APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA CONTENTS Conversion factors... . . 793 Thermal Conductivities* "Thermal conductivities of common materials. ©...) 1... 795 ‘Thermal conductivities of metals... .. 2... 2... +. 799 ‘Thermal conductivities of liquids... . . Bote es + 800 ‘Thermal conductivities of gases and vapors... . . . . 2. 801 ‘Thermal conductivities of hydrocarbon liquids... .. . . . 808 Specific Heatst Specific heats of metals... eee eee 7 Specific heats of liquids... . BGn Sho oeace 804 Specific heats of gases at lat... . 6. foe o ee. 805 ‘Specific heats of hydrocarbon liquids...) 2 ee eee 806 Specific heats of bydrocarbon gases and vapors. ....... . - 807 Specific Gravitiest Specific gravities of metals... . . 2... . Specific gravities and molecular weights of liquids... . . « 808, Specific gravities of hydrocarbons... .. ... + - eee. 809 Equilibrium Data? Equilibrium constants for hydrocarbons... . . re) ‘Vapor pressures of hydrocarbons... . .. a Enthalpies and Latent Heats Enthalpies of pure hydrocarbons... . . bao siz Enthalpies of light hydrocarbons... 6... 2 ee ee Enthalpies of petroleum fractions. .... 1... . +++. 814 Latent heats of vaporization... . . boeoaaG 7 "Thermodynamic properties of steam... 0... oe : 816 Viecositiest Viscosity conversion chart... 2. . a Cle Viscosity correction chart for gases... boohoo: + 820 Viscosities of liquids... . . - 6G se 64565 + 823, ‘Viseosities of gases and vapors... 00-825 ‘Values of k(cix/k)™ for hydrocarbons. . . . . . « = 826 1 For aqueous and organic solutions see page 161 on which is given approximate formulas. ee also Fig, 13.14, 71‘Table 12. PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Temperature Difference Corrections Caloric temperature factor... 2... LMTD correction factors for 1-2 exchangers . LMTD correction factors for 2-4 exchangers . . LMTD correction factors for 8-6 exchangers . MTD correction factors for 4-8 exchangers MTD correction factors for 5-10 exchangers. . LMTD correction factors for 6-12 exchangers. Heat-transfer Data ‘Tube-side heat-transfer curve... . « ‘Lube-side water-heat-transfer curve. . - ‘Dube-side fraction factors... . . . ‘Tube-side return-pressure losses. Shell-side heat-transfer curve. Bhell-side fraction factors... .. . . . Approximate overall heat-transfer coefficients. Layout Data ‘Tube-sheet layouts (tube counts). . . Heat-exchanger and condenser-tube data. Steel-pipe dimensions (TPS). . . . Fouling Factors Douling fats 1See Index for corrections. 3 See Index for other date. 827 828 329 - 830 831 332 833, 834 835 - 836 837 838, ~ 8H 843, - 845APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA ‘Tapue 1, Conversion Factors xp Consrants Energy and power: Btu = 0.252 kg-cal Btu = 0.293 watt-hr Bur = 0.555 pou (pound centigrade unit) Btu = 778 ft-lb Btu/min = 0.236 bp Hp = 424 Btu/min Hp = 33,000 ftb/min Bp = 0.7457 kw Hp-br = 2543 Btu Ew = 1.3415 hp Wattchr = 3.415 Bou Fluid flow: Bbl/ar = 0.0036 cfm Bbl/ar = 0.700 gpm Bbl/day = 0.0292 gpm Bbl/day = 0.0039 cfm fm = 10.686 bbl /hr Gpm = 1.429 bil/hr Gpm = 34.3 bbI/day Gpm X s (specific gravity) = 500 x s lb/hr Heat-transfer coefficients: ‘Beu/(hr) (ft2)(°F) = 1.0 peu/(hr) (ft?) (°C) Btu/(hr)(it)(*F) = 4.88 kg-cal/(hr)(m*)(°C) Bin /(hr) (it) (“F) = 0.00204 watts/(in.)(°F) Length, area, and volume: Bbl = 42 gal Bbl = 5.15 ft Cm = 0.987 in. Fe? = 0.1781 bbl Ft = 7.48 gal Ft? = 0.0283 m* M? = 6.290 bbl Mé = 35.314 ft* Fe = 30.48 cm Fe = 0.8048 m Gal = 0.02881 bb! Gal = 0.1337 it# Gal = 3.785 liter Gal = 0,8327 gal (Imperial) In. = 2.54em Liter = 0.2642 gal Liter = 1.0567 at M = 3281 ft Ft? = 0.0929 m* Mi = 10.76 ft 793794 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Pressure Atm = 83.93 ft of water at 60°F Atm = 29.92 in. Hg at 32°F ‘Atm = 760 mm Hg at 82°F Atm = 14,696 pai Atm = 2116.8 lb/ft? ‘Atm = 1.083 kg/em* Ft of water at 60°F = 0.4331 psi In, of water at 60°F = 0.0361 psi Kg/em? = 14.223 psi Pai = 2.309 FF of water at 60°F Temperature: ‘Temperature °C = 56(°F — 32) ‘Temperature °F = 3 (°C +82) ‘Temperature °F absolute ("R) = *F + 460 ‘Temperature °C absolute (°K) = °C + 273 Thermal conducti ‘Btu/(hr) (ft) CF ft) = 12 Btu/(hr) (ft*)(°F fin.) Btu/(hr) (ft) (CF /ft) = 1.49 kg-cal /(hr) (m?)(°C/m) ‘Beu/(hr) (it) CF At) = 0.0173 watts /(em*)(°C/em) Viscosity (additional factors are contained in Fig. 13): ‘Eb = 7000 grains ‘Ton (short or net) = 2000 Ib Ton (long) = 2240 Ib Ton (metric) = 2205 Ib ‘Ton (metric) = 1000 kg Constants: Acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/seot Acceleration of gravity = 4.18 X 10° ft/hrt Density of a cubic foot of water = 62.5 Ib/ft*APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 795 ‘Tapie 2, ‘TueRwaL Coxpuorivrrmes or Soum Bur.piva ann IvsuLarme Marzrrars* i = Beu/(hr) (tt) CF /it) ‘Apparent density Material pf | oF k at room temperature Acrogel, silica, opacified 8.5 248 (0.013 554 | 0.028 Asbestos-cement boards. 120 se | 0.43 Asbestos sheets. . 55.5 124 | 0.096 ‘Asbestos slate 12 32 | 0.087 rery vo | 0.114 Asbestos. 29.3 | -328, | 0.043 29.3 32 | 0.090 36 32 | 0.087 36 az | 0.3 36 302 | 0.120 38 752 | 0.129 43.5 | -328 | 0.090 48.5 32 | 0.135 Aluminum foil, 7 air spaces per 2.5 in 0.2 100 | 0.025 351 | 0.038 sees | 82-M2| 0.041 132 68 | 0.43 Alumina (02-99% Al,Os by weight) fused. ..| sor | 1.8 ‘Alumina (64-65% AlOs by weight} 209 | 27 (Gee also Bricks, fire clay) 1472 | 0.02 212. | 0.63 Building brickwork. x ee 68 | 0.4 Chrome brick (32%, Cr103 by weight)......| 200 302 | 0.67 200 1202 | 0.85 200 2309 | 1.0 Diatomaceous earth, natural, across strata| 27.7 309 | 0.051 27.7 | 1600 | 0.077 Diatomaceous, natural, parallel to strata} 27.7 309 | 0.081 277 | 1600 | 0.106 Diatomaceous earth, molded and fired.....[ 38 309 | 0.14 38 1600 | 0.18, Diatomaceous earth and clay, molded and a | 42.8 309 | 0.14 42.3 | 1600 | 0.19 Diatomaceous earth, high burn, large PORES eee cee esseeeeeeeaes hoa bs 02 | 0.18 37 1882 | 0.34796 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Tamu 2, Tupasan Conpucrivrrms or Som Boring axp Insviative Marenrats.*—(Continued) ‘Apparent density Material p Ibi? | °F i at room temperature Bricks: (Continued) Fire clay, Miseouri.. 5 302 | 0.58 12 | 0.85 | 1832 | 0.95 2552 | 1.02 Kaolin insulating brick : a 932 | 0.15 7 2102 | 0.26 Kaolin insulating firebrick . 9 392 | 0.050 19 3400 | 0.118 Magnesite (868% MeO, 8.8% Fe:0u 3% CaO, 2.6% S102 by weight).. 158 oo | 2.2 158 1202) 1.6 : 158 m2] 11 Silicon earbide brick,reorystallized ........| 129 m2 | 10.7 129 17a | 9.2 129 1832 | 8.0 129 2192 | 7.0 129 2552 | 6.8 Calcium carbonate, natural secs | 102 ae] 1.3 White marbie. - L? Chalk. 96 el oa Calcium sulphate (41,0), artificial... 84.6 sot | 0.22 Plaster, artificial...... | 107 | 0.48 Building. | ar 0.25 Cambric, varnished. : 0.09 Carbon, ges. 2 2.0 Cardboard, corrugated... 9.037 Celluloid...:+..eeseee see 0.12 Chereoal fiakes..........- 0.043 0.051 Clinker, granular... 0.27. Coke, petroleum... 34 2.9 Coke, powdered. on Conerete, cinder: 0.20 0.44 s | 0.58 5 36 | 0.024 Gieccrs 10 86 | 0.025 Cork, ground. 94 | 86 | 0.025 ‘Regranulated. .... 8.1 a6 | 0.026 ——APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 797 ‘Tapun 2, Tamruat Conpucrivinis or Some Buipive anp Insvnsnine Marenrats.*—(Continued) “Apparent density Material plbfts | oF k at roora temperature ‘Diatomaceous earth powder, coarse .... 20.0 100 | 0.036 20.0 1600 | 0,082 Fine .. 17.2 399 | 0.040 72 1600 | 0.074 ‘Molded pipe covering ... 26.0 399 | 0.051 28.0 1600 | 0.088 4 vol. calcined earth and 1 vol. cement, sersceereeeargerseaes, OLB 309 | 0.16 61.8 1600 | 0.23, : | 167 1.0 ee 0.10 Enamel, silicate. 0.0... cseeeeee 0.5-0.75 Felt, wool. : 6 0.03 Fiber insulating board... 8 0.028 Fiber, red. : 5 0.27 With binder, baked... 2.2 0.097 Gos carbon... 2.0 Glass....... = 0.2-0.73 Boro-silicate type.. 139 0.63 Soda glass....... 0.3-0.44 Window glass.........- 0.3-0.61 Granite. . 1.02.3 Graphite, dense, commercial... : 32 | 86.7 Powdered, through 100 mesh. 30 104 | 0.104 Gypeum, molded and dry.....-. 78 68} 0.25 Hair, felt, perpendicular to fibers. 7 86 | 0.021 Tee. = 57.5 a2 | 18 Infusorial earth (Gee Diatomaceous earth) Kapok... 0.88 6s | 0.020 Lampblack. 30 0.038 Tava... oon 0.49 Leather, sole... 62.4 0.092 Limestone (15.3 vol % H:0). 103 0.54 Linen... 0.05 Magnesia, powdered. u7 | 0.35 ‘Magnesia, light carbonate. 70 | 0.08 ‘Magnesium oxide, comprised 49.9 es | 0.32 Marble.....-..0. é : 1.24.7800 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Taste 4, Terman Conpuormrrres or Lrqurps* & = Beu/(hr) (f4) CF At) A linear variation with temperature may be assumed. The extreme values given constitute also the temperature limits over which the data are recommended. Tague °F Taga “Fr E a ee oe pone ee TY BTR |e aa Giese fp ef 88a lee a ‘eimenin..- 5-86) 0:29" | Kerosene. : 6 | 9.098 Ammonis, squeous if oz wi A i 8 Laat cn gations] Be Pe Bie +8. (388 i Ls 8 es . 86 | 9.092 x OTs _ 8 | Obert... | has myestese $88 Ite are 101 (R-). . 0.097 irobensenesevesseeees-so-797") gi | 0.088. 8 | enue ef) oe 3.8; | Soro He Calcium ebloride brine 30%. 9.32 | Nonane (o). " 15%. 34, Dee ome dec reeneencl | BEE 01088 tad 140 | 0.081, Ba low an BB | coe, a Ses: ER om. 3B 0.079 | oleic acid. 0.0925, Dass 9 a |. [outers a ae 83.8 aa Diesmettcenron. | | age ee ie BEE seen ea 4g coe Perchloroetl 0.092 Blehrwtan BE] gga | ast. 9-078 BE | rma. ie ‘est iat ig 3m see Be 0.224 | Sodium chloride ‘brine 25.0%. 0.33 i 12.5%. 86 | O-3t cl rn oo] Bae é 9 ’ ga 3 3 38 a ‘50 | 0.074 o 59 | 0,106 3 e/a 3 2 |g Fite $ 176 | 0.998, 2 -| 88 | 0.090 He soul sles “+ yom Peay, 1 H., "Chemical Eagineera! Handbook,” oGraw-ll Bool 7 Tne, ea Engine 0,” dd e2., MeGraw-Hill Book Company, IneAPPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 801 Taste 6, Tuerman Conpvertvrmms om Gases axp Varons* ke = Beu/(hr)(ft#)(CF /ft) ‘The extreme temperature values given constitute the experimental range. For extrapolation to other temperatures, it is suggested that the date given be plotted as log vs. log T or that use be made of the assumption that the ratio cu/k is practically independent of temperature (or of pressure, within moderate limits). Substance: wlio Substance | 8 Acetone, 82] 0.0057 | Dichlorodifuoromethane........| _82/ 0.0048 115] 0.0074 122) 0.0066 212| 0.0000 212) 0.0080 36s] 0.0147 '302| 0.0007 Aootylene...eceseeceseeeessse] HOS) 0,0088 | Btbane....0.0.ccecceseeeeees] 84) 0.0066. 33|'0.0108, =29) 0-088 122] 0.0140 32) 0.0108 212| 0.0172 212] 0.0175. Aires =148} 0.0095 | Etayl acetate, sesce] 115} 0.0072 32) 0.0140 212| 0.0008 212) 0.0188 2363] 0-014 392] 0.0226 | Alcobol...... sess] 68) 0.0080 72] 0.0265 213] 0.0128 Armonia 76) 0.0095 | Chloride.......2-.seeesseeey 0.0085, 23) 0.0128 212] 0.0005 129) 0.0157 363) 0.0135 212] 0.0185 413) 0.0182 Ether. «| 33) 0.0077 Bensene.. 2... eeseeeesesssee] 92) 0,005 135} 0.0099 118] 0.0073 2i2| 0.0131 212| 0.0108 1363) 0.0189 1368) 0.0152 413| 0.0200 413) 0.0176 | Ethyl ceseseesee] 08) 0.0008 Butane (4)... cs ecsceeeesees] 82] 0.0078, 32] 0.0101 212] 0.0185 x23] 0.0131 (0) +] 32} 0.0080 212| 0.0161 212] 0.0130 =58| 0.0088 | Heptane (n-) - 382} 0.0112 32] 0,085 212| 0.0108. 212] 0.0188 | Hexane (W-).e.eeseeeseeeeeees] 92) 0.0072 302) 0.0181 0:0080 572 0.0228 | Hexene. 0,061 Diaulphide. cesses] 83) 0.0040 0:0109 45| 0.0042, | Hydrogen... 0,065 Monoxido......+2+s+6sse+0++] —813) 0.0081 0.088 204 0.0046 0.100, 32| 0.0135 115 otracbloride.........-.-.-+.] 119} 0.004 0.129 212] 0.0052 0.378 363] 0.0005 | Hydrogen and carbon dioxide. 82| 0.0043 | 09% Ha. ..eseee ss 0.0083 32| 0,0088 | 20%... ss 1} 0.0185 113] 0.0048 | aoe. 2] o:0270 ana] 00088 | 60%. nL EOIN) oleae 303] 0.0077 | 80%... tee cece eeeccae] cc) 0.0690 Cyslobexane......... ++ «| a1e! 0: 0005 } 100 9%, .002 00. cl 0:10CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 715 the sum of the static heads and pressure drops of the equipment but also ‘enough to overcome the drop through the control valve. Coolers, Figures 21.10 to 21.12 show three methods of providing con- trol for coolers, Figure 21.10 is used where the maximum possible cool- ing is desired or where there is an abundance of cooling water. When an overhead volatile product from a distilling column passes through an aftercooler and is to be sent to stor age, it is cooled as low as possible, 2/Zuia since any decrease in the evapora 9 | @ tion and vent loss may constitute a significant economy. In such cases q Cooler | only a manual throttling valve is provided on the outlet-water line, an If water is abundant, the manual = valve is left completely open. ‘The only instrumentation suggested is an industrial thermometer or temperature indicator on the hot-fluid outlet. ‘This enables the operator to make routine checks to ascertain that the temperature of the liquid is well below the maximum allowable storage temperature, Thermometers are useful at the other nozzles but only when checking the performance of the cooler or other apparatus. ‘Ther- mometer wells are usually provided for this purpose as plugged bosses mas Water Fre, 21.10. Simple cooler. Constant temp Fia. 21.11. Cooler with fixed hot fuid outlot and near-constant water tecperature. in the necks of nozzles. If the nozzle necks are not conveniently located for testing, the thermometers can be inserted in Tees as near the cooler as possible. However, when checking exchanger performance and guarantee, the temperatures should be taken at the nozzle necks if at all possible. ‘The arrangement in Fig. 21.11 is used when a fixed hot-fluid outlet temperature and flow quantity are desired. ‘The flow of the hot fluid is776 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER controlled independently by the flow controller, The cooling water is assumed to have a relatively constant temperature, so that the hot-Auid outlet temperature is controlled by the quantity of cooling water. Tho temperature of the hot-fluid discharge is measured by a temperature- sensitive clement at a and transferred to the temperature controller which actuates an air-operated valve on the cold-water discharge at 6. If the temperature at a varies, the valve at b opens or closes accordingly. This same arrangement can be used for gases provided a sufficiently sensitive element is used. In Fig. 21.12 an arrangement is shown for cooling gases below their dew points such as occurs in compressor aftercoolers, ‘The gas is cooled me) as. q Cooler 5 Het. Wafer ICondensate Fra, 21.12, Gas cooler with condensate removsl. and its temperature is measured at a and controlled at the water discharge b. The cooled gas and condensate pass into the knockout drum, where a liquid level is continuously maintained by the level controller. The simplest type of level controller consists of an external float whose vertical movement actuates the control. When the level rises above the control point or range of the level controller, it opens the valve at ¢ and lets the liquid run out. ‘The purpose of the level controller is to maintain aliquid seal which prevents the escape of gas from the condensate outlet and also prevents the condensate from backing up into the shell. The back-pressure regulator or pressure-control valve (PCV) releases gas from the knockout drum without upsetting the system flow, pressure, or liquid level.CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 777 Exchangers. Exchangers do not always require special temperature control. Since their purpose in a process is to provide the maximum recovery of heat, there is no reason to restrict their performance by the use of controls. It will ordinarily suffice to use manual valves which are kept wide open. ‘The principal controls are usually provided on both the cooler and heater which are adjacent to the exchanger. For example, when a stream is to serve as the feed to a distilling column, it may enter the system through a bottoms-to-feed exchanger as in Fig. 11.1 and then through a feed preheater. The temperature control of the stream will be effected in the preheater by a flow adjustment of the steam entering the preheater. Similarly, when a fluid is cooled in an exchanger, it usually passes through a cooler and its temperature is controlled by a flow adjust- ment of the water. It is not possible to control both the flow quantities and outlet temperatures of both streams passing through an exchanger at the exchanger itself, since one adjustable quality must always be present, Thus, if the outlet temperatures of both streams are to be con- trolled and the flow or temperature of one stream may vary, the flow or outlet temperature of the other stream must also vary. ‘Phere are, however, a number of instances in which the outlet tempera- ture of one of the streams must be controlled, and such cases are treated here. Most of the problems of exchanger instrumentation are encoun- tered when the two streams are of unequal size, the one being very much larger than the other. By the same token the larger stream possesses a short temperature range and the smaller stream a very large temperature range. Figures 21.13 and 21.14 are typical of this application. In Fig. 21.13 the hot fluid is considered the large stream and the cold fluid the small stream. The hot fluid is to be flow- and temperature-controlled, and its inlet temperature is assumed to be subject to small variations. ‘The cold fiuid is flow-controlled, and its outlet temperature is assumed to be reasonably constant. ‘The net Btu removal or injection in this case can best be effected on only a portion of the large stream, and to this end the by-pass is provided for temperature control. It will be seen, how- ever, that the flow control of the hot fluid is carried out on the entire stream, This arrangement provides flexible temperature control, allow- ing any proportion to be by-passed. Tt also permits the elimination of any problems of excessive pressure drop which might result if the entire large stream were passed through the exchanger. It is also advantageous where an exchanger is repeatedly used for several different services. As an example, a particular distilling column and its auxiliaries may be used for a time with one feed stook and then changed to another stock for another period. The controls shown in Fig. 21.18 will enable the exchange of a fairly uniform heat load in the exchanger for the several718 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER stocks. The pressure-control valve permits a constant controlled flow of the fluid being temperature-controlled, and the only varying qualities are the inlet temperature of the tempersture-controlled uid and the outlet temperature of the secondary fluid. “t Z | qd Exchanger |-— Colel Part Hot fluid. by-pass. ‘Fra. 21.13, Exchanger with temperature-oontrolled large stream, Heaters. Few types of apparatus cause greater difficulty than heaters using low-pressure steam with temperature control on the cold-fluid outlet temperature. The difficulty can be eliminated, however, when proper means for removing the condensate and air are provided. All heaters Exchanger Fra. 21.14. Exchanger with temperature-controlled small stream. using steam at superatmospheric pressures should be equipped with air vents at the highest accessible points. Heaters operating with a cold- fluid outlet temperature exceeding 212°F as in Fig. 21.15 generally offer ttle difficulty, because the condensate is not subcooled below the pressure necessary to force it through the outlet trap.CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 779 In practice, heaters are often designed for small temperature differ- ences. Added to this is the fact that they are usually overdesigned, par- ticularly when clean, so that the cold-fluid outlet temperature and the steam condensate temperature are nearly the same. The cold fluid and the condensate may both have outlet temperatures below 212°F (cor- responding to 0 psig) indicating that more heat is being removed from the steam than is desired thereby subcooling the condensate to vacuum. Without temperature control a condensate level may build up in the heater to cover a portion of the tubes, reduce the available surface and the transferred heat load, and reduce the outlet temperature on the hot Out. q Heater iz L stove down Cola Fai in Condensate Fra, 21.15. Heater for high cold-fluid outlet temperature. fluid. If the corrosive action resulting when a condensate level is main- tained in the tubes is not excessive, the steam flow can be controlled manually or by a self-regulating flow controller with a simple trap for condensate removal provided the heat demand does not vary too fre- quently or rapidly for manual adjustment. ‘With temperature control a system for the removal of low-pressure steam embodying the principles shown in Fig. 21.16 must be employed. However, a pressure-control valye may be used to maintain the pressure in the heater. When the pressure-control valve is installed in the con- densate ouilet line, the temperature-control valve then varies the con- densate level in the heater to compensate for varying heat loads. Very often an arrangement like that shown in Fig. 21,15 is unsuited for heaters providing a low cold-fuid outlet temperature. Without condensate covering some of the tubes, the total surface, containing some excess, is always exposed and the steam has to condense at subatmospheric pres-780 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER sure in order to reduce the LMTD end provide the desired cold-Buid outlet temperature. On attaining an abnormally high fluid outlet tomperature, the temperature-control valve throttles the steam until a condensate level builds up inside the heater. By the time the cold-fluid outlet temperature has decreased to normal, condensate covers the tubes, causing the condensate in the lower portion to be subcooled and a result ant vacuum within the heater. When the temperature controller next, detects a subnormal cold-fuid outlet temperature, it must admit enough steam to raise the pressure sufficiently to remove all the subcooled condensate and decrease the condensate level in the heater. In doing Slope down, ah Cold Flaidlin [ a Trap Vacuum pump Condensate. ‘oat switch receiver: (Lf condone pomp Condensate Pump Fra, 21,16, Heater using low-pressure stoam. this too many tubes may be uncovered by the steam pressure, causing the cold-fluid outlet temperature to rise above the control point. This procedure causes cycling and a virtually uncontrolled cold-fluid outlet temperature. ‘The arrangement in Fig. 21.15 is suitable for heaters using high-pressure steam in which the condensing temperature and pressure, after passing through the control valve, is sufficiently high to blow the condensate out. Total Condensers. Figure 21.17 shows the arrangement for a con- denser with gravity flow of redux. The principal disadvantage to the use of gravity flow lies in the fact that the condenser and accumulator must be elevated above the tower, requiring additional structural support, ‘The overhead condensate drains into the accumulator, which is provided with a manual vent for continuous bleeding if the operation is at elevatedCONTROL OF TEMPERATURE Fra, 21.17, Condenser with gravity flow of reflux. ad Fre, 21,18, Condenser with pumped reflux. 781782 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER pressure or left wide open if operation is at atmospheric pressure. If there is any tendency for noncondensables to enter the system, it may be necessary 0 bleed them at the top of the condenser. The condensate builds up a level in the accumulator, and reflux is regulated by the level controller. The overhead product is removed at a fixed rate by the flow controller. It is seen that there is no positive temperature control other than manual in the event that the reflux temperature should fall appreci- ably below that of the top tray. This may be compensated for, how- Fro. 21.19. Condensation of a pure volatile product. ever, by introducing a temperature controller at one of the intermediate trays of the column which operates on the steam line going to the reboiler at the bottom of the column. Figure 21.18 is a typical example of a condenser operating with pumped-back reflux, The reflux pump is often at the ground level, and the condenser and the accumulator are immediately above it. In this particular application, the reflux rate is set by the flow controller and the overhead product flow is set by the level controller. The reversal of the method of overhead product flow control between Figs. 21.17 and 21.18 is due to the smaller liquid head in the gravity-flow system. Figure 21.19CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 783 shows an arrangement for the condensation of a pure volatile product which must be subcooled in an aftercooler to prevent the flashing of the overhead product when its liquid pressure is relieved. A particular feature of this type of arrangement is the use of a pressure controller for the control of temperature by direct connection between the water outlet flow and the tower pressure. When the system contains noncondensables this arrangement cannot be employed. Figure 21,20 shows an arrangement for a system having noncondens- ables. The instruments used here differ in the manner by which they i { L Fie. 21,20. Condensation with noneondenaables. effect control. First, the noncondensables are prevented from building up in the system by means of the pressure controller on the accumulator, which provides e continuous automatic vent to the atmosphere or to the next step in the process if the saturated noncondensables are subjected to further treatment, The tower overhead temperature is maintained by the controller adjusting the rate of water flow to the condenser and likewise adjusting the reflux temperature to maintain the overhead product purity. Partial Condensers. A partial condenser arrangement is shown in Fig. 21.21. The partial condenser is used for volatile materials to enable reflux to be pumped back to the tower at substantially the top tray‘784 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER temperature while the remainder of the overhead is condensed and cooled so as to prevent reflashing when the pressure is released in the storage tank. The elements of the control can be identified by comparison with Figs. 21.19 and 21.20. Temp control foreboiler Fra, 21.21, Partial eondenser. Tower Fro, 21.22, Pamp-through reboiler with small bottoms rate. Pump-through Reboilers. A reboiler can be critical in a distillation process, and its control is extremely important. Furthermore, steam- heated reboilers are subject to the same operating difficulties encountered with heaters. Beoause pump-through reboilers are used only for smallCONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 785 services, the requirements of control are usually more sensitive than those for larger operations. Figure 21.22 shows the arrangement for a pump-through reboiler where the amount of bottom product is small compared with the total flow through the reboiler. Figure 21.23 shows the arrangement for cases where the bottom product is an appreciable part of the total flow. In this case the bottom product rate is set separately by the level controller Hot orf Fre, 21.28, Pamp-through reboiler with high bottoms rate. Reboiler L__, Pam Condensate to trap Fro, 21.24 Pump-through reboiler with pure bottoms or constant-boiling mixture, 80 as not to interfere with the reboiler operation. In both Figs. 21.22 and 21.98 it has been assumed that the liquids have appreciable boiling ranges so as to make the use of a temperature controller effective, If the bottom product is substantially pure or a constant boiling mixture, as in Fig. 21.24, the use of temperature control is impractical, since the temperature will remain constant independently of the steam supply. Only the flow rate changes, and to overcome this limitation the flow of steam is adjusted by the level controller. The reset permits partial response of the flow controller so as to increase the level controller range.786 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Natural-circulation Reboilers and Evaporators. Because of their similarity the chiller- and kettle-type reboiler are included in this classi- fication. The instrumentation for the chiller is shown in Fig. 21.25. ‘The valve on the temperature controller should be sized for a small vaporized gerrigerant igeranP Retrigerar) Hot tid Fre, 21.25, Chiller. Yio. 21.28. Kettlo-type reboiler. pressure drop s0 as not to reduce the compressor suction or unnecessarily increase the power cost. Figure 21.26 shows the instrumentation for the kettle reboiler. ‘The functions of the level control are evident. The horizontal thermosyphon is shown in Fig. 21.27 with once-through flow as compared with a recirculating arrangement, The arrangements ofCONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 787 Figs. 21.26 and 21.27 may also serve as the basis for the instrumentation of horizontal and vertical evaporators. Batch Processes. Batch processes are usually very simple to control.t Most batch processes do not require automatic control of any sort. Fower | Accumulator wit ‘small hold up Steam, Kettle Product Fro, 21.28, Batch distillation with elapsed time-temperature controller. Batch distillation presents several interesting problems which are shown. in Fig. 21.28. During batch distillation the still and possibly the over- 1 See particularly Perry, J. H., “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8d ed., MeGrew- Hill Book Company, Inc.; New York, 1950.788 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER head temperatures change continuously as materiel is taken off overhead, and the related problem is then the control of temperature and pressure. Instead of using a temperature controller, an elapsed time-temperature controller or program controller is used. It sets a time period for the distillation temperatures and throttles the steam while the still tempera Fra, 21.29, Automatic control of a distillation process with feed containing some non- condensable gas. ture rises through a timed cycle of temperature rises. The pressure con- trol is ‘maintained simply by a back-pressure regulator (pressure-control valve) on the assumption that there is some small amount of volatiles or noncondensables. The reflux is flow-controlled during the entire operation. Continuous Distillation. Figure 21.29 shows the instrumentation for a continuous distillation charged with a feed having noncondensables.CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE 789 ‘With the exception of steam distillation which closely resembles it, other types of feed permit the instrumentation to be simplified. Included in Fig. 21.29 are the by-passes about the instrument controllers and the safety or relief valves on the exchangers. Safety valves are of the expan- sion-spring type. If it is possible in any way for the flow of the cold liquid to be halted because a valve has been accidentally turned off or the instrument control fails, a safety valve is placed on the inlet side of the cold fluid. Tt permits the expansion of the halted cold liquid to be relieved inasrauch as the hot fluid may continue to flow and prevents destructively large pressures from being built up in the liquid lines. After the small amount of liquid expansion has been relieved, the valve reseats itself. Attention should also be focused on the hook-up of the reboiler. Instead of the overflow going to the product outlet, as in the recirculating hook-up, the overflow is used to equalize the liquid level on a once-through arrangement, This is preferable in the event that the reboiler is overdesigned and more than the required amount 0 vaporiza- tion may ocour. ‘The temperature indicators shown in the column are multiple thermocouples connected usually to a single indicating instru- ment. The instruments which would make a convenient panel board for the control of the process are shown by a horizontal line for board mounting. Conclusion. The elements of process control presented here have been araong the simplest. The steppingstones by which an’ overall modern process can be controlled involve far more than the combination of several single effects. For these complex applications the many compound instruments of particular manufacturers are required to amplify the measurements or surpress the lags resulting from a large number of controls.APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA CONTENTS Conversion factors... . . 793 Thermal Conductivities* "Thermal conductivities of common materials. ©...) 1... 795 ‘Thermal conductivities of metals... .. 2... 2... +. 799 ‘Thermal conductivities of liquids... . . Bote es + 800 ‘Thermal conductivities of gases and vapors... . . . . 2. 801 ‘Thermal conductivities of hydrocarbon liquids... .. . . . 808 Specific Heatst Specific heats of metals... eee eee 7 Specific heats of liquids... . BGn Sho oeace 804 Specific heats of gases at lat... . 6. foe o ee. 805 ‘Specific heats of hydrocarbon liquids...) 2 ee eee 806 Specific heats of bydrocarbon gases and vapors. ....... . - 807 Specific Gravitiest Specific gravities of metals... . . 2... . Specific gravities and molecular weights of liquids... . . « 808, Specific gravities of hydrocarbons... .. ... + - eee. 809 Equilibrium Data? Equilibrium constants for hydrocarbons... . . re) ‘Vapor pressures of hydrocarbons... . .. a Enthalpies and Latent Heats Enthalpies of pure hydrocarbons... . . bao siz Enthalpies of light hydrocarbons... 6... 2 ee ee Enthalpies of petroleum fractions. .... 1... . +++. 814 Latent heats of vaporization... . . boeoaaG 7 "Thermodynamic properties of steam... 0... oe : 816 Viecositiest Viscosity conversion chart... 2. . a Cle Viscosity correction chart for gases... boohoo: + 820 Viscosities of liquids... . . - 6G se 64565 + 823, ‘Viseosities of gases and vapors... 00-825 ‘Values of k(cix/k)™ for hydrocarbons. . . . . . « = 826 1 For aqueous and organic solutions see page 161 on which is given approximate formulas. ee also Fig, 13.14, 71‘Table 12. PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Temperature Difference Corrections Caloric temperature factor... 2... LMTD correction factors for 1-2 exchangers . LMTD correction factors for 2-4 exchangers . . LMTD correction factors for 8-6 exchangers . MTD correction factors for 4-8 exchangers MTD correction factors for 5-10 exchangers. . LMTD correction factors for 6-12 exchangers. Heat-transfer Data ‘Tube-side heat-transfer curve... . « ‘Lube-side water-heat-transfer curve. . - ‘Dube-side fraction factors... . . . ‘Tube-side return-pressure losses. Shell-side heat-transfer curve. Bhell-side fraction factors... .. . . . Approximate overall heat-transfer coefficients. Layout Data ‘Tube-sheet layouts (tube counts). . . Heat-exchanger and condenser-tube data. Steel-pipe dimensions (TPS). . . . Fouling Factors Douling fats 1See Index for corrections. 3 See Index for other date. 827 828 329 - 830 831 332 833, 834 835 - 836 837 838, ~ 8H 843, - 845APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA ‘Tapue 1, Conversion Factors xp Consrants Energy and power: Btu = 0.252 kg-cal Btu = 0.293 watt-hr Bur = 0.555 pou (pound centigrade unit) Btu = 778 ft-lb Btu/min = 0.236 bp Hp = 424 Btu/min Hp = 33,000 ftb/min Bp = 0.7457 kw Hp-br = 2543 Btu Ew = 1.3415 hp Wattchr = 3.415 Bou Fluid flow: Bbl/ar = 0.0036 cfm Bbl/ar = 0.700 gpm Bbl/day = 0.0292 gpm Bbl/day = 0.0039 cfm fm = 10.686 bbl /hr Gpm = 1.429 bil/hr Gpm = 34.3 bbI/day Gpm X s (specific gravity) = 500 x s lb/hr Heat-transfer coefficients: ‘Beu/(hr) (ft2)(°F) = 1.0 peu/(hr) (ft?) (°C) Btu/(hr)(it)(*F) = 4.88 kg-cal/(hr)(m*)(°C) Bin /(hr) (it) (“F) = 0.00204 watts/(in.)(°F) Length, area, and volume: Bbl = 42 gal Bbl = 5.15 ft Cm = 0.987 in. Fe? = 0.1781 bbl Ft = 7.48 gal Ft? = 0.0283 m* M? = 6.290 bbl Mé = 35.314 ft* Fe = 30.48 cm Fe = 0.8048 m Gal = 0.02881 bb! Gal = 0.1337 it# Gal = 3.785 liter Gal = 0,8327 gal (Imperial) In. = 2.54em Liter = 0.2642 gal Liter = 1.0567 at M = 3281 ft Ft? = 0.0929 m* Mi = 10.76 ft 793794 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Pressure Atm = 83.93 ft of water at 60°F Atm = 29.92 in. Hg at 32°F ‘Atm = 760 mm Hg at 82°F Atm = 14,696 pai Atm = 2116.8 lb/ft? ‘Atm = 1.083 kg/em* Ft of water at 60°F = 0.4331 psi In, of water at 60°F = 0.0361 psi Kg/em? = 14.223 psi Pai = 2.309 FF of water at 60°F Temperature: ‘Temperature °C = 56(°F — 32) ‘Temperature °F = 3 (°C +82) ‘Temperature °F absolute ("R) = *F + 460 ‘Temperature °C absolute (°K) = °C + 273 Thermal conducti ‘Btu/(hr) (ft) CF ft) = 12 Btu/(hr) (ft*)(°F fin.) Btu/(hr) (ft) (CF /ft) = 1.49 kg-cal /(hr) (m?)(°C/m) ‘Beu/(hr) (it) CF At) = 0.0173 watts /(em*)(°C/em) Viscosity (additional factors are contained in Fig. 13): ‘Eb = 7000 grains ‘Ton (short or net) = 2000 Ib Ton (long) = 2240 Ib Ton (metric) = 2205 Ib ‘Ton (metric) = 1000 kg Constants: Acceleration of gravity = 32.2 ft/seot Acceleration of gravity = 4.18 X 10° ft/hrt Density of a cubic foot of water = 62.5 Ib/ft*APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 795 ‘Tapie 2, ‘TueRwaL Coxpuorivrrmes or Soum Bur.piva ann IvsuLarme Marzrrars* i = Beu/(hr) (tt) CF /it) ‘Apparent density Material pf | oF k at room temperature Acrogel, silica, opacified 8.5 248 (0.013 554 | 0.028 Asbestos-cement boards. 120 se | 0.43 Asbestos sheets. . 55.5 124 | 0.096 ‘Asbestos slate 12 32 | 0.087 rery vo | 0.114 Asbestos. 29.3 | -328, | 0.043 29.3 32 | 0.090 36 32 | 0.087 36 az | 0.3 36 302 | 0.120 38 752 | 0.129 43.5 | -328 | 0.090 48.5 32 | 0.135 Aluminum foil, 7 air spaces per 2.5 in 0.2 100 | 0.025 351 | 0.038 sees | 82-M2| 0.041 132 68 | 0.43 Alumina (02-99% Al,Os by weight) fused. ..| sor | 1.8 ‘Alumina (64-65% AlOs by weight} 209 | 27 (Gee also Bricks, fire clay) 1472 | 0.02 212. | 0.63 Building brickwork. x ee 68 | 0.4 Chrome brick (32%, Cr103 by weight)......| 200 302 | 0.67 200 1202 | 0.85 200 2309 | 1.0 Diatomaceous earth, natural, across strata| 27.7 309 | 0.051 27.7 | 1600 | 0.077 Diatomaceous, natural, parallel to strata} 27.7 309 | 0.081 277 | 1600 | 0.106 Diatomaceous earth, molded and fired.....[ 38 309 | 0.14 38 1600 | 0.18, Diatomaceous earth and clay, molded and a | 42.8 309 | 0.14 42.3 | 1600 | 0.19 Diatomaceous earth, high burn, large PORES eee cee esseeeeeeeaes hoa bs 02 | 0.18 37 1882 | 0.34796 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Tamu 2, Tupasan Conpucrivrrms or Som Boring axp Insviative Marenrats.*—(Continued) ‘Apparent density Material p Ibi? | °F i at room temperature Bricks: (Continued) Fire clay, Miseouri.. 5 302 | 0.58 12 | 0.85 | 1832 | 0.95 2552 | 1.02 Kaolin insulating brick : a 932 | 0.15 7 2102 | 0.26 Kaolin insulating firebrick . 9 392 | 0.050 19 3400 | 0.118 Magnesite (868% MeO, 8.8% Fe:0u 3% CaO, 2.6% S102 by weight).. 158 oo | 2.2 158 1202) 1.6 : 158 m2] 11 Silicon earbide brick,reorystallized ........| 129 m2 | 10.7 129 17a | 9.2 129 1832 | 8.0 129 2192 | 7.0 129 2552 | 6.8 Calcium carbonate, natural secs | 102 ae] 1.3 White marbie. - L? Chalk. 96 el oa Calcium sulphate (41,0), artificial... 84.6 sot | 0.22 Plaster, artificial...... | 107 | 0.48 Building. | ar 0.25 Cambric, varnished. : 0.09 Carbon, ges. 2 2.0 Cardboard, corrugated... 9.037 Celluloid...:+..eeseee see 0.12 Chereoal fiakes..........- 0.043 0.051 Clinker, granular... 0.27. Coke, petroleum... 34 2.9 Coke, powdered. on Conerete, cinder: 0.20 0.44 s | 0.58 5 36 | 0.024 Gieccrs 10 86 | 0.025 Cork, ground. 94 | 86 | 0.025 ‘Regranulated. .... 8.1 a6 | 0.026 ——APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 797 ‘Tapun 2, Tamruat Conpucrivinis or Some Buipive anp Insvnsnine Marenrats.*—(Continued) “Apparent density Material plbfts | oF k at roora temperature ‘Diatomaceous earth powder, coarse .... 20.0 100 | 0.036 20.0 1600 | 0,082 Fine .. 17.2 399 | 0.040 72 1600 | 0.074 ‘Molded pipe covering ... 26.0 399 | 0.051 28.0 1600 | 0.088 4 vol. calcined earth and 1 vol. cement, sersceereeeargerseaes, OLB 309 | 0.16 61.8 1600 | 0.23, : | 167 1.0 ee 0.10 Enamel, silicate. 0.0... cseeeeee 0.5-0.75 Felt, wool. : 6 0.03 Fiber insulating board... 8 0.028 Fiber, red. : 5 0.27 With binder, baked... 2.2 0.097 Gos carbon... 2.0 Glass....... = 0.2-0.73 Boro-silicate type.. 139 0.63 Soda glass....... 0.3-0.44 Window glass.........- 0.3-0.61 Granite. . 1.02.3 Graphite, dense, commercial... : 32 | 86.7 Powdered, through 100 mesh. 30 104 | 0.104 Gypeum, molded and dry.....-. 78 68} 0.25 Hair, felt, perpendicular to fibers. 7 86 | 0.021 Tee. = 57.5 a2 | 18 Infusorial earth (Gee Diatomaceous earth) Kapok... 0.88 6s | 0.020 Lampblack. 30 0.038 Tava... oon 0.49 Leather, sole... 62.4 0.092 Limestone (15.3 vol % H:0). 103 0.54 Linen... 0.05 Magnesia, powdered. u7 | 0.35 ‘Magnesia, light carbonate. 70 | 0.08 ‘Magnesium oxide, comprised 49.9 es | 0.32 Marble.....-..0. é : 1.24.7800 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Taste 4, Terman Conpuormrrres or Lrqurps* & = Beu/(hr) (f4) CF At) A linear variation with temperature may be assumed. The extreme values given constitute also the temperature limits over which the data are recommended. Tague °F Taga “Fr E a ee oe pone ee TY BTR |e aa Giese fp ef 88a lee a ‘eimenin..- 5-86) 0:29" | Kerosene. : 6 | 9.098 Ammonis, squeous if oz wi A i 8 Laat cn gations] Be Pe Bie +8. (388 i Ls 8 es . 86 | 9.092 x OTs _ 8 | Obert... | has myestese $88 Ite are 101 (R-). . 0.097 irobensenesevesseeees-so-797") gi | 0.088. 8 | enue ef) oe 3.8; | Soro He Calcium ebloride brine 30%. 9.32 | Nonane (o). " 15%. 34, Dee ome dec reeneencl | BEE 01088 tad 140 | 0.081, Ba low an BB | coe, a Ses: ER om. 3B 0.079 | oleic acid. 0.0925, Dass 9 a |. [outers a ae 83.8 aa Diesmettcenron. | | age ee ie BEE seen ea 4g coe Perchloroetl 0.092 Blehrwtan BE] gga | ast. 9-078 BE | rma. ie ‘est iat ig 3m see Be 0.224 | Sodium chloride ‘brine 25.0%. 0.33 i 12.5%. 86 | O-3t cl rn oo] Bae é 9 ’ ga 3 3 38 a ‘50 | 0.074 o 59 | 0,106 3 e/a 3 2 |g Fite $ 176 | 0.998, 2 -| 88 | 0.090 He soul sles “+ yom Peay, 1 H., "Chemical Eagineera! Handbook,” oGraw-ll Bool 7 Tne, ea Engine 0,” dd e2., MeGraw-Hill Book Company, IneAPPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 801 Taste 6, Tuerman Conpvertvrmms om Gases axp Varons* ke = Beu/(hr)(ft#)(CF /ft) ‘The extreme temperature values given constitute the experimental range. For extrapolation to other temperatures, it is suggested that the date given be plotted as log vs. log T or that use be made of the assumption that the ratio cu/k is practically independent of temperature (or of pressure, within moderate limits). Substance: wlio Substance | 8 Acetone, 82] 0.0057 | Dichlorodifuoromethane........| _82/ 0.0048 115] 0.0074 122) 0.0066 212| 0.0000 212) 0.0080 36s] 0.0147 '302| 0.0007 Aootylene...eceseeceseeeessse] HOS) 0,0088 | Btbane....0.0.ccecceseeeeees] 84) 0.0066. 33|'0.0108, =29) 0-088 122] 0.0140 32) 0.0108 212| 0.0172 212] 0.0175. Aires =148} 0.0095 | Etayl acetate, sesce] 115} 0.0072 32) 0.0140 212| 0.0008 212) 0.0188 2363] 0-014 392] 0.0226 | Alcobol...... sess] 68) 0.0080 72] 0.0265 213] 0.0128 Armonia 76) 0.0095 | Chloride.......2-.seeesseeey 0.0085, 23) 0.0128 212] 0.0005 129) 0.0157 363) 0.0135 212] 0.0185 413) 0.0182 Ether. «| 33) 0.0077 Bensene.. 2... eeseeeesesssee] 92) 0,005 135} 0.0099 118] 0.0073 2i2| 0.0131 212| 0.0108 1363) 0.0189 1368) 0.0152 413| 0.0200 413) 0.0176 | Ethyl ceseseesee] 08) 0.0008 Butane (4)... cs ecsceeeesees] 82] 0.0078, 32] 0.0101 212] 0.0185 x23] 0.0131 (0) +] 32} 0.0080 212| 0.0161 212] 0.0130 =58| 0.0088 | Heptane (n-) - 382} 0.0112 32] 0,085 212| 0.0108. 212] 0.0188 | Hexane (W-).e.eeseeeseeeeeees] 92) 0.0072 302) 0.0181 0:0080 572 0.0228 | Hexene. 0,061 Diaulphide. cesses] 83) 0.0040 0:0109 45| 0.0042, | Hydrogen... 0,065 Monoxido......+2+s+6sse+0++] —813) 0.0081 0.088 204 0.0046 0.100, 32| 0.0135 115 otracbloride.........-.-.-+.] 119} 0.004 0.129 212] 0.0052 0.378 363] 0.0005 | Hydrogen and carbon dioxide. 82| 0.0043 | 09% Ha. ..eseee ss 0.0083 32| 0,0088 | 20%... ss 1} 0.0185 113] 0.0048 | aoe. 2] o:0270 ana] 00088 | 60%. nL EOIN) oleae 303] 0.0077 | 80%... tee cece eeeccae] cc) 0.0690 Cyslobexane......... ++ «| a1e! 0: 0005 } 100 9%, .002 00. cl 0:10802 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Taste 5, TamRMat Convvcrvirms or Gass anp Varors.*—(Continued) Substance: Substanoe Hydrogen and nitrogen. Nitzie oxide. 055 Hs 20%. Nitrogen. 20%. 60%. . BOG eee Nitrous oxide Hydrogen and nitrous oxide, 0% Hs, a Pentano (n-) (00)... ‘Methyl aleohel Propane. Acetate. ‘Methyl chloride. Sulphur dioxide, Water vapor. Methylono chloride. : From Perey, J. H., “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8d ed., MoGraw-Hil New York, 1086.APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 803 0.10 2 3 2 8 0.07 Thermal conductivity k,B tu/hr (#4)? (°F/#t) 2 8 0105 t z 0 200 300, 400 500 200 Temperature, *F Fra, 1, Thermal conductivities of hydrocarbonliquids. (Adapted rom Natl, Bur, Standards Mise. Pub. 97.)804 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Specific heat= Btu/tivNDeg.F.) Liguid ange Dept Acetic Acld 100% Aeatone ® 5 2 $ z Oz eg. F. B18 TR am ae 9 Wi | Benzyl Chioride Bring, 25% CaGte Brine, 25% NaCl Buty! ‘Alcohol Gorbon ‘Disulfide Gorbon Tetrachioride ‘Ghlorobanze Chloroform Becar Bichlorosthane Dichloramethone Diphenylmatha Diphengt Oude Bowtherm A Fs 3; RHSoVSowhowooe eel 03 3 | 200 04 Os BWFG-VSSELGS RTO a oundSESIVSTITVT |F 0s 100 Tiguia 049 Freorcsier) teat S aieaten 2 ARE Roim or rochlori Acid, 20% Oso 510 ced Teoamy! Aiconol Isobutyl Alcohol isopropyl Alcohot Nic accra ‘Al Al Methy! Chloride Nephtnclene Ritrobenzene Nonone foctone Perchiocethylene Propyt Alcohol Pyridine suiturie Acid 98% Sulfur Dioxide Hrotvane. 100 0.9 $ BE. Fia.2. Specific heats of liquids. (Chilton, Colburn, and Vernon, based mainly on dota from International Critical Tables, Perry, “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 34 ed., MeGraw- Hl Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.)Deg.F o> nn 200-4 400- Fa. 3. Specific heats of gases at 1 atm. APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA Gs Spavitie heat = Btu /(1b)-| vance ‘ pe serv al lb 2a gar stag cl — a" — Wa htt a Slag al inl a ae on ee SOUR, jae | Manet ape ea) B SHR Sioes Get |G MAE ae) B te | jase aauodao » fiz | arson som ap ost. cias nel 2) Sue caw: laps | Baie cis heer mr gs g o) SRE ROG? (Et | RRS haem as] & 3:83] Bf dn sear ae Re HE See Rae ee ee ae Baie) ea Goiee| za aaa shal Ba beet eign) a fi gaia) ge : bee] a : Bae) eB. £ ermal sae : Roam ieee : Baas Ee i bie Be Be ee eet howe sel pa ge ape Bee ER) ie eae ee Bales) EL) ER, See Qeiee] se] amg "su galas aN 1s ease Bae cB ces Be eee Bee Se) EBe) aR pes: beige] kare) 4% ah boise] ka yams Bren Bue) SEH See Be bua) faa ee Bae Bae) Se) SRE tee ed er or bs 3am) gee be oe oe) ae Ree Bae Eee) 3a Bee) EBS) Be ae bone 2a ried Bee se jo. 0305 0.1118} |0-9851)0. 2719) 680 bee orang er dae | We J0:0503 o:0503}902:7 | "0" | 902 :711:0580) “0 |1:0580] 708.4 # Abridged from “"Thermodynamio Propertios of Steam” by Joseph H. Keenan and Frederick G, Keyes, doin Wiley & Sonn luo New York:818 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER ‘Tam 7, ‘Tasamovrnanic Prorearizs or STEAK. Properties of superheated steam* t é | 8 |g 2 5p See oa Gee gee bs BES 1.040164 tea}. 6s|17_ 203 [tas a] 1286-§ 184 slags 1113819] Tose rede|1-suén|-io| ong sa Hes 2 sis 18.448 18888 1899.6 1744 | 0ay 0762}. OLsf2o4is 2. 100)2, 1.) ai) sori. 360 1,69 ia Lossip. oY x20 00 onan m0 (it) sas 96 43 oa om wo Perio sa sa ode Peal ta ima si uaa au sl is i eres Laem Se ass ls ae aa a aa i to ou St ‘na aot 1» sc sat st Py Re _ asset ashe Est a 2.8] 00 ‘m na e zt at ia as on Peete Sina esi be am dat 2.7 a4 ns mk lt a? ee Wit aby beeen i Bi : Nour] 2.3 sa ‘i mw ee 2 a 4 od aly * a aaa cas et : 06) 3 20 Becierpereerieet aa, i dae Sys et 782 allt, ¢ Pet cath iat tak nec ak © {and aa sel 0 eu 0 elo at _. Decor or ere ence tenon ante aly eee ea CHER ek eer ‘ tira bo 27 ac 3a] 20 fs er 08 wk ee 2 a te 2 Te aif | Heeler ce Morne eth 7 ral an | 2.1 2 ra aes ww i er ae te a el aa cdiy as era i arnt : Ht gar 20 20 | 2.0 a8 we ke eee m8 a callie, ES i ee es * Abvidged from, Treemodynam he hy Joe ck G. Keyes, Jobo Wil «a gic from Thema yan Propet of Stun” Ly Jeng H, Keenan sod Fredeik G. Keyes Jeha WileyAPPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 819 ‘Taste 7, Taermopynamic Prorenrts or Sreas.—(Continued) Properties of superheated steam* Thm, Jetta” ay pa 7 Tai 7 eer el aa sa alee rae wo oR GAS eae Fes, BS a (eee ee a Se ena aa econo as aes ere rea ap te as sno So MRT ge a ee a ees a Pe ire eee eo ec te cae ey eis hcl “isso wet carte eg ng al rn ee ae iene a A ee eee ee a a a a i ‘surest ster soon ou a x coo 1 RHRTRA RR era eo oe emer ck Pa a EE Tas ea ara ea ee bl uo re ot so. sot as seu ayaa tea ey eam ae ee He core cesta iis a sa bse aval rng aly rch as sr apes SE ear or aaa Hertel ee te CR fiat eal sol eal nse too, esl. sre zat aah rat me Raa et ae Pe ee tat pee asl sual sas, so. eran su ssi ots oa Reeen ecm iemeatied uz ay ABBAS a Pac ae att a ah snl sus tn ca re ais se sae jae tee a oy ee Eg ral eno 7 anal 30 ms * ct ha. ge Te ot, Tees Maa Mesa al td aut astute snl eo. 00 aang ene ee ae oll, a aaa el sr atl asa asco soul es 0 sare un ao sm se ty Pea RMS AEE SM egg ozo au sna esp sai nao ‘i see mo aga ea (ay Pe ea aE Ma at esa sen rc _ ge ae re Ti au 1 pat (iy He | a 1s 5 lah sore an ive , aaa ot Ee Hes am et a0 ee re ee ae ‘or asf 1 to, a1. 208 sino er cer a ee i kA Me er dros a sn a ae a acieciew ie odnearinod ign i a eS cas on, a am ae wo ge ane ere Le eis il ie sacl cone ols sb-ail go aut 0 Soe eae a i Sens, Ley Now York, 1057.820 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER INGLER OFoREES ge tp tne, us ena 9 rome SRL Paar ee Beran t (SREB (apt pe ecenena cara econ Ea ieee ee cn scour rurae, EPEAT G3 neouco0 Wot tae WHEN om Tow SE ( nEQuogD 90.» Ke20r- When tnt 0 389. i {0 REDNGO® $0.2 teienREDWOD NO. THE (8 ENOLER TIME Keo vnen-27) On tae 0 OER ERIE RIE ronan, “Eee eer | He ft (CE Ht ee iter li | ERE ACRE nto : ad Tar ‘TE 1 SECONDS-SAYBOLT UNIVERSAL & FURGL, BEDWOOD Ne #8, ENGLER TOE Fra. 182, Viscosity conversion ehart, Ce ENEMATIE VECOSITY.cONTSTORES « 3 SF i : Ta= Teri cf £3 oh Og 5 + M Pe 22 ay 18] 1 +00 j Pe ; ct 4 5 Ol 02 03 04 06 08 10 2 3 456180 2 30 Reduced pressure, pg Beat Fie, 130, Viscosity correction chart for gases at different pressures. [Comings and Bali, End. Eng. Chem., 88, 715 (1940),}APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA ‘Viscostrms or Perrotyum Fractions For temperature ranges employed in the text Coordinates to be used with Fig. 14 ‘76°API natural gasoline. ve) ha | 64 56°API gasoline... -.| 14.0 | 10.5 42°API Kerosene. 4 -| 16 | 16.0 BS°API distillate... : 10.0. | 20.0 34°API mid-continent erade. o |, ios | aia 28°APT gasail....-.-...2.... 10.0 | 23.6 Viscosmms or ANTAL AND Vartan Ors* Almond. 6.9 | 28.2 Coconut. 6.9 | 26.9 Cod liver 77 | 37.7 Cottonseed. 7.0 | 28.0 Lard... 7.0 | 23.2 Linseed. 68 | 27.5 Mustard 7.0 | 28.5 Neatsfoot: 6.5 | 23.0 Olive 6.6 | 28.3 Palm kernel 7.0 | 26.9 Perilla, raw a1 | 27.2 Rapeseed, 7.0 | 28.8 Sardine... v7 | 27.8 Soybean 8.3 | 27.6 Sperm... 7.7 | 26.8 Sunflower. .. 7.5 | 27.6 Whale, refined 75 | 275 821 * Based on date at 100 and 210°F of A. R. Rescorla and F. E, Carnahan, Ind. Brno. Chem, 28, 1212- 1213 (2996), ‘From data of D. Q. Kern and W. Van Nosteand, Znd, Eng. Chem. 4, 2209 (1049). ‘Viscosrrms or Commeencian Farry Actns* 250 to 400°F822 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Viscostriss or Liquis* Coordinates to be used with Fig. 14 Liquid x}y Liquid x|y estaldehyas. re figea ca ea TB ‘Acetic acid, 100% na 414" 17:3) 4:7 Acetic sid, 70%. 9i3| : 12°5)11.4 ‘Acetic anhydride 2. 7/12: §Freon-1i4. 4:6) 8/3 ‘Acetone, 100%... 14/5] 7:2Glyeeral, 160% 2.01800 ‘Acetone, 35%." 7'9)15.0\Glyeerol; 50%. 6:9}19:6 ‘Allyl aleohol.- 2! 2 fso2)14 '3}Fteptane naa] 8.4 ‘Ammonia, 100% 200000000000 24 : sfl-7] 7-0 ‘Ammonia, 20% 10:1]13 9fEty acid, 815%..." ]13 016.6 Amy] acetate. 1/11.8]12:5ffsobutyl aleohol 7'1118:0 ‘Amyl alcohol LL) 7i5)18"4ffsobutyrie acid. heiais's Aniline 8.1]18.7[Isopropy! aleohol. 8.2|16.0 Anisole 12/3)13.5|Mercury nsalie.4 ‘Araenie trichloride {}13-0lt48|Methanoi, 100%. n2:4l10°6 Benzene... {]12:5)10.9]Methanol, 90% sha'sin's Brine, CaCl;, 25%... {| 6:6)15.9]Methanol, 40% ] -8ht5.5 Brine, NaCl, 25% 10:2 is} 2 Bromine... ‘a2 5.0) 3:8 Bromotoiuene. [20-0 11139] 8:6 a-Butane. :fts:3| | 79131 Isobutane... ha 12'8}13.8 Butyl acetate. ‘12:3 10:817-0 Butyl aleohol. 8.6) 10.6|16.2 Butyrie acid...) 1211 107-0 Carbon dioxide an 13:7/10-0 Carbon disulfide Tas ‘| 6.61211 Carbon tetrachloride 12:7] lho :9)17 3 Chlorobensene. TI a's Ufia's) 5:2 Chloroform 144 6.9/20:8 Ghlorosulfonie acid: :|12.2118 [Phosphorus tribiomide 18.8{16.7 Chlorotoluene, ortho. ‘|18°0113'3}Phosphorus trichloride. 16.2]10:9 Chlorotaluene, meta. 13.3112 {Propane 115.3) 30 Chlorotoluene, para... 12 B[Propionio acid. [ia.shia:s resol, mota 2.5)20.8|Propyl alcohol. | 9:ajte:5 Gyclohexanoi 2'0)24.3}Propy! bromide 4:3] 9.6 Dibromoethane. “P2-715 Prony! chlosde. eal 75 Dichloroetnane [13.212 2pPropyl iodide. . Uta’ Dichlorometbane iis 8 deed en ‘]ie.4l13:9 Diethyl oxalate. “]14-926-dBodium oxi, Bove. 3.2)95.8 Dimethyl oxalate. 2/315 )Stannie chloride... UhB 5128 Dipheny!. “120, 1hs'3| 7:1 Dipropyl oxalate. “fto:3| 7a Ethyl acetate... hac7 TP rop4's Behyl aleohol, 100%. - 10:3 hogan 3 Ethyl alcohol, 05% 9.gii4.: ‘jis '2)12 4 Eu alcohol, 40%. 6.5|16 6 Tetrachloroethane. a 9li5:7 Ethyl benzend.. “]15:2)1-Siteteachtoroethylens, 14.2]12°7 Ethyl bromide 14.5 uaa 3 Ethyl chloride... tas! ‘|ts:7j10-4 Bihyl ether...) jis] ‘fia8 10:5 Ethyl formate. !4'3] 8!4)Durpentine. 11549 Ethyl iodide. 14.7}10:3}Vinyl acetate ‘}r4!o} 8:8 Byhylene glycol. “| 6.0)28.-6|Water..... 10.213:0 Formic acid...... 0. Xylene, orto 13 5]2"1 Froon-Ll.. oe Xylene, meta. 910.6, ‘Freon-12. 1 16.8] 5.6|Xylene, para. Lhr3‘9h10.9 ** From Perry, J. H., Chemical Engineers" Handbook,” $4 ed, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Tae New York, 195APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 823 Tanpe Viseosty Deg.6. Centipoises 200 'c0 190 Es \v0 E #8 to \10 Eso 160 E +0 is0 E so v40 E 130 Eso veo E 0 6 roo ° 2 20 : E ¢ to Es 10 E 60 ES 50 — 40 30 20 + 60 0 + 50 40 ot 39 E E- 03 20 E 0 | L w E- oz Lo -20 4 E + -0 60 re eg co) x -30 + -20 Lo Fra. 14. Viscosities of liquids. (Perry, “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8d ed., McGraw ‘Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.)824 PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER Yiscosrras oF Gases* Coordinates to be used with Fig. 15 o io Gas Kectic acid. ‘Acetone... Acetylene. ‘Air. Ammonia. Argon... Benzene. Bromine ie Butylene. Carbon dioxide. . Carbon disulfide... Carbon monoxide, | Chlorine. .....- . 2 Cone . . ae Cyclohexane. Ethane... Ethyl acetate. . Ethyl alcohol. Ethyl chloride. Ethyl ether. Ethylene Fluorine. Freon-11 Freon-12. ‘Freon-21 Freon-22. Freon-113. Helium, . Hexane. Hydrogen. lp + -IN3.... 5 Hydrogen bromide. Hydrogen chloride ae ee ais ioe Todine. Hhncooonewonunone| ees 16:0 notmomomme Se tooes jomomoomorr ame Smonsmconml ra ShSSESuomesmsee. Methyl alcohol Nitric oxide. Nitrogen, Nitrosyl chloride. Nitrous oxide... Oxygen. Pentane. MISS ROD SRSwODOwHaDNASeMwHaDE: NSSPSSEG EUS SS SHA SEEN EE SISOS ENS SRNESEREESEEES eso * From Peuzy, J. H., "Chealcal Benes New York, 1086.Temperature, Deg.c. Deg ~100 “100 0 ° 100 too —f> 200 300 200 = 400 500 600 400 70 800 con 900 1000 600 i100 1200 700 1300 1400 800 1500 1600 v2 ‘700 1000 1800 APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA O24 6 BO Rw 6B 825 Viscosity Cenfipoises Ol 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.009 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.005 Fic. 15. Visoosities of gases. (Perry, “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 3d ed., MeGraw- Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1950.)PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 826 “suoqreoonp Ay, 205 fo) Jo SOTA “OT “Dx sa10dyu9a hys035in ogg Oe Oa oo 9s yee o1 g0_ 90.50 40 £0 a0 z0, ‘9 190 800 soo ro 20 s 8 3 (alsa ats)-4/o49 fot) 8 si 9 v eg827 APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA (oper 104 eM “po pg ‘UopDROEEY eisinpofUopY soUPyEAG sONGn, fo epsopUDIS) aA Waa £08 yy maa, 6109 — 737 = munivwzanat cms JOVEIAY 20 “ag toyovy aunqusodwey opoyeo ey, “ZT-DK 0 3070 zoo 0 a a ‘Wo go agtarae “leary gPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 828 "p27 ‘uosmo0ey ecoenpofnuoyy wounyra soars Jo spsopUOIS) “siodtunypxe g-T 20} 8204905 SASSvd 34NL SYOWYOZ —sSSWd TISHS | +4'yoL1ovs NOIL93NYO9 GLWT 60, 8°0, £0 0 so vo. £0 z0 Coper “0K oN 99007209 CLWT “ST “OL 10. lo 3 3 3 S Ly 2 o Q ° ‘MOLI FINAVAAIG SUNLVUIdNIL829 APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA Carer “Y0d man “PA PG woNeRONY seinpofmore wOumEEE somany; fo sperpuorg) “sOBUNEPXO FG 50} SORRY NOHOOLIOD GLWT “OL “ONL S3SSVd FNL FUOW YOY SASSVd TISHS GD +4°yo19vd_NOILO3HYOD GW oso 80 zo go 0. vo eo 20 10 69 3 ty & 3 8 é MOLOVs SONTHSITIO BuNWAadNaL orPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 830 Corer Hon oN “pe Pt ‘uonmovesy siesmpnfuosy sOuyees, oManT fo epépumrs) “sIeBUUYOXD 9-¢ J0f SIO}ONS WoHDeTION TLNT ‘OZ “PRL SAssvd SEAL SNOWYOD SasSvd TISHS € 44‘Y010Vs NOILO3HHOO G1W1 Er) 20 10 G9 ee: WOLOVA BINIVIISIO SUNLWUSdWIL ‘by 2831 APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA Corer 4404 m9 po pe ‘uoymmporey sisungonfnun jy seOunyoxy soyngn,; Jo spinpung) “sseBUMYOxO BF TOF 81040, LOH CLINT $y aR, 1-24 *S ea SASSVd 3GNL FAOW AOS = Sassvd TISHS VY +4'u0L0v4 NOILD3YYOD OLWT 1e “OME on 60 80 £0. 90 so. vo x) zo ft sty 5 Ss a oe wo1svd zona¥iasio auniezawa gCorer ‘Hod men “pe pg ‘woymoony sxoinpofnuoyy seounyeg swigny fo spsvpunjg) “siePUByOXS OI-G J0F SIO OHIO CLINT “BE ‘OM smigus SASSVd 34NL SNOW YOO! sAssvd TISHS S i +5‘yo19vs NOIL93YYOD G1W7 s elo) i ee oe eo! 1 20 to 260 2 g a 8 8 x = S 3 : 2 3 rod g coll g RB 8 3 8833 APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA Cover ‘wa oy “po pg ‘uopmooeey ewounpopnunpy wwOunyerg cojnany fo spumpunyg) “sieBUEYOxe ZI-9 J0F SIO}OR} WORLD CLT “Es “OL SASSVd AGNL TAIOWAOT SASSVd TISHS D +4‘ yo19v4 NOIL93¥YOD OLN s on x) 80 £0. 90 so v0 oO zo to Ogg Say 2 Q 5 ° o 3 BOLOVS SONTYSIIIG SUNLVYIWAL gPROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 834 (emmy pio Lope wag prgepy) “aasno sepnuesnas9y OPIEOANL, “FE “OE Bena owes + tt cotatisss tomes 2 tls + toe mmo : t ‘ ‘ ‘ : : i 5 3 ; : 3 3 En slg aE a oe aE, Fort io a ie, oe| 44 43/91 ‘oanyseduay (pon aqng Sup 9 Ay3005 aoe 5 pega ares ai 240 Aer b 14 40 MOL 1 "ajod 3 bay 7 8 /aox age x ayy Kunpue Yue. =f Soniye ay # 0s Sox qU/o4a "Pm $04 Bids = 2 005 44 Be Sogn} nowy ado Moy= 40 ‘vet QNITOOD ONY ONILVIH 88 988 8 on Ev EO ONO? OOS OE OE 205 Oe as ys 2 - fro age e or300° 2000} g 3s ss 8888 8 Heat transfer coefficient h;,,Btu/hr (F#°)(°F) 8 3 200) 10 APPENDIX OF CALCULATION DATA 835 eorrs:s &Ssc8 Correction factor Ga "Os 06 07 08 09 LO is 20 Inside diameter of tube,in The values of hj are for a ¥4'00x 16 BW6 tube (100.62"). For any other 1D multiply A; by the factor obtained above 1s a) 2 3 4 Velocity through tubes, ft/sec Yio, 25. Tube-side water-heat-transfer curve, [Adapted from Bagle and Ferguson, Proc. Roy. Soc., A127, 540 (1930).PROCESS HEAT TRANSFER 836 sup be/ig by 1 Covet "122d MN “Po PG ‘UOHRDROEEY s.2npOfUD; LOUVRE IOAN, fo sPANpUENG) “OIE, HORII OpE2GNT, “9G “OTE 2424 084 Ht) 39 zee 030 yt) yk cyst “appa Sas athstag Or Oy ce Anite Tn noo so00 sooo