UNIT-II

Course Objective:
To study various types of non-conventional sources of energy and techniques used in
exploiting solar, wind, tidal and geothermal sources of energy and bio-fuels.

SYLLABUS
Solar Energy Storage: Different methods, Sensible, latent heat and stratified storage,
solar ponds.
Solar Applications - Solar heating/cooling technique, solar distillation, drying,
photovoltaic energy conversion. Solar central power tower concept and solar Chimney

Learning Outcomes:
1. To have basic knowledge on different methods of solar energy storage.
2. To understand the principle of solar water heating
3. To analyze the conversion of solar energy to photo voltaic energy
4. To understand the principle of solar distillation and drying techniques
5. To understand the principle of solar pond
6. To know the working of Solar chimney power plant and central tower power
concept
ESSENTIAL SUBSYSTEMS IN A SOLAR ENERGY PLANT
1. Solar collector: Solar collectors are used to collect the solar energy and convert the incident
radiations into thermal energy by absorbing them. This heat is extracted by flowing fluid (air or
water or mixture with antifreeze) in the tube of the collector for further utilization in different
applications. The collectors are classified as;

• Non concentrating collectors

• Concentrating (focusing) collectors

Non-Concentrating Collectors
In these collectors the area of collector to intercept the solar radiation is equal to the absorber
plate and has concentration ratio of 1. Flat Plate Collectors (Glaze Type) Flat plate collector is
most important part of any solar thermal energy system. It is simplest in design and both direct
and diffuse radiations are absorbed by collector and converted into useful heat. These collectors
are suitable for heating to temperature below 100oC.
Advantages
• It utilizes the both the beam as well as diffuse radiation for heating.
• Requires less maintenance.

Disadvantages
• Large heat losses by conduction and radiation because of large area.
• No tracking of sun.
• Low water temperature is achieved.

Concentrating Collectors
Concentrating collector is a device to collect solar energy with high intensity of solar
radiation on the energy absorbing surface. Such collectors use optical system in the form of
o
reflectors or refractors. These collectors are used for medium (100-300 C) and high-temperature
o
(above 300 C) applications such as steam production for the generation of electricity. The high
temperature is achieved at absorber because of reflecting arrangement provided for concentrating
the radiation at required location using mirrors and lenses. These collectors are best suited to
places having more number of clear days in a year.

FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS: These are non concentrating type collectors, these are having
five main components as follows.
i) A transparent cover which may be one or more sheets of glass or radiation
transmitting plastic film or sheet.
ii) Tubes, fins, passages or channels are integral with the collector absorber plate or
connected to it, which carry the water, air or other fluid.
iii) The absorber plate, normally metallic or with a black surface, although a wide variety
of other materials can be used with air heaters.
iv) Insulation, which should be provided at the back and sides to minimize the heat
losses. Standard insulating materials such as fiber glass or styro-foam are used for this
purpose.
v) The casing or container which encloses the other components and protects them from
the weather.
2. Energy transport medium: Substances such as water/ steam, liquid metal or gas are used
to transport the thermal energy from the collector to the heat exchanger or thermal storage. In
solar PV systems energy transport occurs in electrical form.

3. Energy storage: Solar energy is not available continuously. So we need an energy storage
medium for maintaining power supply during nights or cloudy periods. There are three major
types of energy storage
 Thermal energy storage
 Battery storage
 Pumped storage hydro-electric plant.

4. Energy conversion plant: Thermal energy collected by solar collectors is used for producing
steam, hot water, etc. Solar energy converted to thermal energy is fed to steam-thermal or gas-
thermal power plant.
5. Power conditioning, control and protection system: Load requirements of electrical
energy vary with time. The energy supply has certain specifications like voltage, current,
frequency, power etc. The power conditioning unit performs several functions such as control,
regulation, conditioning, protection, automation, etc.
 Subsystems in solar thermal energy conversion plants
7. Alternative or standby power supply: The backup may be obtained as power from
electrical network or standby diesel generator.

SOLAR ENERGY STORAGE

Energy can be stored in various forms and the storage methods are classified on the basis of
the form in which it is stored. Some of the important energy storage methods are the following
1. Mechanical energy storage
a. Pumped storage
b. Flywheel storage
c. Compressed air storage
2. Chemical energy storage
a. Batteries storage
b. Hydrogen storage
c. Reversible chemical reaction storage
3. Electromagnetic energy storage
4. Electrostatic energy storage
5. Thermal (Heat) energy storage
a. Sensible heat storage
b. Latent heat storage
6. Biological storage
THERMAL ENERGY STORAGE

Sensible heat: Sensible heat is heat exchanged by a body or thermodynamic system that changes
the temperature, and some macroscopic variables of the body, but leaves unchanged certain other
macroscopic variables, such as volume or pressure.

Latent heat: The heat required to convert a solid into a liquid or vapour, or a liquid into a
vapour, without change of temperature.

SENSIBLE HEAT STORAGE

In this type of storage, thermal energy is stored by virtue of heat capacity and the change in
temperature of the material during the process of charging and discharging. The temperature of
the storage material rises when energy is absorbed and drops when energy is withdrawn. The
charging and discharging operation in a sensible heat storage system can be expected to be
completely reversible for an unlimited number of cycles over the lifespan.

On the basis of heat-storage media, sensible heat storage system can be classified as

i) Liquid media storage

ii) Solid media storage
iii) Dual media storage

LIQUID MEDIA STORAGE

In this the solar energy is absorbed and stored by a liquid, of all the available liquids, water
can be considered to be the most suitable liquid media for storage below 1000 C.

Short-term thermal energy storage in water

A short term thermal energy storage system consists of hot water stored in a well-insulated
tank. Storage in this manner is economical only for a few days since the heat losses become
prohibitive over long durations. Though water is the best choice as a heat-storage medium in a
space-heat system; other liquids such as oils, liquid metals and molten salts have also been used
in solar thermal power plants.

Long term thermal storage in underground layers

Large size and long term storage of hot in underground reservoirs is possible without the use
of special insulating materials. Here cold ground water from zone A is heated by passing through
a heat exchanger and return zone B where it is stored. In the discharge mode, the hot water from
zone B flows back to the heat exchanger where it gives out the heat and return to the zone A.

Advantages

1. It is abundant and inexpensive

2. It is easy to handle, non toxic, and non combustible
3. Its flow can takes place by thermo-siphon action
4. It has high density, high specific heat, good thermal conductivity and low viscosity.
5. Can be used both as storage medium as well as working medium
6. Charging and discharging of heat can occur simultaneously
7. Control of water system is flexible
Disadvantages

1. Limited temperature range (00 C to 100 0 C)

2. Corrosive medium
3. Low surface tension (leaks easily)

SOLID MEDIA STORAGE (Packed bed storage)

It utilizes the heat capacity of a bed of loosely packed solid materials such as rocks,, metals,
concrete, sand, bricks, etc., to store energy. A fluid, usually air, is circulated through the bed to
add or remove energy. Flow is maintained through the bed in one direction, during addition of
heat and in the opposite direction during removal of heat. Here, energy can be used at low or
high temperature since these will neither freeze nor boil. The energy change for 500 C is about 10
Wh/kg for most rocks, concrete and iron ore.

Components in a packed bed storage system

1. container
2. Screen to support the bed
3. Support for the screen, inlet and outlet ducts

Advantages

1. Rocks are abundant, low cost, easy to handle, non toxic and non combustible
2. High storage temperatures are possible
3. Heat exchanger can be avoided
4. No freezing problem
5. No corrosion
Disadvantages

1. Storage volumes are large

2. High pressure drop
3. Simultaneous charging and discharging are not possible

Dual media storage

In dual media storage, both solid and liquid sensible heat storage materials are used. These
solid and liquid materials maybe combined in a number of ways. One of them is jointly use the
bedrock and water tanks (With water tank surrounded by Bed rock).

LATENT HEAT STORAGE (STORAGE IN PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS)

In this class of storage, energy is stored by virtue of latent heat of change of phase of the
storage medium. Phase change materials have considerably higher thermal energy storage
densities as compared to sensible heat storage materials and are able to absorb or release large
quantities of energy at a constant temperature.

Therefore, these systems are more compact but more expensive than sensible heat-storage
systems. Various phase changes that can occur are

Solid-Solid: Heat is stored as the material is transformed from one crystalline form to another.
These transitions involve small volume changes, however most of them have small latent heats.

Solid-Liquid: includes storage in salt hydrates. Certain inorganic salts, which are soluble in
water and form crystalline salt hydrates, are employed.

Solid-Gas & Liquid-Gas:

Solid-gas and liquid-gas transformations are not employed in spite of large latent heat as large
changes in volume make the system complex and impracticable.
SOLAR POND

A natural or artificial body of water for collecting and absorbing solar radiation energy and
storing it as heat. Thus a solar pond combines solar energy collection and sensible heat storage.

A solar pond is a mass of shallow water about I or 2 meters deep with a large collection area,
which acts a heat trap. It contains dissolved salts to generate a stable density gradient. Part of the
incident radiation entering the pond surface is absorbed throughout the depth and the remainder
which penetrates the pond is absorbed at the black bottom. If the pond were initially filled with
fresh water, lower layers would heat up, expand and rise to the surface.

Because of the convective mixing and heat loss at the surface, only a small temperature rise in
the pond could be realized. On the other hand convection can be eliminated by initially creating a
sufficiently strong salt concentration gradient. With the convection suppressed, the heat is lost
from the lower layers only by conduction. Because of the relatively conductivity, the water acts
as an insulator and permits high temperature to develop in the bottom layers. At the bottom of
the pond, a thick durable plastic liner is laid.

APPLICATION OF SOLAR PONDS

HEATING AND COOLING OF BUILDINGS

Because of the large heat storage capability in the lower convective zone of the solar pond, it
has ideal use for heating even at high latitude stations and for several cloudy days.

PRODUCTION OF POWER

A solar pond can be used to generate electricity by driving a thermo-electric device or an

organic Rankine cycle engine (a turbine powered by evaporating an organic fluid with a low
boiling point). Even low temperatures heat that is obtained from solar ponds can be converted
into electric power.

INDUSTRIAL PROCESS HEAT

Industrial process heat is the thermal energy used directly in the preparation and of treatment
of materials and goods manufactured by industry. The solar pond can play a significant role
supplying the process heat to industries thereby saving oil, natural gas, electricity, and coal.

DESALINATION

The low cost thermal energy can used to desalt or otherwise purify water for drinking or
irrigation. Multi-flash desalination units along with a solar pond is an attractive proposition for
getting distilled water because the multi-flash desalination plant below 1000 C which can well be
achieved by a solar pond. This system will be suitable at places where portable water is in short
supply.

HEATING ANIMAL HOUSING AND DRYING CROPS ON FARMS

Low grade heat can be used in many ways on farms, which have enough land for solar ponds.

HEAT FOR BIOMASS CONVERSION

Site built solar ponds could provide heat to convert biomass to alcohol or methane. While no
solar ponds have been used for this purpose, it is an ideal coupling of two renewable-energy
technologies.

APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

The actual and proposed applications of solar energy may be considered in three general
categories.

Direct thermal application: It makes direct use of heat, resulting from the absorption of solar
radiation, for space heating, supply heat for agricultural, industrial, and other processes that
require only moderate temperatures.

Solar electric applications: Solar energy is converted directly or indirectly into electrical
energy.

a. Solar thermal methods involve production of high temperatures, required to boil water
or other working fluid for operating turbines which drive electric generators. These are
considered under solar thermal-electric conversion.
b. Photovoltaic: Used to convert solar energy directly into electric energy without
machinery.
c. Thermo electric conversion: Conversion of solar energy into electrical energy without
use of machinery by utilizing thermo electric effect.
 d. Wind energy: A form of solar energy that can be converted into mechanical energy and
hence into electrical energy by means of a generator.

Energy from Biomass and Bio-gas: The conversion of Biomass and Bio-gas into clean fuels or
other energy related product of organic matter derived directly or indirectly from plants which
use solar energy to grow. Biomass materials include agricultural, forest, and animal, residues, as
well as terrestrial and aquatic plants grown especially for the purpose.

Solar Thermal Applications

Solar Water Heating Systems
In a Solar water heating system water is heated by the use of solar energy. These generally
comprise of solar thermal collectors, a fluid system to absorb the heat from the collector
toughened glass shield, insulated storage tank, cold water supply tank and insulated piping.
These systems use the solar energy to heat either water or a heat-transfer fluid, such as a water-
glycol antifreeze mixture, in collectors generally mounted on a roof. The sun rays penetrate
through the glass and fall on the absorber. The heat of the sunrays is absorbed by the cold water
inside the absorber thereby increasing its temperature. The storage is either through the
thermosyphon or the forced flow system. In the thermosyphon system up to 3000 liters per day
can be installed; however, for higher capacities it is necessary to use forced flow system. The
water temperature can be raised up to 85 0C. Atypical schematic diagram of solar water heating
system is shown in the Figure.

Schematic of Solar Water Heating system

The solar water heating system can be used for bathing, washing, boiler feed water pre heating
and other similar purposes. The cost of solar water heating system range from Rs.140/- to
Rs.220/- per litre. The investment made can be recovered in 4 to 6 years time. The life of the
system is around 10-15 years, if maintained properly. The operation and maintenance cost is
negligible.

Solar Photovoltaic Applications

Three most important and widely used applications of Solar PV have been considered here.
These are

• Solar home lighting systems

• Solar water pumping systems

• Solar power plants

Solar home lighting system

Home lighting systems are powered by solar energy using solar modules. The generated
electricity is stored in batteries and used for the purpose of lighting whenever required. These
systems are most widely used in non-electrified rural areas and as reliable emergency lighting
system for important domestic, commercial and industrial applications. The Solar Home
Lighting system is a fixed installation designed for domestic application. The system comprises
of Solar PV Module (Solar Cells), charge controller, battery and lighting system (lamps & fans).
The schematic of the Home lighting system is shown in Figure 18 below. The solar module is
installed in the open on roof/terrace - exposed to sunlight and the charge controller and battery
are kept inside a protected place in the house. The solar module requires periodic dusting for
effective performance.

Solar water pumping system

These water pumping systems are powered by solar energy. It is a stand-alone system. The
power generated by solar module is used for operating DC surface centrifugal mono-block
pump set for lifting water from bore / open well or water reservoir for minor irrigation and
drinking water purpose. The system schematic is shown in the Figure 19. The system requires a
shadow-free area for installation of the Solar Panel
 Schematic of Solar Water pumping System

Solar Power Plants

Power supply in most of the cities and towns is unreliable, which has forced the people to use
small generators. These generators are operated with fossil fuels like kerosene, petrol or diesel
cause pollution. It also leads to increase dependence on oil imports.
A solar power plant is a good option for electrification in areas that are located away from the
grid line or where other sources are neither available nor can be harnessed in a techno
economically viable manner. A solar power plant of the size 10–100 kW (kilowatt), depending

on the load demand, is preferable particularly with a liberal subsidy and low-interest soft loan
from financial institutions. The idea is to raise the quality of life of the people subjected to
poverty in these areas. This coupled with low-gestation remote areas of many states that need
electrification. Typical Stand alone solar power plant for the power generation comprises of
Solar PV module array, Module mounting structures, Charge controller, Battery bank, Inverter
and Load circuitry. A typical stand alone Solar PV power plant is shown in the Figure 20. The
control panel (inset of photograph) with all the peripheral components is housed as shown
below.

Solar Power Tower

In this system as already stated, the incoming solar radiation is focused to central receiver or a
boiler mounting on tall tower using thousands of plane reflectors, which are steerable about two
axes and are known by heliostats.

A schematic view of an electric power plant using gas turbine power plant working on
Brayton gas power cycle is shown in the figure. The mirrors are installed on the ground and are
oriented so as to reflect the direct beam radiation into an absorber or receiver which is mounted
on the top of the tower located near the centre of the field of mirrors to produce high
temperature. This make it possible to position the boiler in the field of view of all mirrors, at all
hours of the day. Beam radiation incident on the boiler absorbed by black pipes in which
working fluid circulates and is heated. The working fluid is allowed to drive the turbine and
produce mechanical energy. The turbine which is coupled to an alternator produces electrical
energy.
Solar Chimney

A solar chimney consists of a transparent large room (usually made of glass) which is sloped
gently up to a central hollow tower or chimney. The sun heats the air in this greenhouse-type
structure which then rises up the chimney, thereby driving an air turbine as it rises. This air
turbine then creates electricity.

Solar chimneys are very simple in design and could therefore be a viable option for projects in
the developing world.
Solar distillation

Fresh water is necessary for the sustenance of life and also the key to man’s prosperity. It is
generally observed that in many places people are bringing water from the long distance, in such
areas solar energy is plentiful and can be used for converting saline water into distilled water.
The pure water can be obtained by distillation in the simplest solar still, generally known as the
“basin type solar still”.

It consists of a blackened basin containing saline water at a shallow depth, over which is
transparent air tight cover that encloses completely the space above the basin. It has a roof like
space. The cover which is usually glass,, may be of plastic, is sloped towards a collection trough.
Solar radiation is passes through the cover and is absorbed and converted into heat in the black
surface. Impure water in the basin or tray is heated and the vapour produced is condensed to
purified water on the cooler interior of the roof. The transparent roof material transmits nearly all
radiation falling on it and absorbs very little hence it remains cool enough to condense the water
vapour. The condensed water flows down the sloping roof and is collected in troughs at bottom.

Solar dryer

The drying process removes moisture and helps in the preservation of any product. Solar crop
drying is perhaps the most ancient and widespread direct use of solar energy. The customary way
is to spread the material to be dried in a thin layer on the ground. The disadvantages associated
with this method are (i) the process is slow (ii) the product is vulnerable to attack by insects, and
(iii) dust gets mixed with the product. The use of solar dryer helps eliminate these disadvantages.
Also the drying can be a faster and controlled process, and a better quality product can be
produced.
A simple cabinet type solar dryer is shown in the figure. It is an enclosure with a transparent
cover. The material to be dried to be placed on perforated trays. Solar radiation enters the
enclosure and is absorbed by the product as well as the surrounding internal surfaces of the
enclosure, increasing its temperature. The inside air heats up to a temperature range of 50 to 800
C, and rises above. Natural circulation of air is ensured by providing suitable openings at the top
and bottom. The circulating air removes the moisture from the product. For large scale drying
forced circulation of air maybe used by employing a blower.