Albert Mauritz Atterberg is a Swedish chemist and agricultural scientist born on March 19, 1846

and died on April 04, 1916. He created the Atterberg limits and considered the consistency of soils in 1911,
and he proposed a series of tests for defining the properties of cohesive soils. He stated that the strength
decreases as the water content increases. At a very low moisture content, soil behaves more like a solid.
However, when the moisture content is very high, the soil and water may flow like a liquid. Hence, on an
arbitrary basis depending on the moisture content, the behavior of soil can be divided into four (4) basic
states, these states are the solid, semisolid, plastic, lastly is the liquid.
In order to understand clearly the Atterberg limits you must understand first what is soil
consistency. The indication of the degree of firmness of cohesive soils are called soil consistency. The
consistency of natural cohesive soil deposits is expressed qualitatively by such terms as very soft, soft,
stiff, very stiff, and hard. The physical properties of clays greatly differ at the different water contents.
However, it has been found that at the same water content, two samples of clay of different origins may
possess different consistency. One clay may relatively soft while the other clay may be hard. Furthermore,
a decrease in water content may have a little effect on one of the samples of clay but it may transform
the other sample from almost a liquid to a very firm condition. Therefore, the water content alone is not
an adequate index of consistency for engineering and many other purposes. In soil consistency its strength
decreases as water content increases, the soils swell-up when water content increases, the fine-grained
soils at very high water content possess properties similar to liquids, the volume of the soil decreases and
the soils becomes plastic when the water content is reduced, and if the water is further reduced then the
soil becomes semi-solid when the volume does not change.
Atterberg limit is defined as the basic measure of the critical water content of fine-grained soils.
Atterberg limits are used extensively by soil scientist. It has three values or test namely, the upper plastic
limit or also called as liquid limit, the plastic limit, and the shrinkage limit.
The liquid limit of soil is the amount of water which is responsible for this state of consistency of
soil. When water is added to dry soil, it changes its state of consistency from hard to soft. If we add water
to a fine-grained soil, then water will change its consistency from hard to semi hard. If we continue to add
more water then again, the soil will change its state of consistency from semi hard to plastic and finally
reach a liquid consistency stage. When the soil reaches liquid consistency state, it has remained no
cohesive strength to retain its shape under its own weight. It will start to deform its shape. In other words
we can define liquid limit as is the minimum water content at which the soil is still in the liquid state, but
has a small shearing strength against flow. It is also defined from test point of view as the minimum water
content at which a pat of soil cut by a groove of standard dimension will flow together for a distance of
12 mm (1/2 inch) under an impact of 25 blows in the device.
Liquid limit is significant to know the stress history and general properties of the soil met with
construction. From the results of liquid limit the compression index may be estimated. The compression
index value will help us in settlement analysis. If the natural moisture content of soil is closer to liquid
limit, the soil can be considered as soft if the moisture content is lesser than liquids limit, the soil can be
considered as soft if the moisture content is lesser than liquid limit. The soil is brittle and stiffer. We need
to know the liquid limit of soil because: the liquid limit of soil is a very important property of fine grained
soil (or cohesive soil); the value of liquid limit is used to classify fine grained soil; It gives us information
regarding the state of consistency of soil on site; and the liquid limit of soil can be used to predict the
consolidation properties of soil while calculating allowable bearing capacity & settlement of foundation;
and the liquid limit value of soil is also used to calculate activity of clays and toughness index of soil. There
are two ways to determine liquid limit of soil these are the liquid limit test of soil using casagrande
apparatus and the liquid limit test of soil using cone penetrometer apparatus.
The Plastic Limit, also known as the lower plastic limit, is the water content at which a soil changes
from the plastic state to a semisolid state. It is also refers to the moisture content of a soil at a point where
its consistence changes from plastic to friable and the soil water mass is unable to change shape
continuously under the mass breaks into fragments. This limit is determined by mixing the soil with water
in a round-bottomed dish until it starts to lose its crumbly feel and shows a tendency to become plastic.
The mass is then kneaded in hands. A small portion is rolled between the fingers and a glass plate, or a
piece of glazed paper, until a wire is formed. The process of adding water or soil is repeated until that
moisture content is reached when the plastic mass will just barely roll out into a wire that breaks into
pieces. In this method clayey soils are the most difficult to study.
 The plasticity of soil is defined as the property of cohesive soil which possess the ability to undergo
changes of shape without rupture or a change in volume. Non plastic soils are soils that do not have plastic
limit are reported as being non-plastic example is the fairly clean sand, rock dust etc. Non plastic soils
make excellent road materials when properly confined under wearing course, the example of it is the Rock
dust. Even when wet they form hard, durable surface whereas clean sand displaces easily under the load.
However, their use for base course or for fill brings difficult construction problems.
Plasticity Index is the range of water content over which a soil behaves plastically. It indicates the
degree of plasticity of the soil. PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit. Greater
the difference, greater is the plasticity of the soil. Soils with a high PI tend to be predominantly clay, while
those with a lower PI tend to be predominantly silt. Soils with high plasticity index are highly compressible.
Plasticity index in also a measure of cohesiveness with high value of PI indicating high degree of cohesion.
Experience shows that soils with high P.I are much less desirable for sub grade or base course than those
having less indexes.
The shrinkage limit of soil is the water content of the soil when the water is just sufficient to fill
all the pores of the soil and the soil is just saturated. The volume of the soil does not decrease when the
water content is reduced below the shrinkage limit. Every soil present on the earth tends to lose its
moisture due to either natural or artificial reasons. When soil starts losing moisture, it changes from liquid
state to plastic to semi soil and finally hard solid state. Along with the change in state, soil also loses
volume due to a decrease in the water content. But at a particular point, the moisture reduction does not
cause any reduction in the volume of the soil, this point is called as shrinkage limit of the soil. Testing
shrinkage limit indicates how much moisture can alter before any significant volume change. Shrinkage
limit tests are useful in areas where soil is subjected continuously to substantial volume changes while
going through dry and wet cycles.
The different Atterberg limits as stated above represents the moisture content of the change from
the friable to the plastic consistency. It represents the minimum moisture percentage at which the soil
can be puddled. Orientation of particles and their subsequent sliding over each other takes place at this
point, since sufficient water has been added to provide a film around each particle.
The moisture content of Atterberg limits depends upon the amount and nature of the soil colloids
present. In the upper plastic limit the film of oriented water molecules becomes so thick that cohesion is
decreased and the entire soil water mass flows freely under an applied force. The plasticity number or
index of plasticity is an indirect measure of force required to mold the soil. It is a function of the number
of the films and represents the amount of water that must be added to the soil system to increase the
distance between the particles of maximum tension and the tension at which flow is produced.
The factors affecting the Atterberg limits are the clay content and type of clay, the nature of
exchangeable cations, and the organic matter. First, is the amount and nature of clay colloids greatly
influence the plasticity. An increase in the percentage of clay causes plastic limits to be higher with the
moisture content and increases the plasticity number or index. With the decrease in clay content in the
soil, the upper plastic limit decreases and thereby decreases the plasticity number or the index of
plasticity. Atterberg limits are raised as the surface is increased due to higher amount of clay present in
soil. The clay content, therefore, determines the amount of surface that is available for water adsorption.
For a particular clay mineral, the amount of absorbed water required at the plastic limit will increase with
the amount and size of the particles present. Plastic limits of different types of silicate clay. Second, is the
exchangeable cations have considerable influence upon soil plasticity. The Na-saturated montmorillonite
has the highest plastic limit as compared to the K, Ca and Mg-saturated montmorillonite clay. The effect
of these ions on non-expanding clays is quite different from the effect on the montmorillonite group. The
higher hydration energies of the divalent cations should cause a raising of the Atterberg limits. Lastly, the
organic matter exhibits an interesting effect upon soil plasticity. It has been found that the plasticity limits
decreased due to oxidation of organic matter with hydrogen peroxide. Organic matter has a high
adsorptive capacity for water. Hydration of organic matter must be fairly complete before sufficient water
is available for film formation around the mineral particles. Consequently, the plastic limit occurs at
relatively high moisture contents. Thus, the addition of organic matter to soil may be expected to extend
the zone of friability to fairly high moisture contents.
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