p-ADIC INTEGERS

Department of Mathematics,
University of Mumbai

May – 2022

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 1 / 71

 Under the guidance of Dr. Anuradha S. Garge

Submitted by:
1 Anjali Singh
2 Kainat Shaikh
3 Mariya Sadaf Shaikh
4 Nasra Momin
5 Sadia Khatoon
6 Safeera Shaikh
7 Shubham Jadhav
8 Suresh Mishra

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 2 / 71

 1. Introduction

The p-adic numbers were first introduced by the German

mathematician Kurt Hensel in 1897. The p-adic numbers were
then generalized to valuations by Hungarian mathematician
József Kürschák in 1913. More formally, for a given prime p, the
field Qp of p-adic number is completion of the rational numbers
with respect to p-adic metric. The field Qp is also given a topology
derived from a metric, which is itself derived from the p-adic order.
The p-adic numbers are useful because they provide another
toolset for solving problems, one which is sometimes easier to
work with than the real numbers. According to the Ostrowski’s
theorem there are only two kinds of completions of the rationals.
They give real or p-adic Qp numbers fields, where p is any prime
number with corresponding p-adic norm | x |p which is
non-archimedean. One example is Hensel’s lemma for finding
roots of the polynomial.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 3 / 71

 We shall start with introducing the absolute value on the field Q
and then valuation on the field Q. We then move on to p-adic
absolute value of Q and some properties. Next we state the
Ostrowiski’s Theorem. Then we define distance on the field Q: the
p-adic distance etc. Then we will look at how the p-adic geometry
differs from Euclidean geometry. Next, we discuss the completion
using the concept of topology to get a sense of p-adic spaces. We
then move to p-adic integers. Finally, we will look at Hensel’s
lemma.
The main idea will be to introduce a different absolute value
function on the field of rational numbers. This will give us a
different way to measure distances. Once we have that, we will
use it to construct the p-adic numbers. To get the p-adic numbers,
we need to start with the field Q of rational numbers.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 4 / 71

 2. Absolute Value On The Field Q

Definition
An absolute value on Q is a function | | : Q → R+ that satisfies the
following conditions: for all x, y ∈ Q,
1 | x |≥ 0;
2 | x | = 0 if and only if x = 0;
3 | xy | = | x || y |;
4 | x + y | ≤ | x | + | y |;
5 | x + y | ≤ max{| x |, | y |}.

The absolute value is archimedean if it satisfies the condition 1 to 4;

otherwise, we will say that the absolute value is non-archimedean if it
satisfies condition 1 to 3 and 5. Note that | x | is usual absolute value.
| x |≥ 1, if x ̸= 0 and | 0 | = 0 is trivial absolute value.
Now for defining p-absolute value, let us explore some definitions and
lemma.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 5 / 71
 3. Valuation On The Field Q

Definition
l
Fix a prime number p. Let 0 ̸= x ∈ Q. Then write x = ab11 = ppm×a ×b ,
a, b, a1 , b1 ∈ Z such that p ̸ | a and p ̸ | b.
This implies x = pl−m × ba = pn × ba ; n = (l − m) ∈ Z and this
n = vp (x), where vp (x) is said to be p-adic valuation for this x ∈ Q.

Remark
The p-adic valuation of any x ∈ Q, i.e., vp (x) is also defined as, for
x = ba ∈ Q, vp (x) = vp (a) − vp (b), where p ∈ Z is prime.
From above calculation we can see that valuation of p at x, i.e., vp (x),
is just multiplicity of p as divisor of x.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 6 / 71

 Examples:
(i) v3 (402) = 1, multiplicity of 3 as divisor of 402 is 1, since
402 = 31 × 134.
(ii) v3 ( 123
48 ) = v3 (123) − v3 (48) = 1 − 1 = 0, multiplicity of 3 as divisor
of 123 and 48 is 1, since 123 = 31 × 41, 48 = 31 × 16.
(iii) vp (1) = 0, multiplicity of any prime number as divisor of 1 is 0,
since 1 = p0 × 1.

Note that vp (0) = +∞, since any arbitrarily high power of p divides
zero.
We observe that for any x ∈ Q, the value of vp (x) does not depend on
it’s representation as a quotient of two integers. In other words, if
a c
b = d , then vp (a) − vp (b) = vp (c) − vp (d).

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 7 / 71

 We will prove this as follows:
Let x = ba = dc .
We have x = ba implies that vp (x) = vp (a) − vp (b).
Similarly vp (x) = vp (c) − vp (d). Hence vp (a) − vp (b) = vp (c) − vp (d).

Examples:
6 12
As 4 = 8 then v2 (6) − v2 (4) = −1 = v2 (12) − v2 (8).

Now we will discuss some basic properties of p-adic valuation.

Lemma
For all x and y ∈ Q, we have
1 vp (xy) = vp (x) + vp (y );
2 vp (x −1 ) = −vp (x);
3 vp (x + y ) ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y)}, with equality if vp (x) ̸= vp (y),
with the obvious conventions of vp (0) = +∞.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 8 / 71

 Proof : We are trying to prove that vp (x + y) ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y)}.
Let x = pn ba and y = pm dc such that p ̸ | a, b, c, d.
Then vp (x) = n and vp (y ) = m.
If x + y = 0 then vp (x + y) = +∞ ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y )} trivially.
We now assume that x + y ̸= 0.
If n = m, then min{vp (x), vp (y)} = n = m.
Consider, x + y = pn ba + pm dc = pn ( ba + dc ).
Then p-adic valuation of x + y is, vp (x + y ) = vp (pn ) + vp ( ba + dc )
= n + vp ( ad+bc
bd ) ≥ n, because p ̸ | a, b, c, d it implies p ̸ | bd, so
vp (bd) = 0.
Also p ̸ | ad, bc it doesn’t imply p ̸ | ad + bc, so vp ( ad+bc
bd ) ≥ 0.
Hence vp (x + y ) ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y )}.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 9 / 71

 If n ̸= m then,
CASE I : If n < m,
Consider x + y = pn ba + pm dc = pn ba + pm+n−n dc = pn ( ba + pm−n dc ).
We get that vp (x + y ) = vp (pn ) + vp ( ba + pm−n dc )
m−n
= vp (pn ) + vp ( ad+pbd bc ) = vp (pn ) + vp (ad + pm−n bc) − vp (bd). As we
have, p ̸ | a, b, c, d. Hence p ̸ | ad, bc, bd.
This implies that p ̸ | ad + pm−n bc,
i.e., p is not the divisor of ad + pm−n bc and bd.
Hence vp (ad + pm−n bc) = 0 and vp (bd) = 0.
CASE II: If n > m, the proof follows similarly.
Hence from both the cases 1 and 2 we get,
vp (x + y) = min{vp (x), vp (y)}.
Thus we get equality if n ̸= m, otherwise
vp (x + y) ≥ min{vp (x), vp (y)}.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 10 / 71

 4. p-adic Absolute Value Of Q

Definition
For any x ∈ Q, we define p-adic absolute value of x by
| x |p = p−vp (x) , where p ∈ Z is prime.

Examples:
1 1
1 For x = 0, | 0 |p = p−vp (0) = p−∞ = p∞ = ∞ = 0.
2 | 35 |7 = 7−v7 (35)= = 71 . 7−1
56 −v7 ( 56
3 | 12 |7 = 7
12 = 7−v7 (56)+v7 (12)
)
= 7−1+0 = 7−1 = 71 .
360
4 | 360
93555 |7 = 7−v7 ( 93555 ) = 7−v7 (360)+v7 (93555) = 7−0+1 = 7.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 11 / 71

 Lemma
The function | |p : Q → R+ has the properties:
1 | x |p ≥ 0;
2 | x |p = 0 if and only if x = 0;
3 | xy |p = | x |p | y |p ;
4 | x + y |p ≤ max{| x |p , | y |p }, with equality if | x |p ̸= | y |p .

Proof : By properties of valuation we can do the proof of 1, 2, 3 and 4

easily.
Thus we get that the p-adic absolute value on Q is properly
constructed so we can conclude following:

Proposition
The p-adic absolute value is non-archimedean absolute value on Q.

Proof : Proof follows from previous lemma.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 12 / 71

 Now we state the theorem that classifies all non-trivial absolute values
defined on the field of the rational numbers Q.
Ostrowski’s Theorem : (Alexander Ostrowski 1916)
Every non-trivial absolute value on the rational numbers Q is
equivalent to either the usual absolute value | |∞ or a p-adic absolute
value | |p , for some prime p.

The whole idea of an absolute value is that it provides us with a notion

of size. In other words, once we have an absolute value, we can use it
to measure distances between numbers, to define a metric on our field
Q.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 13 / 71

 5. Distance On The Field Q

Definition
Let Q be a field of rationals numbers and | | an absolute value on Q.
We define the distance d(x, y) between two elements x, y ∈ Q by

d(x, y) = | x − y | .

The function d(x, y) is called the metric induced by absolute value.

Now we see the general properties for a metric d(x, y ) as follows, for
any x, y, z ∈ Q:
1 d(x, y) ≥ 0;
2 d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;
3 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetric Property);
4 d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y , z) (Triangle Inequality).

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 14 / 71

 Here the last inequality is called the triangle inequality, since it
expresses the usual fact that the sum of the lengths of two sides of
triangle is bigger than the length of the other sides.
A set on which the metric is defined is called the ‘metric space’.

Lemma
| x | is non-archimedean if and only if for any x, y , z ∈ Q, we have

d(x, y ) ≤ max{d(x, z), d(z, y)}.

Now we have a new concept of the distance between two rationals

numbers which is different from the usual absolute value. We define it
in the next section.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 15 / 71

 6. p-adic Distance On The Field Q

Definition
Let Q be a field of rationals numbers, p be a prime and | |p be a p-adic
absolute value on Q. We define the distance d(x, y) between two
elements x, y ∈ Q by
d(x, y) =| x − y |p ,
for some fixed prime p.

Examples:
Take p = 7,
(i) d(3, 2) = | 3 − 2 |7 = | 1 |7 = | 70 × 1 |7 = 7−0 = 1;
(ii)
d(28814, 2) = | 28814 − 2 |7 = | 28812 |7 = | 74 × 13 |7 = 7−4 = 1/74 .
In above example 1 > 1/74 so we can conclude that 28814 and 2 are
closer together than 3 and 2 are!

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 16 / 71

 The above metric d satisfies the following properties:

Proposition
For all x, y, z ∈ Q, we have
1 d(x, y) ≥ 0;
2 d(x, y) = 0 if and only if x = y;
3 d(x, y) = d(y, x) (Symmetric Property);
4 d(x, z) ≤ d(x, y) + d(y , z) (Triangle Inequality).

Proof : The proof can be done easily.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 17 / 71

 Proposition
If d(x, z) ≤ max{d(x, y), d(y , z)} then the metric defined by d is
non-archimedean.
Proof : Let x, y , z ∈ Q.
Consider d(x, z) = | x − z |p = | x + y − y − z |p

= | (x − y) + (y − z) |p

≤ max{| x − y |p , | y − z |p }
= max{d(x, y), d(y , z)}.
Thus,
d(x, z) ≤ max{d(x, y), d(y, z)}.

This inequality is known as the “ultrametric inequality”, and a metric for

which it is true is sometimes called an “ultrametric”.
A space with an ultrametric is called an “ultrametric space”.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 18 / 71
 7. Geometry in Qp

Once we have a way to measure distances, we can do the geometry.

So to do the geometry in Qp we start with three following remarks:

Remark
1 A point is an element of Qp .
2 A triangle is three distinct points a, b and c in Qp . We will denote a
triangle by △abc.
3 A triangle abc has sides of lengths given by d(a, b), d(b, c) and
d(c, a).

Now we will see a geometry different from the euclidean geometry in

which all triangles are isosceles.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 19 / 71

 Theorem
In Qp , all triangles are isosceles.

Proof : Let △abc be a triangle. Let a, b and c be distinct points in Qp .

Then d(a, b), d(b, c) and d(a, c) are the lengths of the sides of the
triangle determined by those points.
If any two of d(a, b), d(b, c) and d(a, c) are equal, then we have
nothing to prove. Without loss of generality, suppose d(a, b) ̸= d(b, c).
Then | a − b |p ̸= | b − c |p .
Here we note that | a − c |p = | (a − b) + (b − c) |p .
By using (d) property of p-adic absolute value of Qp ,
i.e., If | x |p ̸=| y |p then | x + y |p = max{| x |p , | y |p }.
We get, | a − c |p = max{| (a − b) |p , | (b − c) |p },
i.e., we get either | a − c |p = | (a − b) |p or | a − c |p = | (b − c) |p .
This implies either d(a, c) = d(a, b) or d(a, c) = d(b, c), i.e., we get
that, the length of atleast two sides of the triangle is always equal in
Qp . Thus all triangles are isosceles in Qp .
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 20 / 71
 Example:
Let Q5 with | |5 .
Let x = 200, y = 185, z = 85 ∈ Q5 be vertices of a triangle.
By 5-adic metric we have,
d(x, y) =| x − y |5 = | 200 − 185 |5 = | 15 |5 = 1/5
and d(y, z) =| y − z |5 = | 185 − 85 |5 = | 100 |5 = 1/25.
It implies that d(x, y ) ̸= d(y, z). Now consider,
d(x, z) =| x − z |5 = | x − z + y − y |5 = | (x − y) + (y − z) |5
= | (200 − 185) + (185 − 85) |5 = | 15 + 100 |5 .
Since d(x, y ) ̸= d(y, z), therefore by using property (d) of p-adic
absolute value of Qp ,
i.e., if | x |p ̸=| y |p then | x + y |p = max{| x |p , | y |p }, we get,
d(x, z) =| 15 + 100 |5 = max{| 15 |5 , | 100 |5 } = max{1/5, 1/25} =
1/5. Hence we get, d(x, y ) = d(x, z).
Therefore △xyz is isosceles triangle.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 21 / 71

 Theorem
If a triangle is not equilateral, the unequal side has the largest
valuation and hence becomes the shortest side of the triangle.

Proof : Let △abc be a triangle. Let a, b and c be distinct points in Qp .

Then d(a, b), d(b, c) and d(a, c) are the lengths of the sides of the
triangle determined by those points.
Since △abc is not equilateral, without loss of generality,
let d(a, b) = d(b, c) ̸= d(a, c).
Then | a − b |p = | b − c |p ̸= | a − c |p ,
i.e., p−vp (a−b) = p−vp (b−c) ̸= p−vp (a−c) .
We get vp (a − b) = vp (b − c) ̸= vp (a − c).
Then vp (a − c) = vp (a − c + b − b) = vp ((a − b) + (b − c))
≥ min{vp (a − b), vp (b − c)}, by property (3) of valuation on the field Q.
Since vp (a − c) ̸= vp (a − b) = vp (b − c) and the triangle is not
equilateral, we have vp (a − c) > vp (a − b).
Hence the unequal side has largest valuation.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 22 / 71
 Now, to show that the unequal side has the shortest length.
From above, we have vp (a − c) > vp (a − b) or vp (a − c) > vp (b − c).
Let vp (a − c) > vp (a − b).
Then pvp (a−c) > pvp (a−b) .
This gives 1/pvp (a−c) < 1/pvp (a−b) ,
i.e., p−vp (a−c) > p−vp (a−b) ,
i.e., | a − c |p < | a − b |p .
Thus d(a, c) < d(a, b).
Hence the unequal side has the shortest length.
In Euclidean geometry with the usual distance, collinearity is possible
with more than two point, but if we use the p-adic distance on Q, we
see that collinearity is impossible with more than two points.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 23 / 71

 Theorem
Given three points a, b and c ∈ Qp , d(a, c) < d(a, b) + d(b, c). In
other words, no three points in Qp are collinear.

Proof : Let △abc be a triangle. Let a, b and c be distinct points in Qp .

Then d(a, b), d(b, c) and d(a, c) are the lengths of the sides of the
triangle determined by points a, b, c.
By triangle inequality of p-adic distances on the field Q, we have
d(a, c) ≤ d(a, b) + d(b, c). (1)
We have to prove that no three points are collinear,
i.e., d(a, c) < d(a, b) + d(b, c) (since three points a, b, c are collinear if
and only if d(a, c) = d(a, b) + d(b, c)), for this we use contradiction
method.
Assume that these three points a, b and c are collinear this implies
d(a, c) = d(a, b) + d(b, c).
So we have d(a, c) > d(a, b) and d(a, c) > d(b, c).
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 24 / 71
 Since d(a, c) > d(a, b) then | a − c |p > | a − b |p ,

i.e., p−vp (a−c) > p−vp (a−b) , i.e., vp (a − c) < vp (a − b). (2)

Similarly,

d(a, c) > d(b, c) i.e., vp (a − c) < vp (b − c). (3)

As vp (a − c) ≥ min{vp (a − b), vp (b − c)}, by property (3) of valuation

on the field Q.
It means that either vp (a − c) ≥ vp (a − b) or vp (a − c) ≥ vp (b − c).
So its a contradiction to equations (2) and (3).
Hence our assumption is wrong.
Therefore d(a, c) ̸= d(a, b) + d(b, c).
Thus by equation (1), d(a, b) < d(a, c) + d(b, c).
Thus three points a, b and c are not collinear.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 25 / 71

 Example:
Let a, b, c be the three points in Q3 .
Let a = 100, b = 75 and c = 93.
By 3-adic metric, d(x, y ) = | x − y |3 ;
d(a, b) =| 100 − 75 |3 = | 25 |3 = 3−v3 (25) = 1;
d(a, c) =| 100 − 93 |3 = | 7 |3 = 3−v3 (7) = 1;
1
d(b, c) =| 75 − 93 |3 = | −18 |3 = 3−v3 (−18) = 3−2 = 32
.
We can see that d(a, c) ̸= d(a, b) + d(b, c).
Hence a, b, c are not collinear.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 26 / 71

 8. Completions

We are now ready to construct the p-adic field Qp . So first we need to

recall some important concepts from basic topology.

Definition
Let K be a field and let | | be absolute value on K.
1 A sequence of elements (xn ) ∈ K is called a Cauchy sequence if
for every ϵ > 0 there exists N ∈ N such that | xn − xm |< ϵ
whenever n, m > N.
2 The field K is called Complete with respect to the absolute value
| | if every Cauchy sequence of elements of K are convergent in K
(i.e., it has limit that is also in K).

The first useful thing to note is that the Cauchy sequences can be
characterized much more simply when the absolute value is
non-archimedean.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 27 / 71

 Lemma
A sequence (xn ) of rational numbers is a Cauchy sequence with
respect to non-archimedean absolute value | |p if and only if we have
limn→∞ | xn+1 − xn |p = 0.

We already know that Q is not complete with respect to the metric

given by the usual absolute value. Is Q complete with respect to the
new distances or not ?
The answer to this question is no.
We will show this in the following lemma.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 28 / 71

 Lemma
The field Q of rational numbers is not complete with respect to any of
its nontrivial absolute values corresponding to odd prime p.

Proof : By Ostrowski’s theorem, any non-trivial absolute value on Q is

either | |∞ or | |p . In case of usual absolute value, i.e., | |∞ , we already
know Q is not complete, so we look for p-adic absolute values.
We take non-trivial absolute value to be | |p , for some odd prime p and
try to prove that Q is not complete with respect to | |p . To prove this,
we need to construct a Cauchy sequence in Q which does not have
limit in Q.
Suppose p is a odd prime. Choose an integer a ∈ Z such that
a is not a square in Q;
p does not divide a;
a is a quadratic residue modulo p, i.e., the congruence
x 2 ≡ a mod p has a solution.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 29 / 71

 Note that a exists as there are exactly half the residues modulo p and
half non-residues modulo p.
Now we can construct a Cauchy sequence (with respect to | |p ) in the
following way:
choose x0 to be any solution of x 2 ≡ a mod p, i.e., x02 ≡ a mod p
where 1 ≤ x0 ≤ p − 1 and x0 ̸= 0 as x0 should be invertible.
choose another solution x1 such that x1 ≡ x0 mod p and
x12 ≡ a mod p2 .
We prove that such x1 mod p exists. As x1 ≡ x0 mod p, we have
x1 = x0 + pt.
Now x12 ≡ a mod p2
x12 = a + p2 k
(x0 + pt)2 = a + p2 k
x02 + 2px0 t + p2 t 2 = a + p2 k
x02 + 2px0 t = a + p2 (k − t 2 )
a + pλ + 2px0 t = a + p2 k ′ .
Thus, p(2x0 t + λ) = p2 k ′ this gives 2x0 t + λ ≡ 0 mod p.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 30 / 71

 Choose t ≡ (2x0 )−1 (−λ) mod p, value of t exist as we are in
congruence modulo p. This proves the existence of x1 .
Similarly we can choose x2 such that x2 ≡ x1 mod p2 and
x22 ≡ a mod p3 and continuing like this in general we can choose
xn ≡ xn−1 mod pn and xn2 ≡ a mod pn+1 .
We can see that such a sequence (xn ) does exist as the initial element
x0 exists.
Now we check that the sequence obtained above is a Cauchy
sequence. It is clear from the construction that xn+1 ≡ xn mod pn+1 .
This implies that xn+1 = xn + λpn+1 . Hence
| xn+1 − xn |p = | λpn+1 |p ≤ p−(n+1) → 0, as n → ∞.
Hence by previous lemma we see that the sequence (xn ) is indeed a
sequence. We also know that xn2 ≡ a mod pn+1 . So, xn2 = a + µpn+1
and hence | xn2 − a |p = | µpn+1 |p ≤ p−(n+1) → 0, as n → ∞.
Thus we get xn2 converges to a,
i.e., | xn2 − a | < ϵ implies xn2 = a, which is contradiction as a is not a
square in Q. Hence Q is not complete with respect to | |p , where p is
odd prime.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 31 / 71
 Now for completion we emphasize p and Q. For this we need to add
more points to Q as completion of Q depends on the metric used and
is based on the notion of Cauchy sequences.

Definition
Let | |p be a non-archimedean absolute value on Q. We denote by C, or
by Cp (Q), the set of all Cauchy sequences of elements of Q.

C = Cp (Q) = {(xn ) : (xn ) is a Cauchy sequence with respect to | |p }.

Proposition
By defining (xn ) + (yn ) = (xn + yn ), (xn )(yn ) = (xn yn ), the set C
becomes a commutative ring with unity.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 32 / 71

 We say two Cauchy sequences are equivalent when they share the
same limit and we define the set N ⊂ C of sequences that tends to
zero.
Definition
We define N ⊂ C to be the ideal
N = {(xn ) : xn → 0} = {(xn ) : limn→∞ | xn |p = 0} of sequences that
tend to zero with respect to absolute value | |p .

Now, we will show that N is maximal ideal of C.

Lemma
N is a maximal ideal of C.
Proof : Let (xn ) ∈ C be a Cauchy sequence that does not tend to zero
(i.e., does not belong to N).
Let I be the ideal generated by (xn ) and N, i.e., I = ⟨x, N⟩.
We get N ⊂ I ⊂ C, we have to prove that N is maximal ideal,
i.e., I = N or I = C.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 33 / 71

 So we want to show that I must be all of C if I ̸= N. We will do that by
showing that the unit element (1) (i.e., the constant sequence
corresponding to 1) is in I.
This is enough, because any ideal that contains the unit element must
be the whole ring.
Now, since (xn ) does not tend to zero and is a Cauchy sequence, it
must “eventually” be away from zero, that is, there must exist a number
c > 0 and an integer N such that | xn | ≥ c > 0, whenever n ≥ N.
Now in particular this means that xn ̸= 0 for n ≥ N, so that we may
define a new sequence (yn ) setting yn = 0 if n < N and yn = x1n if
n ≥ N.
The first thing to check is that (yn ) is a Cauchy sequence. That is clear
because if n ≥ N we have
 1 |x −xn |p |x −x |
| yn+1 − yn |p =  xn+1 − x1n  = |xn+1 ≤ n+1c 2 n p → 0,

n xn+1 |p p
as (xn ) is Cauchy sequence.
( sequence, i.e., (yn ) ∈ C.
It shows that (yn ) is Cauchy
0, if n < N
Now notice that, xn yn =
1, if n ≥ N.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 34 / 71
 This means that the product sequence (xn )(yn ) consists of a finite
number of 0’s followed by an infinite string of 1’s,
i.e., (xn )(yn ) = (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 1, · · · ). In particular, if we subtract it from
the constant sequence (1), we get a sequence that tends to zero,
i.e., (1, 1, · · · ) − (0, 0, · · · , 0, 1, 1, · · · ) = (0, 0, · · · ).
In other words (1) − (xn )(yn ) ∈ N.
It means that (1) ∈ (xn )(yn ) + N. This says that (1) can be written as a
multiple of (xn ) plus an element of N. Hence (1) belongs to I, as we
had claimed. Thus N is maximal ideal of C.
Now by taking the quotient of the ring C by the ideal N, we make things
even nicer, i.e., taking a quotient of the ring by a maximal ideal gives
us a field. Momentarily, we define this field:

Definition
We define the field of p−adic numbers to be the quotient of the ring C
by its maximal ideal N: Qp = C/N and we call it the field of p-adic
numbers Qp .

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 35 / 71

 For any two Cauchy sequences (xn ) and (yn ), if | xn − yn |p → 0 as
n → ∞ then the two Cauchy sequences are equivalent.
Then we say the set of equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences, Qp ,
the p-adic numbers.
To check we have indeed obtained the completion, we must now check
the two requirements: that Q is dense in Qp , and that Qp is complete.

Proposition
The image of Q under the inclusion Q ,→ Qp is a dense subset of Qp .

Proof : Given the inclusion of Q into Qp denoted Q ,→ Qp , therefore

we have f (Q) ⊂ Qp . We have to show that f (Q) is dense in Qp . That is
we have to show, intersection of any open ball in Qp with f (Q) is
non-empty, i.e., we need to show that any open ball around an element
in Qp contains an element of (the image of) Q,
i.e., a constant sequence, so fix a radius r > 0.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 36 / 71

 Let λ = (xn ) ∈ Qp be a Cauchy sequence and let ϵ be a number
slightly smaller than r . By Cauchy property, for ϵ > 0, ∃ an natural
number N such that | xn − xm |p < ϵ whenever n, m ≥ N.
Let x = xN and consider the constant sequence (x).
Claim: f (Q) ∩ B(λ, r ) ̸= ∅, for every λ ∈ Qp and for fix r > 0,
i.e., for (x) ∈ f (Q), (x) ∈ B(λ, r ),
i.e., | λ − (x) |p < r .
Consider,
| λ − (x) |p = | (xn ) − (x) |p = | (xn − x) |p = limn→∞ | xn − x |p
= limn→∞ | xn − xN |p < ϵ < r .
Thus constant sequence of (x) ∈ f (Q) belong to B(λ, r ) for λ ∈ Qp and
for some fix radius r > 0. Hence we are done.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 37 / 71

 Now, it remains to check the completion of the field of p-adic numbers
Qp .

Proposition
The field of p-adic numbers Qp is complete with respect to | |p .

Proof : Let λ1 , λ2 , · · · , λn , · · · be a Cauchy sequence of elements of

Qp (so that each λi , for i = 1, 2, · · · , n, · · · is a Cauchy sequence of
elements of Q, taken upto equivalence).
As we know that the image of Q is dense in Qp , so we can find the
rational numbers y (1) , y (2) , · · · , y (n) , · · · such that a Cauchy sequence
λn and the constant sequence y (n) are arbitrarily close, i.e., we have
limn→∞ | λn − (y (n) ) |p = 0.
This shows that (λn − y (n) ) is zero sequence in Qp .
We can write y (n) = λn − λn + y (n) = λn − (λn − y (n) ). As (λn ) is a
Cauchy sequence in Qp and (λn − y (n) ) is zero sequence hence a
Cauchy sequence.
We get that (y (n) ) is a Cauchy sequence in Q as well as Qp ,

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 38 / 71

 i.e., the rational numbers y (1) , y (2) , · · · , y (n) , · · · themselves form a
Cauchy sequence in Q. Let λ denote the element of Qp corresponding
to this sequence, i.e., λ = y (n) + N. Now we can write
λ − λn = (λ − y (n) ) + (y (n) − λn ).
By the denseness of Q in Qp , λ − y (n) converges to zero and
(y (n) − λn ) also converges to zero as it is a zero sequence. Hence
λ − λn converges to zero in Qp , i.e., limn→∞ λn = λ.
We get that a Cauchy sequence λn in Qp converges to λ ∈ Qp .
Thus Qp is complete with respect to | |p because every Cauchy
sequence in Qp is convergent.
Now we begin to explore the structure of the field Qp . Since Qp is the
field with non-archimedean valuation, we can consider the
corresponding valuation ring.
The resulting ring has a name of its own about which we will know in
the next section.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 39 / 71

 9. p-adic Integers

We shall devote this section to the p-adic integers which we denote by

Zp .

Definition
The ring of p-adic integers is the valuation ring

Zp = {x ∈ Qp : | x |p ≤ 1}.

Examples:
(i) For p = 2, | 3 |2 = 2−v2 (3) = 2−0 = 1. Thus 3 ∈ Z2 .
1
(ii) For p = 2, | 4 |2 = 2−v2 (1/4) = 2−v2 (1)−(−v2 (4)) = 2−(−2) = 4 > 1.
Thus 4 ∈ / Z2 .

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 40 / 71

 Remarks:
Here we observe that all p-adic absolute values of integers Z is
always less than are equal to 1 hence all integers lies in Zp .
Also note that Zp is closed unit ball with centre 0, therefore it is a
closed set in Qp , as every closed ball is closed set.

Now we discuss more about the ring of the p-adic integers Zp . For this
we first define local ring and then recall the following proposition from
the abstract algebra.
Definition
Local Ring : A ring R is said to be a local ring if it has exactly one
maximal ideal.

Proposition
Let R be a commutative ring with unity and if M ̸= (1) be any ideal of
commutative ring R with unity such that every x ∈ R \ M is an unit of
R. Then R is local ring and M is its maximal ideal.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 41 / 71
 Lemma
The valuation ring Zp is local ring with unique maximal ideal
pZp = {x ∈ Zp : | x |p < 1}. We shall call pZp the valuation ideal of Zp .

Proof : We will show that pZp is an ideal.

Let x, y ∈ pZp , this implies | x |p < 1, | y |p < 1, for x, y ∈ Qp . So we
get max{| x |p , | y |p } < 1.
Therefore we get
| x − y |p ≤ max{| x |p , | −y |p } = max{| x |p , | y |p } < 1, as
| −1 |p = 1. Thus x − y ∈ pZp .
Now for r ∈ Zp , | r |p ≤ 1 and x ∈ pZp , | x |p < 1.
We consider | rx |p = | r |p | x |p ≤ 1 | x |p < 1.
This implies rx ∈ pZp . Hence pZp is an ideal of Zp .
Further, only we have to prove that every x ∈ Zp \ pZp is an unit of Zp .
If x ∈
/ pZp but x ∈ Zp =⇒ | x |p = 1. Thus | 1/x |p = 1.
This implies x −1 ∈ Zp , i.e., x is invertible in Zp .
Hence we get for x ∈ Zp , there exists x −1 in Zp such that x.x −1 = 1.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 42 / 71
 Since x is arbitrary, therefore we get every element in Zp outside pZp
is a unit of Zp .Thus by using the proposition of this section, we get that
Zp is local ring and pZp is its maximal ideal.

Proposition
The ring Zp of p-adic integers is a local ring whose maximal ideal is
the principal ideal pZp = {x ∈ Qp : | x |p < 1}. Furthermore,
i) Q ∩ Zp = Z(p) := { ba ∈ Q : p ̸ | b}.
ii) The inclusion Z ,→ Zp has dense image. In particular, given x ∈ Zp
and n ≥ 1, there exist α ∈ Z, 0 ≤ α ≤ pn − 1, such that | x − α |≤ p−n .
The integer α with these properties is unique.
iii) For any x ∈ Zp , there exists a Cauchy sequence αn converging to
x, of the following type:
αn ∈ Z satisfies 0 ≤ αn ≤ pn − 1;
for every n we have αn ≡ αn−1 (mod pn−1 ).
The sequence (αn ) with these properties is unique.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 43 / 71

 Proof : Let I be the valuation ideal of the valuation ring Zp ,
i.e., I = {x ∈ Zp : | x |p < 1}.
To see that the valuation ideal is indeed generated by p.
Let x ∈ I ⊂ Zp , as I is an ideal of Zp .
This implies | x |p < 1.
By definition of p-adic absolute value of Qp ,
| x |p = p−vp (x) < 1, i.e., 1 < pvp (x) , i.e., vp (x) > 0, i.e., vp (x) ≥ 1.
1
Thus | x |p = < p1 , (as pvp (x) > p for vp (x) ≥ 1).
pvp (x)
x −vp ( xp )
Similarly, | p |p =p = p−(vp (x)−vp (p)) = p−vp (x)+vp (p)
1
= p−vP (x)+1 = p−vp (x) × p = | x |p ×p < p × p = 1.
Thus, | xp |p < 1.
This implies xp ∈ Zp , i.e., x ∈ pZp .
Hence I ⊂ pZp , i.e., valuation ideal is contained in pZp .
We know that pZp is maximal ideal and pZp ̸= Zp .
Hence by definition of maximal ideal, I = pZp .

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 44 / 71

 We now prove: i) Q ∩ Zp = Z(p) = { ba ∈ Q : p ̸ | b}.
Let x ∈ Q ∩ Zp ,
i.e., x ∈ Q and x ∈ Zp , by definition of p-adic, x = pn a/b , p ̸ | a, b.
We can write x = a′ /b, where a′ = pn a with p ̸ | b.
This implies x ∈ Z(p) . Hence Q ∩ Zp ⊂ Z(p) .
Now to prove that Z(p) ⊂ Q ∩ Zp .
Let x ∈ Z(p) , this implies x = a/b ∈ Q; p ̸ | b, by definition of Z(p) .
a |a|p |a|p
Now | b |p = |b|p = p−0
, as p ̸ | b
|a|p
= 1 =| a |p . As a ∈ Z, vp (a) ≥ 0. Hence | a |p ≤ 1.
Hence | ba |p ≤ 1, this implies | x |p ≤ 1. Hence x ∈ Zp .
Therefore Z(p) ⊂ Q ∩ Zp .
Hence we can conclude that Q ∩ Zp = Z(p) .

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 45 / 71

 Notice, that the sequence in (iii) is the “coherent sequences”.
From the above proposition, the ring of the p-adic integers can also be
stated as:
Definition
Let p < ∞ be a prime. We define
P the p-adic integers, denoted Zp , to
be the collection of all sums: ∞ b
n=0 n p n , with b ∈ {0, ..., p − 1}.
n
In other words, Zp consists of all numbers with no negative powers of p
in its expansion.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 46 / 71

 Corollary
Every x ∈ Zp can be written in the form

x = b0 + b1 p + b2 p2 + · · · + bn pn + · · ·

with 0 ≤ bi ≤ p − 1, and this representation is unique.

Now, we go to obtain a canonical way to represent the elements of Qp

as “power series in p”.
For any z ∈ Qp we can write z = x/pm with x ∈ Zp . If we express x as
a power series in p, then divide by pm , we just get a power series in p
where some of the powers may be negative.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 47 / 71

 10. Solving Congruences Modulo pn
The “p-adic numbers” we have just constructed are closely related to
the problem of solving congruences modulo powers of p. We will look
at some examples of this.
Here we consider the system of congruence x 2 ≡ 2 mod 7n and we
try to show that 7-adic expansion number
x = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 49 + 6 × 343 + · · · satisfies x 2 = 2 in Q7 .
For this, we first compute the solution for x 2 ≡ 2 mod 7, which is 3 and
4. Therefore, we get x ≡ 3 mod 7 and x ≡ 4 mod 7 ≡ −3 mod 7.
Now we compute the solution for x 2 ≡ 2 mod 7j , for this we lifting our
solution from modulo 7 to modulo 72 to modulo 73 , until we get to the
7j that is our target.
Let us see this, for j = 2, x 2 ≡ 2 mod 72 , i.e., x 2 ≡ 2 mod 49.
Now to find solution, note that their reductions module 7 must be
solution for j = 1 .
Hence we set x = 3 + 7k or x = 4 + 7k , for some k ∈ Z.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 48 / 71
 Now solve for k,
consider x = 3 + 7k
(3 + 7k)2 ≡ 2 mod 72
9 + 42k ≡ 2 mod 49
7 + 42k ≡ 0 mod 49
7(1 + 6k) ≡ 0 mod 49
1 + 6k ≡ 0 mod 7
6k ≡ −1 mod 7
6k ≡ 6 mod 7
36k ≡ 36 mod 7
k ≡ 1 mod 7.
We get k = 1. Therefore x = 3 + 7k gives x = 3 + 7 = 10.
Thus, x ≡ 10 mod 49.
For j = 3, i.e., x 2 ≡ 2 mod 73 , i.e., x 2 ≡ 2 mod 343.
Now to find solution, note that their reductions module 72 must be
solution for j = 2.
Hence we set x = 10 + 49k . And solve for k,
(10 + 49k )2 ≡ 2 mod 343
100 + 980k ≡ 2 mod 343
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 49 / 71
 98 + 980k ≡ 0 mod 343
49(2 + 20k) ≡ 0 mod 343
2 + 20k ≡ 0 mod 7
20k ≡ −2 mod 7
6k ≡ 5 mod 7
36k ≡ 30 mod 7
k ≡ 2 mod 7 . Here we get k = 2.
Therefore x = 10 + 49k gives x = 10 + 49 × 2 = 10 + 98 = 108.
Thus, x ≡ 108 mod 343.
Similarly for j = 4, we have x = 108 + 343k and we get that
x ≡ 2166 mod 2401.
We can easily see that this process can be continued indefinitely.
Hence we get,
for j = 1, x ≡ 3 mod 7,
for j = 2, x ≡ 10 = 3 + 1 × 7 mod 49,
for j = 3, x ≡ 108 = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 49 mod 343,
for j = 4, x ≡ 2166 = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 49 + 6 × 343 mod 2401 and so
on.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 50 / 71
 We obtain a sequence

x0 , x1 , · · · , xj , · · · ,

satisfying the condition

xj ≡ xj−1 mod 7j .

Thus 7-adic expansion of the solution

x = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 49 + 6 × 343 + · · · = 3 + 1 × 7 + 2 × 72 + 6 × 73 + · · · .
Thus given value of x satisfies x 2 = 2 in Q7 .
Now we compute a solution to x 2 ≡ 2 mod 7j+1 ( the induction step).
Here we explain the induction step:
Assume that we have a solution x0 such that x 2 ≡ 2 mod 7j .
Then we look for a lift of x0 mod 7j to x1 mod 7j+1 that satisfies
x12 ≡ 2 mod 7j+1 . Here the lifting equation is x1 = x0 + 7j y0 , (1)
where y0 is unknown.
It ensures that x0 mod 7j+1 is a lift of x0 mod 7j .
And x12 ≡ 2 mod 7j+1 (2)
is the equation we are trying to solve.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 51 / 71
 For this plugging equation (1) into equation (2) gives,
2 ≡ x12 mod 7j+1
2 ≡ (x0 + 7j y0 )2 mod 7j+1
2 ≡ x02 + 72j y02 + 2 x0 y0 7j mod 7j+1
2 ≡ x02 mod 7j+1 .
We get, x02 ≡ 2 mod 7j+1 . Here we can see that the variable y0 has
completely disappeared from the equation so we cannot solve for it.
Hence by induction hypothesis, equation x 2 ≡ 2 mod 7n has solution
for all n.

We now note the interesting fact that the 7-adic field Q7 is strictly
bigger than the field Q. Clearly Q is contained in Q7 , as we know that
Q7 is 7-adic expansion of Q.
Now only remain to √ show that Q72 is strictly bigger than Q.
For x 2 = 2, x = ± 2 ∈ / Q, i.e., x = 2 has no solution in Q.
Note that it has solution in Q7 , as we have seen above.
Hence the field Q7 is strictly bigger than Q.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 52 / 71

 As we saw above that the x 2 = 2 has solution in Q7 but now we will
see that x 2 = 2 has no solution in Q5 . For proving this we use
contradiction. We consider the system of congruence x 2 ≡ 2 mod 5n .
Suppose it has solution in Q5 , i.e., that solution will have 5-adic
expansion, i.e., it is of the form a0 + a1 5 + a2 52 + · · · .
Therefore by our assumption x 2 ≡ 2 mod 5 has solution a0 ,
i.e., a0 must satisfy a congruence module 5.
For finding a0 , the possible values of a0 is 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4.
For a0 = 0, 02 = 0 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 2;
a0 = 1, 12 = 1 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 1;
a0 = 2, 22 = 4 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 2;
a0 = 3, 32 = 9 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 7;
and a0 = 4, 42 = 16 ̸≡ 2 mod 5 as 5 ̸ | 14.
Observe that any value of a0 doesn’t satisfy congruence x 2 ≡ 2 mod 5.
It means that a0 is not solution, i.e., x 2 ≡ 2 mod 5 has no solution of
the form x ≡ a0 mod 5. As a0 is not solution then 5-adic expansion
a0 + a1 5 + a2 52 + · · · is not solution of the system of congruence
x 2 ≡ 2 mod 5n . Our assumption is wrong. Hence x 2 = 2 has no
solution in Q5 .
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 53 / 71
 11. Hensel’s Lemma

In this section we discuss Hensel’s lemma, concerning the solvability

of p-adic polynomials. Letâs first restrict our attention to finding roots
in Zp . With this theorem we test whether a polynomial has root in Zp or
not.
Theorem
Let F (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x 2 + a3 x 3 + ... + an x n be a polynomial whose
coefficients are in Zp . Suppose that there exists a p-adic integers
α1 ∈ Zp such that
F (α1 ) ≡ 0 (mod pZp )
and
F ′ (α1 ) ̸≡ 0 (mod pZp ),
where F ′ (x) is the derivative of F (x). Then there exists a p-adic
integer α ∈ Zp such that α ≡ α1 (mod pZp ) and F (α) = 0.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 54 / 71

 Proof : We need to find a p-adic integers α such that
α ≡ α1 (mod pZp ),
i.e., for all n, F (α) ≡ 0 (mod pn ) and F (α) = 0.
We need to construct a sequence of integers α1 , α2 , . . . , αn , . . . such
that for all n ≥ 1, we have
(1) F (αn ) ≡ 0 (mod pn );
(2) αn ≡ αn+1 (mod pn ).
By the assumption in the theorem, α1 exists.
To find α2 , we use condition (2),
therefore α2 = α1 + b1 p for some b1 ∈ Zp .
Putting this expression into the polynomial F (x) and expanding, we get

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 55 / 71

 n
X
F (α2 ) = F (α1 + b1 p) = ai (α1 + b1 p)i
i=0
n
X
= (ai α1i + iai α1i−1 b1 p + terms divisible by p2 )
i=0
n
X n
X
≡ ai α1i +( iai α1i−1 )b1 p (mod p2 )
i=0 i=0

≡ F (α1 ) + F ′ (α1 )b1 p (mod p2 ).

To show that one can find α2 , we have to show that one can find b1 so
that
F (α1 ) + F ′ (α1 )b1 p ≡ 0 (mod p2 ).
Now, we know that F (α1 ) ≡ 0 (mod p), so that F (α1 ) = px for some x.
Then the equation becomes px + F ′ (α1 )b1 p ≡ 0 (mod p2 ),
after we divide by p we obtain x + F ′ (α1 )b1 ≡ 0 (mod p).
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 56 / 71
 Note that F ′ (α1 ) is not divisible by p (as F ′ (α1 ) ̸≡ 0 (mod pZp )), and
hence its inverse exists in Zp (invertible), so that we can take

b1 ≡ −x(F ′ (α1 ))−1 (mod p)

such that 0 ≤ b1 ≤ p − 1.
For this choice of b1 , we set

α2 = α1 + b1 p,

which will have the stated properties. Continuing inductively we can

find α1 , α2 , · · · , αn−1 that satisfies conditions (1) and (2). We want to
find αn that satisfies conditions (1) and (2).
So, αn = αn−1 + bn−1 pn−1 with bn ∈ Zp .
We expand
F (αn ) = F (αn−1 + bn−1 pn−1 ))
≡ F (αn−1 ) + F ′ (αn−1 )bn−1 pn−1 (mod pn ).
We know that F (αn−1 ) ≡ 0 (mod pn−1 ), by the induction hypothesis.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 57 / 71
 This implies that F (αn−1 ) = ypn−1 for some y. Then the equation
becomes

F (αn ) ≡ ypn−1 + F ′ (αn−1 )bn−1 pn−1 ≡ 0(mod pn ),

i.e.,
y + F ′ (αn−1 )bn−1 ≡ 0 (mod p).
Therefore F ′ (αn−1 ) is invertible.
Thus we get bn−1 ≡ −y(F ′ (αn−1 ))−1 (mod p) such that
0 ≤ bn−1 ≤ p − 1 for this choice of bn−1 , we get αn = αn−1 + bn−1 pn−1
and F (αn ) ≡ 0 (mod pn ).
i.e., F (αn ) ≡ 0 (mod pn ) and αn ≡ αn+1 (mod pn ).
Hence by the mathematical induction we can construct a sequence of
integers α1 , α2 , · · · , αn−1 , αn , · · · such that for all n ≥ 1, we have
(1) F (αn ) ≡ 0 (mod pn );
(2) αn ≡ αn+1 (mod pn ).

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 58 / 71

 Example:
(1) Let f (x) = x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x + 4.
Let us look for 5-adic solution.
Note that α1 = 3 is the solution to f (α1 ) ≡ 0 (mod 5), i.e.,
f (3) = 27 + 18 + 6 + 9 = 55, i.e., f (3) ≡ 0 (mod 5).
Also f ′ (α1 ) = 3x02 + 4x0 + 2 = 41 ̸≡ 0(mod 5).
So f (x) = 0 satisfies Hensel’s lemma.
This implies that there exists a unique 5-adic numbers that solves
x 3 + 2x 2 + 2x + 4 = 0 and x ≡ 3 (mod 5).
Therefore x = 3 + b1 5 + b2 52 + b3 53 + · · · , where bi ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}.
Now we can calculate bi ’s as follows:
Consider b1 ≡ −x(f ′ (α1 ))−1 (mod 5), where x = f (α51 ) ∈ Z.
Therefore x = 55 5 = 11 as we have f (α1 ) = f (3) = 55.
Also we have f ′ (α1 ) = 41.
Hence we get, b1 ≡ −11(41)−1 (mod 5) ≡ −1(1) (mod 5) = 4.
Similarly, b2 = 4, b3 = 4 and so on.
Hence we get x = 3 + 4 × 5 + 4 × 52 + 4 × 53 + · · · is a root of f (x) in
Z5 .
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 59 / 71
 Example:
(2) Let f (x) = x 2 + 7.
Then f (1) = 1 − 7 = −6 ≡ 0 (mod 3)
and f ′ (1) = 2(1) = 2 ̸≡ 0 (mod 3).
So there exists a unique 3-adic integer x such that x 2 + 7 = 0 and
x ≡ 1 (mod 3).
Therefore x = 1 + b1 3 + b2 32 + b3 33 + · · · , where bi ∈ {0, 1, 2}.
Here we can also find bi ’s as we have found in above example.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 60 / 71

 12. Hensel’s Lemma, Second Form

Theorem
i) g1 (X ) is monic (i.e., the coefficient of the highest degree term is
one),
ii) g1 (X ) and h1 (X ) are relatively prime modulo p, and
iii) f (X ) ≡ g1 (X )h1 (X ) (modp) (understood coefficient-by-coefficient).
Then there exists polynomials g(X ), h(X ) ∈ Zp [X ] such that
i) g(X ) is monic,
ii) g(X ) ≡ g1 (X ) (mod p) and h(X ) ≡ h1 (X ) (mod p) and
iii) f (X ) = g(X )h(X ).

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 61 / 71

 References

Fernando Q. Gouvêa, p-adic Numbers: An Introduction, 2nd

edition, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1997.
William Stein, Elementary Number Theory: Primes, Congruences,
and Secrets. Available at https://www.wstein.org.
Brian Courthoute, Pablo Guzman, Antoine Ronk, The p-adic
integers. Available at https://www.google.com.
Logan Quick, p-adic Absolute Values. Available at
https://www.math.uchicago.edu.
Andrew Baker, An Introduction to p-adic Numbers and p-adic
Analysis, (2011) Available at
https://scholar.google.co.in.
Alexa Pomerantz, An Introduction to the p-adic Numbers. Available
at http://www.math.uchicago.edu.
Theodor Christian Herwig, The p-adic completion of Q and
Hensel’s Lemma. Available at
http://www.math.uchicago.edu.
Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 62 / 71
 Neal Koblitz, p-adic Numbers, p-adic Analysis, and
Zeta-Functions, 2nd ed., New York: Springer-Verlag, 1984.
Available at https://www.math.mcgill.ca.
Catherine Crompton, “Some Geometry of the p-adic Rationals,”
Rose-Hulman Undergraduate Mathematics Journal: Vol. 8 : Iss. 1 ,
Article 2, (2007). Available at https:
//scholar.rose-hulman.edu/rhumj/vol8/iss1/2.
Charles I. Harrington, “An Introduction to the p-adic Numbers,”
Honours Theses. 992, (2011). Available at
https://digitalworks.union.edu/theses/992.
Article in p-adic Numbers Ultrametric Analysis and Applications,
April 2009. Available at https:
//www.researchgate.net/publication/24374483.
Eric W. Weisstein, “p-adic Number,” From MathWorld–A Wolfram
Web Resource. Available at
https://mathworld.wolfram.com/p-adicNumber.html.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 63 / 71

 THANK YOU

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 64 / 71

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 65 / 71
 Proof : Let d be the degree of f (X ) and m be the degree of g1 (X ).
Assume that deg(h1 ) ≤ d − m (it could be less, because the top
coefficient of f could be divisible by p). We want to construct two
sequences of polynomials gn (X ) and hn (X ) such that
i) each gn is monic and of degree m,
ii) gn+1 ≡ gn (mod pn ) and hn+1 ≡ hn (mod pn ),
iii) f (X ) ≡ gn (X )hn (X ) (mod pn ) (we take the congruences
coefficient-by-coefficient).
If we can find such sequences, we are already done, since going to the
limit gives the desired polynomials g(X ) and h(X ). (In other words, the
coefficients of g(X ) will be the limits of the corresponding coefficients
of the gn (X ).)
We already have g1 (X ) and h1 (X ). Let us describe how to get g2 (X )
and h2 (X ).

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 66 / 71

 Since the g’s are to be congruent, we must have

g2 (X ) = g1 (X ) + pr1 (X ),

for some polynomial r1 (X ) ∈ Zp [X ] (since g2 (X ) ≡ g1 (X ) (mod p), i.e.,

p divides g2 (X ) − g1 (X )).
Similarly, we must have

h2 (X ) = h1 (X ) + ps1 (X ).

To show that g2 and h2 exist, we simply have to show that it is possible

to find r1 and s1 such that the desired conditions are satisfied. For that,
we need to solve the equation

f (X ) ≡ g2 (X )h2 (X ) (mod p2 )

which expand to

f (X ) ≡ (g1 (X ) + pr1 (X ))(h1 (X ) + ps1 (X )) (mod p2 ).

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 67 / 71

 By multiplying, we get
f (X ) ≡
g1 (X )h1 (X ) + pr1 (X )h1 (X ) + ps1 (X )g1 (X ) + p2 r1 (X )s1 (X ) (mod p2 )

f (X ) ≡ g1 (X )h1 (X ) + pr1 (X )h1 (X ) + ps1 (X )g1 (X ) (mod p2 ).

Given that,
f (X ) ≡ g1 (X )h1 (X ) (mod p),
so that we have
f (X ) − g1 (X )h1 (X ) = pk1 (X ),
for some k1 (X ) ∈ Zp [x]. Rearranging, we get

pk1 (x) ≡ pr1 (X )h1 (X ) + ps1 (X )g1 (X ) (mod p2 ).

Dividing both sides by p, we get

k1 (X ) ≡ r1 (X )h1 (X ) + s1 (X )g1 (X ) (mod p).

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 68 / 71

 This is the equation we need to solve to determine r1 and s1 .
To do so, we use condition ii) given to us, i.e., g1 and h1 are relatively
prime modulo p.
This means that there exists a(X ), b(X ) ∈ Zp [X ] such that

a(X )g1 (X ) + b(X )h1 (X ) ≡ 1 (mod p).

Now consider two polynomials

r̃1 (X ) = b(X )k1 (X ) and s̃1 (X ) = a(X )k1 (X ).

These will almost do the trick:

They clearly will make all the congruence condition true. The only
problem is that we have no control over the degree of r̃1 (X ) and hence
cannot guarantee that g1 (X ) + pr̃1 (X ) is monic.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 69 / 71

 To remedy that, only a slight change is needed. We already know that

r̃1 (X )h1 (X ) + s̃1 (X )g1 (X ) ≡ k1 (X ) (mod p).

Now divide r̃1 (X ) by g1 (X ), and let r1 (X ) be the remainder

r̃1 (X ) = g1 (X )q(X ) + r1 (X ).

We know that deg r1 (X ) < deg g1 (X ). But now, if we set

s1 (X ) = s̃1 (X ) + h1 (X )q(X ),

it all works out:

r1 (X )h1 (X ) + s1 (X )g1 (X ) ≡
≡ (r̃1 (X ) − g1 (X )q(X ))h1 (X ) + (s̃1 (X ) + h1 (X )q(X ))g1 (X )
≡ r̃1 (X )h1 (X ) − g1 (X )h1 (X )q(X ) + s̃1 (X )g1 (X ) + g1 (X )h1 (X )q(X )
≡ r̃1 (X )h1 (X ) + s̃1 (X )g1 (X )
≡ k1 (X ) (mod p)

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 70 / 71

 so that our congruence conditions are satisfied, and the fact that the
degree of r1 (X ) is smaller than the degree of g1 (X ) is enough to
guarantee that g1 (X ) + pr1 (X ) is monic, and we are done.
This shows that g2 and h2 exist. Since they are congruent to g1 and h1
modulo p, they are also relatively prime modulo p, so that there will be
no difficulty in going on to the next step.
Now we repeat the argument changing the indices and exponents to
find g3 and h3 . Inductively, it can be proved that this produces the
sequence whose convergence proves the theorem.

Department of Mathematics, University of Mumbai p-ADIC INTEGERS May – 2022 71 / 71