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THERMAL APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ENERGY

1) Water heating
2) Space heating
3) Space cooling & Refrigeration
4) Power generation – low, medium, high temperature cycles
5) Distillation
6) Drying
7) Cooking
8) Solar air heaters

1. Solar Energy Collectors

In any collection device, the principle usually followed is to expose a dark surface to solar
radiation so that the radiation is absorbed. A part of the absorbed radiation is then transferred
to a fluid like air or water.

1.1 Liquid flat-plate collector

When no optical concentration is done, the device in which the collection is achieved is
called a flat-plate collector (FPC). The flat-plate collector is the most important type solar
collector because it is simple in design, has no moving parts and requires little maintenance.
It can be used for a variety of applications in which temperatures ranging from 40C to about
100C are required.

Figure 1 A sketch of a liquid flat-plate collector

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A sketch of a liquid flat-plate collector is shown in Figure 1. It consists of an absorber plate

on which the solar radiation falls after coming through a transparent cover (usually made of
glass). The absorbed radiation is partly transferred to a liquid flowing through tubes which
are fixed to the absorber plate or are integral with it. This energy transfer is the useful gain.
The remaining part of the radiation absorbed in the absorber plate is lost by convection and
re-radiation to the surroundings from the top surface, and by conduction through the back and
the edges. The transparent cover helps in reducing the losses by convection and re-radiation,
while thermal insulation on the back and the edges helps in reducing the conduction heat loss.
The liquid most commonly used is water. A liquid flat-plate collector is usually held tilted in
a fixed position.
In order to reduce the heat lost by re-radiation from the top of the absorber plate of a flat-
plate collector, it is usual to put a selective coating on the plate. The selective coating exhibits
the characteristic of a high value of absorptivity for incoming solar radiation and a low value
of emissivity for out-going re-radiation. As a result, the collection efficiency of the flat-plate
collector is improved. Further improvement in the collection efficiency (or in the operating
temperature) is obtained by evacuating the space above the absorber plate and leads to the
design of an evacuated tube collector.

Figure 2 Evacuated tube collector (ETC)

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An evacuated tube collector (ETC) consists of a number of cylindrical modules mounted

side-by-side on a common frame. The above figure shows a schematic diagram of one type of
evacuated tube module. It consists of two concentric glass tubes, with the annular space
between them being evacuated. The outer surface of the inner glass tube is selectively coated.
The incoming solar radiation is absorbed on this surface and partly conducted inwards
through the tube wall. The inner tube is filled with water, and the heat is transferred to the
water by thermo syphon circulation. It is to be noted that the heat loss by convection to the
surroundings is reduced significantly due to the vacuum in the annular space. This results in
an improvement in the collection efficiency.

1.2 Cylindrical Parabolic concentrating collector

When higher temperatures are required, it becomes necessary to concentrate the
radiation. This is achieved using focussing or concentrating collectors. A schematic diagram
of a typical line-focussing concentrating collector is shown above. The collector consists of a
concentrator and a receiver. The concentrator shown is a mirror reflector having the shape of
a cylindrical parabola. It focusses the sunlight on to its axis, were it is absorbed on the surface
of the absorber tube and transferred to the fluid flowing through it. A concentric glass cover
around the absorber tube helps in reducing the convective and radiative losses to the
surroundings. In order that the sun's rays should always be focussed on to the absorber tube,
the concentrator has to be rotated. This movement is called tracking. In the case of cylindrical
parabolic concentrators, rotation about a single axis is generally required.
Fluid temperatures upto 400°C can be achieved in cylindrical parabolic focussing collector
systems. The generation of still higher working temperatures is possible by using paraboloid
reflectors which have a point focus. These require two-axis tracking so that the sun is in line
with the focus and the vertex of the paraboloid.

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Figure 3 Cylindrical Parabolic concentrating collector

1.3 Paraboloid concentrating collector

Figure 4 Paraboloid concentrating collector

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Figure 5 Efficiency vs operating temperature

Figure 6 Classification of Solar collectors

One of the major problems associated with the utilisation of solar energy is its variability. For
this reason, most applications require some type of energy storage system. The purpose of
such a system is to store energy when it is in excess of the requirement of an application and
to make it available for extraction when the supply of solar energy is absent or inadequate.

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Energy storage can be in various forms - thermal, electrical, mechanical or chemical. Thermal
energy can be stored as sensible heat or as latent heat. Sensible heat storage is usually done in
an insulated container containing a liquid like water or a porous solid in the form of pebbles
or rocks. The first type is preferred with liquid collectors, while the second type is compatible
with air heaters. In the case of latent heat storage, heat is stored in a substance when it melts
and extracted when the substance freezes. Sensible heat storage systems operate over a range
of temperatures, while latent heat storage systems operate essentially at the temperature at
which the phase change takes place.

1.2 SOLAR WATER HEATING

1.2.1 NATURAL CIRCULATION SYSTEMS

A simple, small capacity natural circulation system, suitable for domestic purposes, is shown
Figure. The two main components of the system are the liquid flat-plate collector and the
storage tank, the tank being located above the level of the collector. As water in the collector
is heated by solar energy, it flows automatically to the top of the water tank and it is replaced
by cold water from the bottom of the tank, Hot water for use is withdrawn from the top of the
tank. Whenever this is done, cold water automatically enters at the bottom. An auxiliary-
heating system is sometimes provided for use on cloudy or rainy days.

Figure 7

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1.2.2 FORCED CIRCULATION SYSTEMS

When a large amount of hot water is required for supplying process heat in an industry or in a
commercial establishment, a natural circulation system is not suitable. Large arrays of flat-
plate collectors are then used and forced circulation is maintained with a water pump. The
restriction that the storage tank should be at a higher level is thus removed. Water from a
storage tank is pumped through a collector array, where it is heated and then flows back into
the storage tank. Whenever hot water is withdrawn for use, cold make-up water takes its
place because of the ball-float control shown. The pump for maintaining the forced
circulation is operated by an on-off controller which senses the difference between the
temperature of the water at the exit of the collectors and a suitable location inside the storage
tank. The pump is switched on whenever this difference exceeds a certain value and off when
it falls below a certain value. Provision is also usually made for an auxiliary heater. In figure
the auxiliary heater is shown as an immersion heater located in the storage tank. Often it is
located on the hot water line leading out of the storage tank. Solar Water systems of the type
shown are well suited for factories, hospitals, hotels, offices, etc.

Figure 8

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Figure 9

Figure 10

1.3 SOLAR AIR HEATER

A schematic cross-section of a conventional flat-plate collector for heating air (commonly
referred to as a solar air heater) is shown in figure below. The construction of such a collector
is essentially similar to that of a liquid flat-plate collector except for the passages through
which the air flows. These passages have to be made larger in order to keep the pressure drop
across the collector within manageable limits. In the diagram shown, the air passage is simply
a parallel plate duct.

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Figure 11

1.3.1 SOLAR DRYING

A cabinet-type solar dryer, suitable for small-scale use, is shown in figure. The dryer consists
of an enclosure with a transparent cover. The material to be dried is placed on perforated
trays. Solar radiation entering the enclosure is absorbed in the product itself and the
surrounding internal surfaces of the enclosure. As a result, moisture is removed from the
product and the air inside is heated. Suitable openings at the bottom and top ensure a natural
circulation. Temperatures ranging from 50°C to 80C are usually attained and the drying time
ranges from 2 to 4 days. Typical products which can be dried in such devices are dates,
apricots, chillies, grapes etc.

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Figure 12

For large-scale drying, the passive device relying on natural circulation is replaced by an
active device with forced circulation as shown in figure below. Systems of this type have
been used for drying timber.

Figure 13

An indirect type of active device is used when the solar radiation falling directly on the
product is not adequate, or the temperature of the product needs to be controlled. One such
system is shown in figure below. Here, the air is heated separately in an array of solar air

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heaters and then ducted to the chamber in which the product to be dried is stored. Such dryers
are suitable for food grains, tea, spices, etc. and for products like leather and ceramics.

Figure 14

Figure 15

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1.4 SPACE HEATING

Space heating is of particular relevance in colder countries where a significant
amount of energy is required for this purpose. In India, it is of importance mainly in the
northern and northeastern regions in winter.

1.4.1 ACTIVE METHODS

An active method is one which utilizes a pump or a blower to circulate the fluids involved in
the space-heating system. In this system, water is heated in solar flat-plate collectors (A) and
stored in the tank (B). Energy is transferred to the air circulating in the space to be heated by
means of the water- to-air heat exchanger (E). Two pumps (C) provide forced circulation
between the collectors and the tank, and between the tank and the heat exchanger. Provision
is also made for adding auxiliary heater (D). Since the solar energy is first being used to heat
water, the system shown in figure can be easily modified to be a two-in-one system supplying
hot water as well as hot air for space heating.

Figure 16

An alternative approach to space heating is to heat air directly in solar air heaters (A), as
shown in figure. The heat is then stored in porous bed storage (B) packed with rock, gravel or
pebbles. Energy is extracted and transferred to the space to be heated by blowing cool air

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through the porous bed. Once again an auxiliary heater (D) is provided for supplying
collector make-up heat.

Figure 17

Another type of space heating system which is being adopted in cold countries consists of an
unglazed transpired collector (UTC) (A), fixed in front of a sun-facing wall(B), a fan unit (C)
and an air-distributing duct (D) . A UTC is usually a perforated dark-coloured metallic plate
and gets heated up by the absorption of solar radiation. Ambient air, drawn through the holes
of the UTC by the fan, gets heated as it flows in the space between the UTC and the wall, and
is subsequently distributed through the duct to the living space.

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Figure 18

1.4.2 PASSIVE METHODS - TROMBE WALL

Figure 19

A passive method is one in which thermal energy flows through a living space by natural
means without the help of a mechanical device like a pump or a blower. A schematic diagram
of a passive space-heating system designed by Proffesor Trombe is shown in Figure. The

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south face of the house to be heated is provided with a single or double glazing. Behind it is a
thick, "black", concrete wall, which absorbs the sun’s radiation and serves as a thermal
storage.
Vents (A and B), which can be kept open or closed, are provided near the top and bottom of
the storage wall. The whole unit consisting of the storage wall with vents and the glazing is
referred to as a Trombe wall.
During the day, both vents A and B are kept open. The air between the inner glazing and the
wall gets heated and flows into the living space through the top vent. Simultaneously, the
cooler air from the room is pulled out of the living space through the bottom vent. Thus, a
natural circulation path is set up. Some energy transfer to the living space also takes place by
convection and radiation from the inner surface of the storage wall. During the night, both
vents are closed and energy transfer takes place only by convection and radiation from the
inner surface.
The Trombe wall design can also provide summer ventilation by using vents C and D near
the top of the glazing and on the north-facing wall. On a hot summer day, vents B, C and D
would be kept open, while vent A would be kept closed. The heated air between the glazing
and the wall would then flow out through vent C drawing air from the living space to replace
it. This in turn would cause air to be pulled in from outside through vent D. Vent D should be
located such that the air pulled in through it comes from a shaded and cool area. The presence
of an overhang on the roof of the house should also be noted. This prevents direct radiation
from falling on the glazing during summer and makes the ventilation more effective.

1.4.3 SUNSPACE HEATING

Another passive design approach for space heating is to construct a sunspace or greenhouse
next to the living space to be heated. The sunspace is located on the south side of the
building. It has a large glass roof and there is a thick wall with vents at the top and bottom
linking it with the living space. Thus the sunspace acts as a buffer zone between the living
space and the outdoor conditions. During the day, the sunspace gets heated up and warm air
enters the living space through the top opening A. Cooler air from the living space is pulled
out through the bottom opening B thereby establishing a natural circulation flow. In addition,
energy is stored in the link wall. During the night, the openings are closed and the energy
stored in the link wall is conducted through it and transferred to the living space by
convection and radiation from the inner surface.

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Figure 20

1.5 SPACE COOLING & REFRIGERATION

A diagram of a simple solar operated absorption system is shown in Figure. Water heated in a
flat-plate collector array is passed through a heat exchanger called the generator, where it
transfers heat to a solution mixture of the absorbent and refrigerant, which is rich in the
refrigerant. Refrigerant vapour is boiled off at a high pressure and goes to the condenser
where it is condensed into a high pressure liquid. The high pressure liquid is throttled to a low
pressure and temperature in an expansion valve, and passes through the evaporator coil. Here,
the refrigerant vapour absorbs heat and cooling is therefore obtained in the space surrounding
this coil.
The refrigerant vapour is now absorbed into a solution mixture withdrawn from the generator,
which is weak in refrigerant concentration. This yields a rich solution which is pumped back
to the generator, thereby completing the cycle. The rich solution flowing from the absorber to
the generator is usually heated in a heat exchanger by the weak solution withdrawn from the
generator. This helps to improve the performance of the cycle. Some of the common
refrigerant-absorbent combinations used are ammonia-water and water- lithium bromide, the
latter being used essentially for air-conditioning purposes.

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Figure 21

1.6 POWER GENERATION

Solar thermal power cycles can be classified as low, medium, and high temperature cycles.
Low temperature cycles with maximum temperatures up to about 100°C, medium
temperature cycles work at temperatures of about 400C and high temperature cycles work at
temperatures above 400C.
Low temperature systems use flat-plate collector or solar pond for collecting solar energy.
Medium temperature systems use the line focusing parabolic collector technology. High
temperature systems use either paraboloid dish collectors or central receivers located at the
top of towers.

1.6.1 LOW TEMPERATURE CYCLE

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OUTPUT = 50 kW ( Africa)
OUTPUT = 10 kW (IIT Madras)
INSTALLATION COST = Rs 300,000 per KW

The energy of the sun is collected by water flowing through the array of flat-plate collectors.
In order to get the maximum possible temperature, booster mirrors which reflect radiation on
to the flat-plate collectors are sometimes used. The hot water at temperatures close to 100°C
is stored in a well-insulated thermal storage tank. From here, it flows through a vapour
generator through which the working fluid of the Rankine cycle is also passed. The working
fluid has a low boiling point. Consequently, vapour at about 90°C and a pressure of a few
atmospheres leaves the vapour generator. This vapour then executes a regular Rankine cycle
by flowing through a prime mover, a condenser and a liquid pump. The working fluids
normally used are organic fluids like methyl chloride and toluene, and refrigerants like R-11,
R-113 and R-114. It has to be noted that the overall efficiency of this system is rather low,
because the temperature difference between the vapour leaving the generator and the
condensed liquid leaving the condenser is small. For the cycle shown in figure, the
temperature difference is only 55C. This leads to a Rankine cycle efficiency of 7 to 8 per
cent. The efficiency of the collector system is of the order of 25 per cent. Hence an overall
efficiency of only about 2 per cent is obtained.

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1.6.1.1 Solar chimney

Pilot plant in Spain

Tower height = 195m
Tower diameter = 10.3m
Collector radius = 122m
Glazing height = 1.85m
Turbine Blade length = 5m (4 Nos)
RPM = 1500
Peak output = 50kW
Annual Production =44 MWh

Figure 22

In such a plant a tall central chimney is surrounded at its base by a circular greenhouse
consisting of a transparent cover supported a few metres above the ground by a metal frame.
Sunlight passing through the transparent cover cause the air trapped in the greenhouse to heat
up by 10 to 20C. Thereby a convection system is set up in which the hot air is drawn up
through the central chimney, and is continuously replenished by fresh air drawn in at the
periphery of the greenhouse. The energy contained in the updraft air is converted into
mechanical energy by turbines located at the base of the chimney and then in to electrical
energy by conventional electrical generators.

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1.6.2 POWER GENERATION – MEDIUM TEMPERATURE CYCLE

Figure 23

1.6.3 HIGH TEMPERATURE CYCLE

Figure 24

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In a central receiver system, solar radiation reflected from an array of large mirrors is
concentrated on a receiver situated at the top of a supporting tower. The mirrors are called
heliostats and they are placed on the ground around the tower. Their orientation is
individually controlled so that throughout the day they reflect beam radiation on the receiver.
A fluid flowing through the receiver absorbs the concentrated radiation and transports the
heat to the ground level where it is used to operate a thermodynamic cycle like the Rankine
or the Brayton cycle. Molten salts, water (converted to steam) and air have been used as the
heat transfer fluids. Because of the use of a receiver placed at the top of a tower, a central
receiver system is also referred to as a power tower
The molten salt used frequently is a mixture of 60 per cent sodium nitrate and 40 per cent
potassium nitrate. Cold salt at 290°C is pumped from a tank at ground level to the receiver at
the top of a tower where it is heated by the concentrated radiation to a temperature of 565°C.
The salt flows back to another tank at ground level. In order to generate electricity, hot salt is
pumped from the hot tank through a steam generator where superheated steam is produced.
The superheated steam then goes through a Rankine cycle to produce mechanical work and
then electricity. The heliostat array can be sized to collect more power than is required by the
electricity generation system. In that case, the excess thermal energy in the form of excess
salt at 565°C accumulates in the hot tank and serves as a thermal storage.

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1.7 SOLAR DISTILLATION

Figure 25

The principle of solar distillation is simple, in which a conventional basin-type solar still is
used. The still consists of a shallow air-tight basin lined with a black, impervious material
which contains the saline water. A sloping transparent cover is provided at the top. Solar
radiation is transmitted through the cover and is absorbed in the black lining. It thus heats up
the water by about 10 to 20°C and causes it to evaporate. The resulting vapour rises,
condenses as pure water on the underside of the cover and flows in to the condensate
collection channels on the sides (distilled water gutter) and is tapped through the outlet.

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1.8 SOLAR COOKING

Figure 26

It essentially consists of a rectangular enclosure insulated on the bottom and sides, and
having one or two glass covers on the top. Solar radiation enters through the top and heats up
the enclosure in which the food to be cooked is placed in shallow vessels. A typical size
available has an enclosure about 50 sq.cm and 12cm deep. Temperatures around 100°C can
be obtained in these cookers on sunny days and pulses, rice, vegetables, etc., can be readily
cooked. The time taken for cooking depends upon the solar radiation and varies from half an
hour to two and a half hours. A single glass reflector whose inclination can be varied is
usually attached to the box-type cooker. The addition of the mirror (sometimes multiple)
helps in achieving enclosure temperatures which are higher by about 15° to 20°C.

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Figure 27

Figure 28

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