Commercial
Layers Production
Guide
Commercial Layers Production Guide
If you plan to start or have started raising chickens for egg production, you need to understand flock
production capabilities. You need to know how to gauge the number of eggs your flock can produce
and be aware of the variables that affect egg production. You should be able to identify which hens are
laying and determine why your hens are not laying. By having a firm grasp of these factors, you will
help ensure the success of your flock.
Poultry enterprises may vary from basic backyard poultry keeping to mechanized and automated production
plants. Various types of poultry enterprises are illustrated in Table 1.
Table 1
Types of poultry enterprises
Backyard Farm flock Commercial Specialized egg Integrated egg
poultry poultry farm production production
Subdivision of egg Pullet growing, Hatchery Feed production Chicken meat production Separate
production feed production production separate from becomes independent of enterprises
separate from poultry farms egg production reintegrated as a
farming business
Main Natural Artificial hatching Feed mixing Egg processing plant Controlled-
management hatching and sexing environment houses
characteristics
Type of farming Subsistence Mixed farming Joint egg and meat Eggs industry(single Egg complex
farming production commodity)
Labour Part-time Part-time Full-time Division of management Separate daily work
and labour and random work
Building Free range Water feeder Water feeder Manure disposal Egg belt
equipment automatically
controlled house
Backyard poultry production is at the subsistence level of farming. Birds live free range and hatch their own eggs.
Their diet is supplemented with crop waste or food leftovers. The labour involved in backyard poultry production
is part-time.
Farm flock production is slightly more specialized. Eggs are hatched at a separate location where the hatch and
the sexing of the birds are controlled.
Commercial poultry farm production involves full-time labour and is geared toward producing on a sufficient scale
for the sale of both eggs and poultry meat.
Specialized egg production consists of separating poultry for meat and egg production. In the egg producing
plant, specialized employees oversee specific aspects of egg production.
Integrated egg production is the most advanced enterprise and involves full mechanization and automation of the
egg production cycle including battery egg laying, temperature controls, scientific feeding and mechanized egg
collection methods.
All of the above poultry-keeping methods are used in the developing world, but the majority of the enterprises are
backyard poultry and farm flock production. The poultry and egg sectors are highly fragmented. Most of the
production is carried out by a large number of farmers, each with a very small flock. The greater part of produce
is sold in markets close to the farms.
Day-old chicks are usually obtained from local hatcheries licensed by international hybrid breeding companies.
Farmers or cooperatives of farmers may choose between varieties of chickens for egg production and meat
production.
The small chicks can be either naturally or artificially brooded. If artificially brooded, small chicks must be placed
in a separate house from laying chickens and it is necessary to protect the chicks from predators, diseases and
catching colds. This stage of brooding lasts for eight weeks. In the first four weeks of life, small chicks need to be
housed in a brooding box. Some typical types of brooders are shown below and on the previous page.
After the first month, small chicks are removed from the brooder box and placed in the brooder house. At two
months of age, the chicks enter the grower stage which lasts until they are five months (20 weeks) old. Growers
may either be housed separately from small chicks or continue to be reared in brooder-cum-grower houses. It is
important to properly manage the growers as their reproductive organs develop during this period and this will
affect their egg production capacity in the future.
When the growers reach 18 weeks of age they are moved to laying houses and begin to lay eggs, which are,
however, small and unmarketable. It is not until they are 21 weeks old that the growers reach their commercial
laying stage. Layers may be placed in intensive, semi-intensive or free-range types of housing.
The choice of housing is determined by climate, type of production desired and the farmer’s financial resources.
Some examples of laying houses are shown on the next two pages.
Factors affecting egg production
Typically, a layer’s production cycle lasts just over a year (52-56 weeks). During the production cycle many
factors influence egg production; therefore, the cycle must be managed effectively and efficiently in order to
provide maximum output and profitability. The following factors influence egg production.
Breed. The breed of the laying bird influences egg production. Management and feeding practices, however, are
the key determining features for egg production
Some commercial breeds of chickens have been developed specifically for egg production. The
commercial White Leghorn is used in large egg production complexes, but these birds typically do not
produce well in home flocks. They are simply too flighty. Moreover, they lay white-shelled eggs. People
purchasing eggs from small flocks often prefer to buy brown-shelled eggs, even though no nutritional
differences exist between brown-shelled eggs and white-shelled eggs.
Breeding companies also have developed commercial layers for brown-shelled egg production, with
some bred specifically for pasture poultry production. In addition, many hatcheries sell what are called
sex-link crosses. These specific crosses allow the hatchery to sex the chicks at hatch based on feather
color. As a result, the number of sexing errors is reduced, so you are less likely to get an unwanted
rooster
Obviously, you can choose from several breeds. When making your decision about which breed or
breeds to raise, keep in mind that commercial-type hens may give you a higher level of production
initially, but other breeds tend to lay for more years.
Space Allowances
To produce effectively, laying hens must have adequate space. The amount of floor space required by
a flock depends on the size of the chickens (which is related to the breed of chicken chosen) and the
type of housing used. A minimum of 1.5 square feet per hen is recommended, with 2 square feet per
hen being the most commonly used space allowance. Larger allowances are required for some of the
larger breeds.
To make use of the entire housing facility, you can incorporate perches. The hens will sleep on the
perches at night, keeping them off the floor. The use of perches also helps concentrate much of the
manure in a single location for easier cleaning of the poultry house. Moreover, chickens have a desire
to perch, so providing for this behavior contributes to animal welfare.
If you provide outdoor space for your chickens, the amount of outdoor space needed depends on the
quality of the space. If your goal is to maintain a pasture, you will require more area than you would
need if simply providing outdoor access for a small backyard flock. An allowance of 2 square feet per
hen typically is recommended for simple outdoor access. If you do provide your flock with outdoor
access, be aware of predator possibilities from both the ground and the air, and provide the hens with
the protection they require.
Pullet Management
It is important to manage pullets correctly, especially in the areas of nutrition and light management,
because correct management will affect the level and quality of egg production once the birds start to
lay. If the pullets come into production too early, they may have problems with prolapse, which can
cause health problems across the flock. Also, the hens may lay smaller eggs throughout the production
cycle.
When raising pullets from day-old chicks, brood the chicks as you would any other type of chick. For
future laying flocks, keep in mind that light management is important from brooding through all laying
periods.
If you purchase pullets ready-to-lay, you should ask how the pullets were raised with regard to nutrition
and light management so that you can adjust your subsequent management of the flock accordingly.
For example, you may have to delay light stimulation if the hens are too small.
Mortality rate. Mortality rate may rise due to disease, predation or high temperature. The mortality rate of small
chicks (up to eight weeks of age) is about 4 percent; that of growers (between eight and 20 weeks of age) is
about 15 percent; and that of layers (between 20 and 72 weeks of age) is about 12 percent. The average
mortality rate of a flock is from 20 to 25 percent per year.
Age. Birds typically begin producing eggs in their twentieth or twenty-first week and continue for slightly over a
year. This is the best laying period and eggs tend to increase in size until the end of the egg production cycle.
Body weight. In general, optimum body weight during the laying period should be around 1.5 kg, although this
varies according to breed. Underweight as well as overweight birds lay eggs at a lower rate. Proper management
and the correct amount of feed are necessary in order to achieve optimum body weight.
Laying house. The laying house should be built according to local climatic conditions and the farmer’s finances.
A good house protects laying birds from theft, predation, direct sunlight, rain, excessive wind, heat and cold, as
well as sudden changes in temperature and excessive dust. If the climate is hot and humid, for example, the use
of an open house construction will enable ventilation. The inside of the house should be arranged so that it
requires minimum labour and time to care for the birds.
Light Management for Year-Round Production
Chickens are called long-season breeders, meaning that they come into production as days become
longer. That is, they start producing eggs when there are more hours of light per day. Typically, day-old
chicks are kept on 23 to 24 hours of light per day for the first few days to make sure that they are able
to find food and water, especially water. After that time period, you should reduce the number of hours
of light per day. If you are raising the birds indoors, you can give them just 8 hours of light per day. If
you are exposing them to outdoor conditions, you are limited by the number of hours of light per day in
your area, of course. When the pullets are ready to start laying, slowly increase the light exposure until
they are exposed to about 14 hours of light per day. This exposure should stimulate the flock to come
into lay. To keep the flock in lay year-round, you will need to maintain a schedule of at least 14 hours of
light per day. You can increase the amount of light slowly to 16 hours per day late in the egg production
cycle to help keep the flock in production. For most flock owners, this strategy involves providing
supplemental lighting. Using a light with a stop/start timer, you can cause the light to come on early in
the morning before sunrise and in the evening before sunset to ensure that the length of light exposure
for the flock totals 14 to 16 hours. Also, you can get a light sensor so that the light bulb does not come
on when natural daylight is available. By using such a device, you minimize your electricity use. The
supplemental light you provide does not have to be overly bright. A typical 60-watt incandescent light
bulb works fine for a small laying flock.
Lighting schedule
Nutrition
Chickens of any type and age require a complete, balanced diet. Feed mills assemble the available
ingredients in combinations that provide all the nutrients needed by a flock in one package. Some
producers mix complete feeds with cheaper scratch grains, but doing so dilutes the levels of nutrients
the chickens are receiving, and nutrient deficiencies can occur. Nutrient deficiencies can adversely
affect the growth of pullets and the level of production of hens.
It is also important to feed the specific feed tailored for the type and age of the chickens you have. For
example, do not feed a “meat-maker” type diet to growing pullets or laying hens as it will not meet their
nutritional needs. Likewise, do not feed a layer diet to growing chickens. The diet of a laying hen is high
in calcium, which is needed for the production of eggshells. This level of calcium, however, is harmful to
nonlaying chickens.
Some hens have a higher need for calcium than others. It is always good to have an additional source
of calcium available. Oystershell, usually available in feedstores, is an excellent calcium supplement for
a laying flock.
Fresh and clean water should always be provided, as a layer can consume up to one-quarter of a litre a day.
Culling.
Culling is the removal of undesirable (sick and/or unproductive) birds, from the flock. There are two methods of
culling:
mass culling, when the entire flock is removed and replaced at the end of the laying cycle; and
selective culling, when the farmer removes individual unproductive or sick birds.
Culling enables a high level of egg production to be maintained, prevents feed waste on unproductive birds and
may avert the spreading of diseases.
Climate.
The optimal laying temperature is between 11° and 26° C. A humidity level above 75 percent will cause a
reduction in egg laying.
Temperature and its effects on egg production
Temperature (°C) Effects
11 - 26 Good production.
26 - 28 Some reduction in feed intake.
28 - 32 Feed consumption reduced and water intake increased; eggs of reduced size and thin shell.
32 - 35 Slight panting.
25 - 40 Heat prostration sets in, measures to cool the house must be taken.
40 and above Mortality due to heat stress.
When the temperature rises above 28° C the production and quality of eggs decrease. Seasonal temperature
increases can reduce egg production by about 10 percent.
Management factors.
Effective and efficient management techniques are necessary to increase the productivity of the birds and
consequently increase income. This entails not only proper housing and feeding, but also careful rearing and
good treatment of the birds.
Vaccination and disease control. Diseases and parasites can cause losses in egg production.
Some of the diseases are as follows:
bacterial: tuberculosis, fowl typhoid
viral: Newcastle, fowl plague
fungal: aspergillosis
protozoan: coccidiosis
nutritional: rickets, perosis
Some of the parasites are:
external: lice, mites
internal: roundworms, tapeworms
Vaccinations are administered to birds by injection, water intake, eye drops and spraying. Clean and hygienic
living quarters and surroundings may eliminate up to 90 percent of all disease occurrences.
Collection of eggs
Frequent egg collection will prevent hens from brooding eggs or trying to eat them and will also prevent the eggs
from becoming damaged or dirty.
Identification of Laying Hens
To determine which of your hens are laying, it is important to know more about the type of hens you
have. For many breeds, hens that are laying eggs have large, bright red combs and wattles. For other
breeds, the combs and wattles are normal color during the laying period but fade after the laying period.
For hens with yellow pigment in the skin, such as Rhode Island Reds and Plymouth Rocks, the level of
pigmentation is a good indication of where the hens are in the production cycle. Hens lose the yellow
pigment in a specific order. The color fades first from the vent; then the face (beak, eye ring, and
earlobe); and then the feet (shanks, toes, and hock). An additional method for identifying laying hens
involves evaluating the level of fat in the abdomen and the abdominal capacity as measured by the
distances between the pubic bones (abdominal width) and between the pubic bones and the tip of the
keel, or breast bone (abdominal depth). The lower the level of fat and the larger the abdominal capacity,
the more likely the hen is to be laying.
Reasons Hens Stop Laying
Any factors can affect egg production, with health (before and after lay) being one of the most
significant. If your hens stop laying, you may be able to identify the source of the problem by asking the
following questions:
Have the hens been laying for 10 months or more? Your hens may just be at the end of their laying
cycle. If so, they will stop production, go through a molt (loss of feathers), take a break, and start laying
again. If your hens have been laying for less than 10 months, something else may be causing their lack
of production.
Are the hens receiving enough fresh, clean water? The hens will not eat if they cannot drink, so
make sure that your watering system is functioning correctly. Keeping a watering system operational
can be a challenge in the winter when the water may freeze. You can purchase waterers that have
heaters attached to keep the water from freezing. Otherwise, you will have to break up any frozen water
on a regular basis. Problems can occur in summer as well. Summertime high temperatures can make
the water so warm that the chickens will not drink enough to meet their increased needs.
Are the hens eating enough of the right feed? Feeding the wrong feed, diluting feed with scratch
grains, or limiting the amount of feed available can result in your hens having a nutritional deficiency,
causing them to molt and go out of production. When hens have a nutritional deficiency, it is common to
see feather pecking as well as a loss of egg production.
Are the hens getting enough hours of light per day? Decreases in the number of hours of light per
day typically will put a flock out of production. For this reason, many flocks that are not provided with
supplemental light go out of production during the fall and winter months.
Do the hens have parasites? Various internal parasites and external parasites can infest poultry
flocks and stress the hens. Heavy infestations of internal parasites can result in serious damage to the
digestive tract and reduce hen performance. Heavy infestations of mites can cause anemia in the hens,
also adversely affecting their performance
.Did any issues with eggshell quality precede the stop in egg production? Several diseases can
result in abnormal eggshells.
Have there been any health issues within the flock? A flock that has been sick will not perform as
well as a flock that has not gone through a disease challenge
EGG PRODUCTION CYCLE
Birds usually start to lay at around five months (20-21 weeks) of age and continue to lay for 12 months (52
weeks) on average, laying fewer eggs as they near the moulting period.
The typical production cycle lasts about 17 months (72 weeks) and involves three distinct phases, as follows.
· Phase 1: Small chicks or brooders. This phase lasts from 0 to 2 months (0-8 weeks) during which time small
chicks are kept in facilities (brooder houses) separate from laying birds.
· Phase 2: Growers. This phase lasts about 3 months, from the ninth to the twentieth week of age. Growers may
be either housed separately from small chicks or continue to be reared in brooder-cum-grower houses. It is
important to provide appropriate care to the growers particularly between their seventeenth and twentieth week
of age as their reproductive organs develop during this period.
· Phase 3: Layers. Growers are transferred from the grower house to the layer house when they are 18 weeks
old to prepare for the laying cycle. Birds typically lay for a twelve-month period starting when they are about 21
weeks old and lasting until they are about 72 weeks old.
Production planning
On average a bird produces one egg per day. Furthermore, not all birds start to lay exactly when they are 21
weeks old. Planning is therefore required for egg production to be constant so as to meet market demand. A
schedule similar to the one shown in Table AA, which indicates on average satisfactory levels of production for a
flock of birds, can be used.
In areas where the climate is hot and humid, commercial hybrid laying birds produce on average between 180
and 200 eggs per year. In more temperate climates birds can produce on average between 250 and 300 eggs
per year. The table below illustrates a typical production schedule in a hot and humid climate.
In Table AA the age of the flock is shown in the first column and the percentage of birds that actually lay during
that week of age is shown in the second column. Usually at 21 weeks of age only 5 percent of the flock lay.
As shown in the third column, for 100 birds at 21 weeks of age only five would actually be laying. In the fourth
column the actual number of eggs produced is shown. On average a bird produces 208 eggs over a twelve-
month period, which is a weekly production rate of four eggs per bird. At 21 weeks of age 20 eggs are produced
(five birds produce four eggs each) and at 22 weeks 40 eggs are produced, etc.
The graph in Figure A shows the actual percentage of productive laying flock over a period of time, and the graph
in Figure AA shows the number of eggs produced over a period of time for 100 birds. Egg production rises
rapidly and then starts to fall after 31 weeks of age. When less than 65 percent of the flock are laying eggs (71
weeks of age), it may become uneconomical to retain birds. Feed costs and sales of culled birds for meat must
be considered as well as prices for eggs. In some instances when egg prices are high it may be viable to delay
culling birds until only 45 percent of the flock is still laying eggs (78 weeks of age).
Table AA
Production schedule in temperate climate (100 birds)
Age of flock (in weeks) % of flock laying No. of birds laying No. of eggs produced per week
21 5 5 20
22 10 10 40
23 18 18 72
24 34 34 136
25 52 52 208
26 65 65 260
27 74 74 296
28 84 84 336
29 88 88 352
30 92 92 368
31 94 94 376
32 - 39 88 88 352
40 - 47 83 83 332
48 - 59 77 77 308
60 - 64 73 73 292
65 - 70 70 70 280
Figure A - Percentage of productive laying flock over a period of time
Figure AA - Number of eggs produced over a period of time
Clearly, egg production requires planning for costs as well as for profit generation and for meeting market
demand. Planning involves not only the number of eggs laid by the flock over a period of time, but also when to
hatch chicks to replace birds with diminishing laying capacity.
PRODUCTION COSTS AND PROFITS
Records should be kept of costs incurred during the operation and of proceeds from the sale of eggs. Costs must
be covered by the sales of eggs. The difference between the proceeds from the sales and costs incurred
represents profit.
Brooder-grower stage
The costs to be considered are not only those concerned with the birds during the laying period, but also those
incurred in the brooder and grower stage during which time no eggs are being produced. The brooder-cum-
grower stage lasts about five months (0-20 weeks). The main costs to consider during this stage can be seen in
Table P1.
Laying birds
Once the costs for the brooder-cum-grower stage have been calculated, it will be possible to calculate costs for
the laying birds. Calculations may be made on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. However, the most useful
calculations are made at the end of the laying cycle. Daily, weekly or monthly calculations give approximate
indications of costs and relative profits or losses. The main concern for farmers during this period is probably
whether or not the proceeds from the sale of eggs cover feed and rearing costs. Feed cost is generally estimated
to be about 75 percent of the production cost of eggs.
Comparing feed and rearing costs and egg proceeds for a week or a month may give an indication of profitability
or loss. A farmer would have to subtract the cost of feed for a week from the proceeds for the total number of
eggs sold that week. Furthermore, the rearing costs (expenses incurred before the birds start laying) should be
amortized. This can be calculated by dividing the total rearing costs by the laying period. If rearing costs are US$
10 and the laying period is 52 weeks, cost per week for rearing is US$ 0.19. Table P2 shows a simple record of
weekly costs and sales.
Costs and income for the laying cycle
Calculations for the laying cycle (52 weeks) are more accurate and enable the farmer to determine whether the
egg laying enterprise is running at a profit or a loss.
Table P1
Expenses for rearing
Costs US$
Chicks (total number of chicks multiplied by price per chick)
Feed (total kg of feed multiplied by price per kg)
Housing
Equipment
Labour
Vaccinations
Mortality
Loan
Various
Total costs
Table P2
Weekly costs and sales
US$
a) Eggs sold
b) Feed used
c) Rearing costs
a minus b and c =
Costs. When calculating costs for the laying cycle, the main expenditures to consider are:
rearing - rearing brooders until they become layers;
housing - building or maintaining laying house and brooder house;
equipment - the cost of miscellaneous items such as feeders, buckets, etc.;
feed - total feed used during the year;
labour - labour costs incurred to manage birds;
vaccinations - medicines and veterinary visits;
mortality - loss of laying birds due to disease, etc.; and
various expenses - lighting, water, etc.
Income. When calculating income for the laying cycle, the earnings to consider derive from:
the sale of eggs;
the sale of culled birds after the first cycle of production; and
where applicable, manure sold as fertilizer.
Table P3 shows an example of record keeping for yearly production costs and income.
Initially, capital is required to start an enterprise; proceeds from the sales of eggs should, however, provide funds
to continue with the business before the end of the first laying cycle. Indeed, three months after point of lay (30 -
31 weeks of age), when the birds should normally have reached peak production, the proceeds from the sale of
eggs should be sufficient to operate the business on a revolving fund basis. The three-month period is sufficiently
long even for the low producing birds or those that peak late.
Figure P4 shows the various factors that affect the profitability of an egg enterprise.
Table P3
Costs and income for a production cycle*
Costs US$
Rearing (carried forward from table 4)
Houses
Equipment
Feed
Labour
Vaccinations
Mortality
Various expenses
Total costs
Income
Sale of eggs
Sale of culled birds
(Sale of manure)
Total income
Profit
* This table does not include marketing costs
Figure P4 - Gross output and factors affecting the profitability of an egg enterprise*
