markets to choose
the best and most consistent quality with the purpose for which they are installed.

for the three parts of the device

1- reactor body

2- tank (contains waste water)

3- stand (carry the tank and reactor)

6.3.1. the reactor

best materials that deal with the waste water and used in applications that related with waste
water such as pipes, tanks and underground tanks:

1. pottery
2. concrete and reinforced concrete
3. cast iron
4. steel
5. asbestos
6. fiber glass
7. polyethylene (PVC)

6.3.1.1. pottery

Advantages

1. lifetime is long compared to other types except cast iron pipes

2. Connections can be flexible or fixed

61
 3. It is highly resistant to
acids and gases of waste
water
4. Light weight and therefore
easy to install and maintain
5. can be stored for months
without failure
6. low price compared to
other materials.

Disadvantages
Figure 36 pottery
1. Easy to break during
transport and handling
2. Easy to break during installation
3. It cannot be restored in
case of a crack or fracture
and replacement of the
entire pipe is required
4. it does not tolerate high
water pressure. therefore,
it is not applicable for the
reactor as the flow is
vertical so reactor is to be
full of water.

6.3.1.2. concrete and reinforced

concrete
Figure 37 pottery
It made from Cement, sand, gravel, and
reinforcing steel for wide diameters and if it is of small diameter then the possibility
of adding iron to it is difficult.

Advantages

1. High break resistance

2. Withstand water pressure

62
 3. It can be used in Sewer networks and the drinking water networks system
because it has a great tolerance for high pressure.

Figure 38 concrete pipes

4. welding procedures for leakage sites can be carried out easily by using cement
welding
5. Heavy weight but less than pottery and metal
6. It is less expensive than metal pipes (cast iron and steel).

Disadvantages

1. It does not tolerate gases from wastewater

2. Heavier weight which leads to the difficulty of installation
3. Its drawbacks cannot be known by visual examination and need laboratory
tests
4. Its inner surface is lumber and corrodes heavily and therefore not
recommended
5. High cost compared to pottery and plastic.

Figure 39 concrete tanks

6.3.1.3. cast iron

63
By casting the melting cast iron into vertical molds according to the required
dimensions, then dipping the pipes in a hot bitumen compound to be coated inside and
outside.

Advantages

1. long lifetime
2. High resistance to
external and internal
stress
3. resists rust
4. Ease of installation
5. Acceptable price
considering the lifetime
Figure 40 cast-iron-pipe

Disadvantages

1. Do not withstand dynamic loads

2. good only in case of buried underground
3. very heavy weight so, the risk of slipping is possible, which makes it easily
broken
4. fracture easily compared to steel.

6.3.1.4. steel

Manufacturing is done in several ways

The most important way is to bring slices of straight and cut steel with the final
diameter required to be implemented as these strips are wrapped on each other in a
linear manner and with certain techniques that are welded and connected to the
required lengths where several tests are taken to ensure their safety and not leaking.

Advantages

1. high resistance to
internal pressures
2. high resistance to
dynamic loads

Disadvantages

1. poor resistance to
external pressures Figure 41 Steel pipe
2. can be rusted

64
 3. need a lot of welding and connecting works.

6.3.1.5. Asbestos
is made by addition of asbestos yarn to Portland cement at 150 kg asbestos yarn for
each ton of Portland cement.

Advantages

1. low cost compared to

cast iron and steel
2. weight is light
3. ease of cutting and
connecting
4. high resistance to acids
and gasses of waste
Figure 42 Asbestos pipes
water

Disadvantages

1. Asbestos is one of the carcinogens and can harm the manufacturers and
installers

6.3.1.6. Fiber glass

Polyester reinforced with glass fiber

Advantages

 low weight
 easy installation
 Durable with a long lifetime
 It is also characterized by high flexibility, so it is very good for the
connections that connect the parts together. (Flexible connections)

Disadvantages

 Easy to break during transportation and installation

65
  very expensive

Figure 43 Fiber glass pipes

6.3.1.7.Plastic PVC
Made from vinyl chloride, which is characterized by its flexibility and its ability to
repair and welding

Best of all,

 It does not rust because there is no metal element in it and it is also able to
resist chemical reactions and gases emitted by pressure and heat.
 light in weight
 internal and external shape is good,
and their shape is smooth, which makes the water flow inside them very easy.
 Do not accumulate plankton, dirt and dust inside
 long lifetime
 are not affected by chemical agents.
 widely available
 Easy to transport and install
 low cost (the best price compared to its features)

66
 Figure 44 plastic pipes

6.3.2. Tank

We have just known that the two best materials are iron and PVC

the final choice is PVC

Seven benefits of using plastic water tanks

 The weight for polyethylene plastic water tanks is much lower than for iron
tanks
As they are the best in terms of easy transportation from one place to another
or transported through various work sites

 The ease of preparing the place to fit the tank

As for iron tanks, you need a great time to prepare the appropriate place to put
the tank, as it
needs iron and concrete rings to keep the tank from rusting

 The iron water tank is limited in shape to a specific diameter

As for plastic water tanks, they have several different shapes, like vertical
tanks, circular water tanks, horizontal tanks, and a variety of shapes and sizes

 The general view of the tank and its suitability with the general shape of the
reactor
Plastic water tanks have a wide range of different shapes and colors

 Iron tanks can rust by the time

As for the water tank made of plastic does not resist by the time because it is
made of polyethylene material compatible with different climates

67
 Plastic tanks are better than iron
A group of studies have shown that iron tanks have a health hazard and that
plastic water tanks made of polyethylene are healthy and free from harmful
substances
 (if we used it in agriculture and irrigation)

 Light weight and easy to transport and install

The tanks are one piece, and there are no welds to protect them from any
leakage of internal water.

Figure 45 Plastic tanks

68
6.3.3. stand

it can make from two materials. iron or wood due to their durability

but, iron is better than wood due to

 strength and durability of iron is higher than wood

 connections of parts by welding are more durable than screws and bolts
through the wood

69
6.4. types of packing
For many types of equipment, applications, or conditions, using a mechanical seal is
really the only effective sealing option. This decision focuses on the safety or
environmental issues associated with leakage.
 Wearing Rings
 Stuffing Box
 Lantern Ring
 Mechanical Seals
 Silicone Adhesive

6.4.1. Wearing Rings

The function of the wear ring is to help keep the piston centered, which allows for
even wear and pressure distribution on the seals. Popular wear ring materials include
glass filled Nylon, bronze filled PTFE, glass filled PTFE, Phenolic and PEEK. Wear
rings are used in both piston and rod applications. Wear rings are available in butt cut,
angle cut and step cut styles.
 High load bearing capabilities
 Cost effective
 Easy installation and replacement
 Wear-resistant and long service life
 Low friction
 Wiping/cleaning effect
 Embedding of foreign particles possible
 Damping of mechanical vibrations

Figure 46 Wearing Rings

70
6.4.2. Stuffing Box

In almost all centrifugal pumps, the rotating shaft that drives the impeller penetrates
the pressure boundary of the pump casing. It is important that the pump is designed
properly to control the amount of liquid that leaks along the shaft at the point that the
shaft penetrates the pump casing. There are many different methods of sealing the
shaft penetration of the pump casing. Factors considered when choosing a method
include the pressure and temperature of the fluid being pumped, the size of the pump,
and the chemical and physical characteristics of the fluid being pumped.
One of the simplest types of shaft seal is the stuffing box. The is a cylindrical space in
the pump casing surrounding the shaft. Rings of packing material are placed in this
space. is material in the form of rings or strands that is placed in the stuffing box to
form a seal to control the rate of leakage along the shaft. The packing rings are held in
place by a gland. The gland is, in turn, held in place by studs with adjusting nuts. As
the adjusting nuts are tightened, they move the gland in and compress the packing.
This axial compression causes the packing to expand radially, forming a tight seal
between the rotating shaft and the inside wall of the stuffing box. The high speed
rotation of the shaft generates a significant amount of heat as it rubs against the
packing rings. If no lubrication and cooling are provided to the packing, the
temperature of the packing increases to the point where damage occurs to the packing,
the pump shaft, and possibly nearby pump bearings. Stuffing boxes are normally
designed to allow a small amount of controlled leakage along the shaft to provide
lubrication and cooling to the packing. The leakage rate can be adjusted by tightening
and loosening the packing gland.

Figure 47 Stuffing Box

71
6.4.3. Lantern Ring

It is not always possible to use a standard stuffing box to seal the shaft of a centrifugal
pump. The pump suction may be under a vacuum so that outward leakage is
impossible or the fluid may be too hot to provide adequate cooling of the packing.
These conditions require a modification to the standard stuffing box.
One method of adequately cooling the packing under these conditions is to include a
lantern ring. A is a perforated hollow ring located near the center of the
packing box that receives relatively cool, clean liquid from either the discharge of the
pump or from an external source and distributes the liquid uniformly around the shaft
to provide lubrication and cooling. The fluid entering the lantern ring can cool the
shaft and packing, lubricate the
packing, or seal the joint between the
shaft and packing against leakage of
air into the pump in the event the
pump suction pressure is less than
that of the atmosphere.

Figure 48 Lantern Ring

6.4.4. Mechanical Seals

In some situations, packing material is not adequate for sealing the shaft. One
common alternative method for sealing the shaft is with mechanical seals. Mechanical
seals consist of two basic parts, a
rotating element attached to the pump
shaft and a stationary element
attached to the pump casing. Each of
these elements has a highly polished
sealing surface. The polished faces of
the rotating and stationary elements
come into contact with each other to
form a seal that prevents leakage
along the shaft. Figure 49 Mechanical Seals

Figure 50 Mechanical Seals

72
6.4.5. Silicone Adhesive

Silicone provides the flexibility and performance required by a wide range of vertical
markets, including electronics manufacturing, construction, machinery and medical
devices; however, it must be properly packaged to avoid contamination and air
entrapment. From assembly line to field applications, containers available from AMG
are customized to meet every application requirement while maintaining silicone
integrity.
Used in a variety of applications, silicone is a safe and reliable sealant exhibiting
superior chemical and temperature resistance.
silicone packaging options are designed to provide end users with a precise amount of
adhesive, which reduces per-application cost and prevents material waste. Silicone
packaging solutions include one-part and two-part cartridges, squeeze tubes, foil
barrier & injection kits, syringes and Quick-Pak burst seal bags.

In addition, a custom packaged solution includes a variety of advantages and feature

options, such as:
 Ease of use for potting, point-of-use bonding,
encapsulation and other applications
 Delivery systems for single or multiple
application
 Nitrogen filling for moisture-sensitive
formulations
 Syringes and cartridges for manual, pneumatic
and battery-driven applicators
 Vacuum packing for the ultimate in product
protection
 Expedited delivery for time-sensitive jobs Figure 51 Silicone
Adhesive Packaging

Figure 52 Silicone Adhesive

73
 Chapter 7
Design modifications and
Final design

W e have chosen the third generation of

design, and a complete change has been made
Objectives
• Modifications of the reactor and its
dimensions,
in the design of the reactor, the shape of the • The difference between the new and
sponge, its dimensions, the tank and the
the old design, and
stand .
• The expected final results of the process.

74
Chapter seven: Design modifications and
Final design
We have chosen the third generation of design, and a complete change has been made
in the design of the reactor, the shape of the sponge, its dimensions, the tank and the
stand, and this change is done in the following:

7.1. The tank

Capacity: 50 liter
High: 52 cm
Tank base :22.5 cm

Epoxy coating: is resistant to

mechanical influences, weather
conditions, water and chemicals. It is
used to paint water tanks, including Figure 53 tank
drinking water tanks from the inside.
Basis: epoxy resin
Color: White
Dilution: Thinner / A modern dye
Covering strength: 7 m2 / liter for metal
surfaces, 4 m2 / liter for concrete surfaces

Coating layer thickness: 35 microns

Figure 54 Epoxy coating of tank

75
Faucet: made from P.V.C
Resistant: weather conditions, water
and chemicals
Used: as a control valve

Figure 55 Faucet

Lock nut: Used to support the faucet

in tank.

Figure 56 Lock nut

7.2. The stand

ring (1): Diameter: 18.4 cm
Used: to fixation in the first stage of the
reactor
ring (2): Diameter: 22.5 cm
Used: to fixation and carry the tank.

*the two rings are connected with each

other and have a distance between them Figure 57 the stand of tank
12.5 cm.
*There is a nail in the first ring that is used to change the moon ring and make it
suitable for the active diameter and
tightness of attachment to it.

Figure 59 the stand of tank

Figure 58 the purpose of the stand

76
Hole number (1): ø =10 mm
Hole number (2): ø =8 mm
Diameter (D)=18.4 cm

Figure 60
*A Stabilizer bar of length 200cm
has been cut into equal parts of
14.5 cm length. Its function is to
make a distance between each
stage in the reactor while giving a
wide range in adjusting this
distance, which allows easy
adjustment and obtaining the
required output.

Figure 61 Stabilizer bar

*Two rings are connected with

each other by a Stabilizer bar
where each bolt contains 4
nuts and the inner nut is
responsible for the distances
between each stage in the
reactor and the external nut
and its function is to tighten
and fix the reactor.

Figure 62 Two rings

77
 The base of the reactor was designed in order to obtain the maximum stability and
balance of the reactor, as the legs were made of a circular tube, because the circular
shape is one of the strongest geometric shapes (bearing stress and loads).

Figure 63 lower stand

7.3. Modifications of the reactor and its dimensions

Figure 65 sizes of the reactor Figure 64 sizes of the reactor

78
*Pipe of 16.6cm diameter and 4mm thickness will be cut into equal parts with a
length of 2cm.
Through the law of the parabola of a

circle, the part that is cut (disposed

of) is calculated in order to obtain

different diameters that are installed

inside each other and to obtain a

single coherent circle

thickness is 16mm

D1=16.7cm

D2=16.1cm Figure 66

D3=15.4cm

D4=14.6cm

Figure 67

Figure 68

79
This figure shows the
integration of the filter
and the 16mm thick
integrated circuit.

Figure 69 Colander

*They are installed describing each stage

of the reactor, and only four are made of
them, according to the number of ends of
the stages.

*The upper filter does not need a circle

with a thickness of 16 mm and this is
because it does not have any load, but its
function is to distribute the liquid and
purify it from any impurities.

Figure 70 filter

Figure 71 upper filter

80
7.4. The difference between the new and the old
design

The old design:

The DHS influent was pumped to the top of the reactor, and the water was uniformly
sprayed onto the sponge carriers at the top of the reactor from a moving sprinkler,
which rotated by the water head differential. The rotational speed of the sprinkler
head was set to 8.5 rpm by adjustment of a valve in the sprayer nozzle. After
sprinkling, the UASB effluent flowed downward through the sponge carriers under
the force of gravity, passed into the clarifier, and flowed out as DHS effluent after it
passed through the basin.

Figure 72 DHS with pump

81
The new design:
Advantages
1-Ease of making adjustments to
the inter stage distance of the
reactor.
2-Dispensing with the pump in
previous designs and relying on the
force of gravity in the fluid flow.
3-Ease of cleaning operations, due
to the ease of disassembling parts.
4-Ease of portability and portability.

82
7.5. The expected final results of the process
After modifications were made to the entire design, the tank and the holder, an
adjustment was made to the dimensions of the sponge, as the old dimensions were
(Ø2.7x2.7) (cm) and the volume(L) (51.6) As for the new modification, the
dimensions of the sponge (Ø3x7) (cm) and its volume(L) (197.9) and its type is also a
soft sponge such as The Old Supporting material is either PVC plastic.

Type of design old new

Sponge trickling trickling

shape/arrangement filter filter

Sponge size (cm) (Ø2.7x2.7) (Ø3x7)

Sponge volume (L) (51.6) (197.9)

Sponge type Soft sponge Soft sponge

Supporting material PVC plastic curtain PVC plastic

temperature (°C) 25 25

Removal Old New

performance (%)

T-COD 83 91

T-BOD 89 94

SS 82 95

T-N 22 70

F. Coli - -

In the previous table that compares the old results with the expected results, there is a
noticeable change in the water treatment process, where the increase in percentages
was observed because the new design depends on ventilation more so the expected
results increased.

83
7.6. Conclusion
In this research the DHS process is introduced based on the mechanism of treatment,
the history of development, recent studies on the application in wastewater treatment,
and the structural features of microbial community. The DHS process has been widely
used in different treatment applications and shows greater effectiveness and
advantages than the conventional aerobic system does. Moreover, its application has
expanded into fields other than wastewater treatment. However, because the complex
nature of flow patterns of wastewater, airflow, biomass growth, and detachment must
be considered, modeling will help with further development of DHS and describe
DHS performance. Design and operation of the DHS is not yet being fully defined,
especially regarding nutrient removal; thus, further studies are required for extensive
applications in the future .

84
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