Lecture No 12.

Behaviour of the poultry II. EGG PRODUCTION

Nesting
In free-living hens (e.g. on free range or litter) selection
• Connection between behaviour and production of the nest site is done with great care, often in association with
the male. Nesting is characterised by secrecy and careful nest
• Behaviour and housing systems
concealment.
• Views and proofs against keeping laying hens in Nesting activity and ovulation are related so that a good
intensive farming systems and in old-type battery nest favours high production. The hen normally moves through
cages. four phases.
• Seeking out a place to lay. This can be very protracted as she
• Malbehaviour of poultry becomes restless, paces about giving the pre-laying call and
showing characteristic body posture. In a deep-litter laying
house she examines the walls and corners.
by
• Inspection of a number of possible sites between feeding,
Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc preening or sleeping and finally pushing into one of them. She
continues to examine the nest, lifting her legs with care and
keeping her neck horizontal.

Nesting in cages

Settling, squatting, making a nest hole by crouching and
In the limited space of the battery cage, the same
rotating several times using her keel bone to shape the nest.
sequences are adopted by the hens but their expression is

Then she sits and lays, often standing to expel the egg.
modified.

After laying, she may examine the egg with her beak then rises
The hen searches the cage, pushing other hens away.
and returns to the flock and cackles.
She may creep between the legs of other hens, sometimes up to
100 times, before she settles. She spends laying time putting her
head between the wires, pushing and often being pecked by
birds in the next cage. Intention movements to fly may be shown
by tail extended and wings slightly raised. She may even try to
climb the cage. Then suddenly she squats and lays. Breathing
rate is high and her calls are generally weak. Eggs are often laid
in the same area of the cage.
Caged hen paces to fill up the time normally spent in the
1: Normal walking; 2: Fixating on the nest site; 3: Examining walls
pre-laying behaviour seen in the free-living bird. Pacing varies
after entry; 4: Settling and laying; 5: Examines egg and relaxes
between strains from 100-2600 paces before laying. Birds were
recorded as spending their time in resting 55%, eating 21%,
laying 17% and drinking 7%.

Nest design
In the Jungle fowl, nesting is mainly ground-bound and in a
bamboo habitat semi-darkness are probably important.
The main aim in free-living hens is to get them to lay in nest
boxes where clean high quality eggs should result, and to prevent
them laying on the floor.
In general one nest is needed for every four pullets and
these must be provided by 18 weeks of age, i.e. 2 weeks before
sexual maturity. Nests should be clean, have ample litter, such as
straw, shavings, sawdust, wood fibre, rice hulls, almond shell, silica
pellets, fir, cork and so on, depending on the local supply. Birds
should be prevented from roosting in or on top of nesting boxes or
sleeping in them.
The nest box should be large enough for the bird to turn
round in and some studies have shown a bird’s preference for a
triangular shaped entrance rather than a square one. Nest boxes
are best sited 450-500 mm above the litter level.
Leaving dummy eggs in nests is an old trick to attract hens to lay.

Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc

Lecture No 12.

Floor laying
Single vs. communal nests
Eggs laid on the floor are a
Choice of nest box layout depends on the system, with ease of egg
major economic loss to poultry
collection being a major concern. producers, and as the habit is hard to
•There are two types of hens solitary nestlers and social nestlers. cure once started, prevention must be
• Communal nests of 60 x 200 cm accommodate fifty birds, and given priority. Some practical
whatever kind of nest is used, there should be a rail or perch along suggestions are:
the front on which birds can sit and wait, and inspect the nest and
Start with the nest boxes on the floor
its occupants. However, regardless of the number of nests or their and slowly raise them.
type, some will not be used and crowding will occur in others.
Don’t make the floor litter too deep.
•Communal nests can cause problems as shy, low-ranking hens Have 7-8 cm rather than 15 cm of litter.
may not push their way into the box.
Pick up all floor eggs and leave some real eggs or some dummy eggs
• Trap nest is a single nest in which a slide drops down after the in the nests.
bird goes inside. The slide mechanism is triggered by the bird’s
Direct access from roosts to nests will allow shy birds in to lay.

Make the nests attractive with plenty of litter, regularly renewed.
back and tail. She cannot get out until released when her number is

Keep the nests in semi darkness. Make sure they are vermin-proof.
recorded on the egg and the record sheet.
Try to eliminate dark corners in the pen.

Cage keeping
Population density and maximum group size
Number of Floor area Bird/ kg/
Deep litter
hen/cage requirement, cm2/bird m2 m2
Population Population Maximum 3 600 16-17 40
Production density, bird/m2 density, kg/m2 group 2 830 12 30
size
small heavy
bird bird Moulting
Pullets till 7-8 4-6 20 1 000 Moulting or loss of feathers is a normal process in the bird
week 20 and usually occurs in hens when egg laying stops at the end of the
Laying hen 6-7 4-5 15-17 1 000 season. A new generation of feathers grows and pushes the old
ones out, this taking about 8-12 weeks to complete. Up to 25% of
Broilers till 22-23 22-23 34-35 6 000
week 7 birds may be culled before their second production year when egg
number/bird is 20% lower, egg size is larger but quality and shell
texture are lower.

MEAT PRODUCTION The following are some management points that are important for
good results from meat chickens:
The modern broiler chicken is probably the best example
Adequate drinkers are essential and should be regularly checked.
of how an animal can be bred, fed and housed to meet very
Good feeder design is important to allow the smallest bird to eat,
specific market requirements, under intensive competition with prevent wastage and blockages regardless of type of feed.
prime emphasis on efficiency. The modern broiler converts 1.95-
Birds should have access to food and water within about 2 m of
2.20 kg of feed into 1 kg of body weight from which 0.7 kg of their area in the deep litter shed, and there should be sufficient
carcass is produced. access to allow low-dominance and shy birds to feed.
A good broiler has to increase its birth weight forty to fifty
Physical form of the feed affects intake, such as whether it is hard
times before slaughter at forty-two days. or soft, meal, crumbs or pellets, and the size of the pellets.
Behavioural problems that arise are inevitably expressed in
Removing stale food and regular topping up of feeders is
poor growth rates, worsening feed conversion and increases in important whether manual or mechanical.
mortality, all of which can be regularly and easily recorded in good
management systems.

Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc

Lecture No 12.

Housing systems and behaviour

Checks on all mechanical equipment and failsafe mechanisms
1) Free range
with operator warnings are basic to any production plant.
This is a traditional system for egg production, which still

Ventilation. High levels of ammonia and carbon dioxide can
today has the vision of “farm fresh eggs” associated with it, where
cause serious problems. The atmosphere should be dry and
hens can wander at will over green pastures with no environmental
temperatures optimal.
restrictions. There are however many drawbacks to this system

Stocking density and crowding. Stocking rates
and in Britain only about 2% of poultry are now run outdoors.
recommendations are given in specialist texts. Examples of a
controlled environment is 17-22 birds/m2 to a maximum age which
is equivalent to 34.2 kg/m2. In non-controlled this would reduce to
9-12 birds/m2.

Housing of organic poultry in a 160 chickens in each tent (150 hens and
climate tent on the outskirts of an 10 roosters). The chickens were 8
orchard. Note that the communal weeks of the age at stalling.
nesting box is placed outside the tent.
The objective of a mobile hen house is to provide for easy
gathering of free-range eggs, protective night housing for the
hens, fresh forage, clean living conditions and easy
distribution of the chicken's manure.

Food and water are placed outside the tent

Some of the disadvantages of the free range systems are:

Little protection from the weather.

Greater labour requirement for feeding, egg collection and
moving houses.

More food required/dozen eggs produced.

Greater food wastage.

The birds’ diet may be grossly imbalanced.

Dirty eggs and fouled pasture.

Lowered egg quality. Stale eggs and offensive flavours.

Birds run greater risk of disease from soil-borne infections.

Greater incidence of internal and external parasites.

Risks from predators.

Poor working environment for staff.

Fencing in free
range

Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc

Lecture No 12.

2) Slatted and wire floor (aviary systems)

Hens are kept on totally slatted or wire floors where very
high densities can be kept, e.g. up to 0.09 m2 /bird. Nest boxes are
accessible from outside without going into the house among the
birds.
The system tries to find a compromise between cages and
deep litter. The perching area is a main feature of this system, and
is built over a droppings pit which need only be cleaned out once a
year. Aviary system
The critical aspects for behavioural problems in these
houses are to ensure that

nests are placed near to the perching area,

that eggs can be collected easily,

ventilation system can handle the foul air from the dropping pit

floor eggs can be a major problem

long, narrow pens are good to prevent a lot of interaction
between the birds but panic and bruising can arise when inspection full 15cm of aerial perch for every
takes place by the attendant. hen

3) Deep litter MINIMUM REQUIREMENT OF HOUSING LAYING HENS 1.

This is where birds of all types are kept on litter at various

stocking densities with partial or full environmental control.
feeding area: minimum 10 cm at through or 4 cm at cylindrical
Behavioural problems in deep litter usually seen as a drop feeding station;
in egg production, include increased aggression (feather pecking),
drinking allowance: 2.5 cm at water through, 1 cm at
mortality and feed wastage. Floor laying may also be a problem. cylindrical/cone drinkers, or in case of using bowl or nipple drinkers
To investigate these problems the following points should be 1 water source for 10 layers;
checked:
for one solitary nest: 7 hens, or for 1 m2 communal nest 120

Temperature, humidity and ventilation. hens;

Feed access, wastage and diet quality and quantity.
min. 15 cm perch for one hen;

Physical form of diet.
min. 250 cm2 deep litter area per hen;

Type and condition of the litter. Is it wet or dry?
when outdoor yards are provided min. size of the outlet: height:

The lighting pattern and intensity. 35 cm, width: 40 cm and 50 outlets should be provided for 1000

Stocking density. Check this as modification may be essential. hens;

Resort to beak trimming and spectacles only after the problem
outdoor yards should be provided with waterers and shelters
of aggression has been fully investigated. against harsh weather.

4) Battery cages
Cage designs have been strongly affected by economic pressures
on producers, as well as the concern of welfarists. The advantages
of cages for laying birds are: Views and proofs against keeping laying hens in

They allow provision of a completely balanced diet. intensive farming systems and in old-type battery

It is easier to maintain an optimal climate.
cages.

Egg eating is less likely.

Inspection of birds is easier. These following photos were taken from: www.all-

Catching birds is easier. creatures.org/ anex/chicken.html and will be

Parasites and diseases should be easier to control. This may not discussed during the lecture
be true in poor environments.

High production of high quality eggs is easier to achieve from
strains of bird genetically selected for this environment.

Birds rest more, pecking is reduced and cannibalism is less
likely.

Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc

Lecture No 12.

Egg laying hens are packed

into 'battery cages' which are Notice the poor condition of
lined up in rows in huge their feathers. By constantly
Excessive debeaking can cause life-long pain. rubbing against their wire
Sometimes in the process, the end of the factory warehouses. They
are left in these cages for up cages, egg laying hens suffer
chicken's tongue is also cut off. from severe feather loss. This
to two years. Such inhumane
treatment of other living is a human-caused condition!
beings is evil.

Standing on slanted wire Typically, four to five egg These battery cages are so Every year millions of egg
floors, battery caged laying laying hens are packed into small that the hens can't even laying hens die in their
hens commonly suffer from a wire battery cage which stand up without their heads battery cages. This dead hen
foot and leg maladies. has a floor the size of a sticking out through the wire was removed from her cage
folded newspaper. They at the top of the cage. This is and laid on top of it.
cannot even stretch their an example of how human
wings. Stop this evil and beings pile one evil act upon
cruel treatment of another. It's time it stops!
chickens. Stop eating eggs!

In the manure pits, investigators

found mass graves of dead hens,
presumably discarded there by
workers. The chickens that are alive
have to live in the stench and fumes
of the rotting remains of their
companions and their own feces.

This hen has her leg caught between the Many hens get their heads
bars of two cages. She is still alive, but stuck beneath the feeding
will soon die if not released. To the egg trough and die of
farmers, the life of a single chicken dehydration. We believe this
appears to be of no value. Photos like happens because the hens are
these prove to us the evilness of factory trying to rescue their newly laid
farming, and how ungodly these farmers eggs which have rolled away.
really are. It's as we are told in Proverbs
12:10, "A righteous man has regard for
the life of his animal, But even the
compassion of the wicked is cruel."

Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc

Lecture No 12.

These cages are so crowded

that all the hens don't have Overcrowded conditions lead to
enough space to sit or lie down feather loss which is caused by
at the same time. In order to the struggle for space and by
find space to sit and lie down, constantly rubbing against the
wire of the cages. To force These photos show more chickens
this hen was forced to climb on
chickens to live this way is evil suffering from severe feather loss
top of the other hens. Note the
and ungodly. because of the cruelty and indifference
horrible condition of the top
of human beings. Its time to say no to
hen's feathers, most of which
this pain and suffering. Stop eating
have been lost.
eggs, and any animals.

This dead hen is lying with

her head in the food trough. This hen accidentally hanged herself
when she got her head twisted around These hens’ wings are caught
the wires at the top of her battery between the wires of a battery cage.
cage.

This badly decomposed hen was found

in the bottom of a battery cage with This hen's foot is swollen to
living chickens still in it. several times its natural size.

MINIMUM REQUIREMENT OF HOUSING LAYING HENS 2. MINIMUM REQUIREMENT OF HOUSING LAYING HENS 3.
Keeping layers in traditional cages Keeping layers in upgraded cages

minimum floor area allowance: 550 cm2 per hen;
minimum floor area allowance: 750 cm2 per hen;

minimum height of the cage: 45 cm;
minimum height of the cage: 45 cm;

opening of the cage should be designed to allow in- and
minimum ground area of the cage: 1000 cm2;
dislodging of birds without pain and stress;
one laying nest should be built in every cages;

flooring of cage should be designed as to allow resting,
min. perch: 15 cm;
standing without injury;
min. trough length: 12 cm;

slope of the cage floor should not exceed 14%;
watering places should be in harmony with the number of

feeding and watering troughs: 10 cm/bird at min.; birds kept in the cage;

deadline of using this cages 1st January, 2012.
min. 90 cm distance between rows of cages;

distance between the floor of the bottom tier of cage and the
floor of the house: 35 cm

Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc

Lecture No 12.

Abnormal behaviour of poultry

1) Feather pecking
It may occur from day 1 onward in
any age. Most frequently the feather on the
back, breast and abdomen is affected,
however, pulling out the feathers on the tail
and wings is not rear. Feather is frequently
eaten up. Feather pecking brings
nervousness about in the flock greatly
reducing the weight gain or egg production.
laying nest In severe cases it may result in cannibalism
Sometimes chain of feather pecking birds establishes. It starts between
birds that are standing close and looking opposite directions. Till about 6
month of age birds show no defence against being pecked. However,
one type of upgraded cage for laying hens older hens try to avoid the attacks, they may go away or take up
defensive posture. There is close correlation between the rank order and
feather pecking, viz. dominant bird pecks and subordinate one is being
pecked.

Feather pecking occurs almost exclusively in intensive husbandry 2) Cannibalism

systems, both in deep litter and cage keeping, however it is less in
cage keeping. Hybrids of low body weight and selected for high egg Cannibalism is sometimes the continuation of feather
production are more prone to feather pecking. pecking. It establishes if bleeding wounds form as result of feather
Following factors may have importance in the establishment of this pecking. However, in most of the time it begins with pecking at the
malbehaviour. cloaca. At laying egg the cloaca extroverts and stays as it is for

Long lasting high environmental temperature. shorter or longer time.

Low (less than 50 %) relative humidity. Two major factors and their combination are thought to be

Inadequate ventilation. involved in the establishment of cannibalism.

High population density, insufficient feed trough and drinker
Nutritional and genetic factors that contribute to the exstrophy
allowance. (protrusion) of cloaca. It frequently associates with forced moulting,

High light intensity. irregular feed distribution, fasting etc.

Presence of ill and/or injured birds.
Housing failures (high population density, fewer number of nests

Nutritional failures. than requested, ectoparasites etc.)

3) Toe pecking 4) Egg eating

This is a special form of cannibalism among chicken It may appear on deep litter, however it is mainly the
and layers. The active chick pecks at the toe of another chick malbehaviour of young layers kept in cages. Boredom and easy
or sometimes (although this is rather rare) pecks its own toe. It availability of eggs in ill-designed cage play important role. It starts
may appear very early after hatching. If pecking is not often with finding broken eggs and the birds satisfies its natural
overwhelming and not so spread among the birds, it may scrutinising habit by tasting it. Once birds start this habit, identifying
conclude in several days. In other cases, it may result in the the culprits can be very time-wasting and they can soon spread the
appearance of bleeding, which may enhance the toe pecking habit to others.
and in such cases it may trigger cannibalism. Suggestions to solve the problem are:
Wounds of the toes may infect, the locomotor activity
Try to identify the culprit by yolk on the beak and attempts to
becomes hindered, feed consumption decreases and all these clean the beak.
concludes in reduced gain, weakening and finally death.
Cull the culprits if identified.
Spontaneous recovery is hardly observed.
Trim the beaks.

Darken the nest boxes.

Prevent floor eggs.

Completely remove all broken eggs.

Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc

Lecture No 12.

5) Fowl hysteria 6) Polydipsia

Hens may suddenly start flying about, squawking and This is excessive water drinking by birds. It occurs in caged
trying to hide, and the episode may last for a few seconds or birds which through boredom, play excessively with drinking nipples.
even minutes. It is not usually seen in houses before 140 days of This leads to regurgitation of food and water attracting the attention
age, or in community cages until about 45 weeks of age. of other birds which then often eat the mixture. This practice causes
The only suggestion made so far for prevention is to food wastage and should be discouraged by frequently remixing the
change the design of the house in which it occurs and purchase food in the trough to make it visually interesting. This can be done
another strain of bird. mechanically by a plate which ploughs through the food when
pushed along.

7) Cage weariness
Its cause is unknown, however it seems to relate to
vitamin C deficiency. It occurs generally after 3-4 months cage
keeping. The layers become enervated and thin. Placing them
onto deep litter the layers recover soon.

Prof. Dr. Pál Rafai DSc