Chemistry Final Study Guide Words and Facts to Know

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Theoretical yield the maximum amount of product that can be produced from a given amount of reactant. How much of a product a given reaction should theoretically produce. Percentage yield the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield, multiplied by 100 (see Part 1 for equation). Actual yield the measured amount of a product obtained from a reaction. The amount of a product a given reaction actually makes when carried out. Kinetic molecular theory a theory that explains that the behavior of physical systems depends on the combined actions of the molecules constituting the system. Based on the idea that particles of matter are always in motion. (look at chapter 10 sections 1-3 for more on this, too much stuff to write) Temperature vs. energy temperature is the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object. Temperature can be measured, but energy cannot (only changes in energy can be measured) Sublimation the change of state from a solid directly to a gas Condensation the process by which a gas changes to a liquid Vaporization the process by which a liquid or solid changes to a gas Evaporation the process by which particles escape from the surface of a nonboiling liquid and enter the gas state Effect of temperature on gases if the gas is at a constant pressure, increasing the temperature will increase the volume, and decreasing the temperature will decrease the volume Effect of pressure on gasses if the gas is at a constant temperature, increasing the pressure will decrease the volume, and decreasing the pressure will increase the volume Ways to increase solubility increasing the surface area of the solute, agitating the solution, and heating the solvent (look at the beginning of chapter 12, section 2 if you want explanations for why this increases the solubility) Saturated a solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute Unsaturated a solution that contains less solute than a saturated solution under the existing conditions Supersaturated a solution that contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution contains under the same conditions. This happens when a saturated solution is left to cool undisturbed and the excess solute does not separate. Ionization the process of adding or removing electrons from an atom or molecule, which gives the atom or molecule a net charge Dissociation the separation of ions that occurs when an ionic compound dissolves Oxidation a reaction that removes one or more electrons form a substance, causing its oxidation number to increase Reduction a reactions in which a substance gains one or more electrons, causing its oxidation number to be reduced Reaction of an acid with a base acids react with bases to produce salts and water Active metals vs. inactive metals active metals react with some acids and release hydrogen gas. Inactive metals don t react with any acids. Conjugate acids the species that is formed when a Bronsted- Lowry bas gains a proton is the conjugate acid of that base (see page 483 for examples) Conjugate bases - the species that remains after a Bronsted-Lowry acid has given up a proton is the conjugate base of that acid (see page 483 for examples) pH scale a scale that indicates the hydronium ion concentration of a solution. The scale is numbered from 014, 0 being highly acidic and 14 beings highly basic. 7 is neutral, anything under 7 is an acid, and anything over 7 is a base. Calorimeter measures the energy absorbed or released as heat in a chemical or physical change Thermochemical equations an equation that includes the quantity of energy released or absorbed as heat during the reaction as written Rules for assigning oxidation numbers page 631 in textbook

Meaning of subscripts and coefficients in balanced equations subscripts are used to show how many atoms of a certain element are bonded in the molecule. Subscripts cannot be changed to balance an equation because that would change the whole molecule. However, coefficients can be changed or added to balance a chemical equation. A coefficient is just a number that tells how much of a certain molecule there is. Relating the number of carbon atoms to molecular structures of hydrocarbons not sure what this is asking to do

Part 1 (50 Multiple Choice Questions) Stoichiometry/mole ratios

Stoichiometry is the branch of chemistry that deals with the mass relationships of elements in compounds and the mass relationships between reactants and products in a chemical equation A mole ratio is a conversion factor that relates the amounts (in moles) of any two substances involved in a chemical reaction Ex: 2Al2O3 4Al + 3O2

One of the six possible mole ratios you can use from this equation is 2 mol Al2O3 4 mol Al

Balancing Equations
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Look at pages 270-271

Percentage yield equation __Actual yield__ Theoretical yield Phase change terms
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100

Percentage yield

Vaporization liquid or solid changes to a gas Evaporation process by which particles escape from the surface of a nonboiling liquid and enter the gas state Freezing liquid changes to a solid Freezing point the temperature at which the solid and liquid are in equilibrium at 1 atm Melting solid changes to a liquid Melting point temperature at which a solid becomes a liquid Condensation gas changes to a liquid Boiling the conversion of a liquid to a vapor within the liquid as well as at its surface Boiling point the temperature at which the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid equals the atmospheric pressure Sublimation solid changes directly to a gas Deposition gas changes directly to a solid

Average KE what does it stand for?

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Average KE stands for average kinetic energy Also known as temperature

Density/equation
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Density is the ratio of mass to volume D=m/V

Properties of water (in all phases)

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Polar molecule Molecules in solid or liquid water are linked by hydrogen bonding (number of linked molecules decreases as the temperature increases) Ice consists of water molecules in a hexagonal arrangement Because of hydrogen bonding between the water molecules, a high kinetic energy is needed to break the bonds to become a gas. This is why the boiling point is relatively high (100 degrees Celsius) compared to other liquids that have similar molar masses At room temperature, pure liquid water is transparent, odorless, tasteless, and almost colorless Ice has a lower density than liquid water, which is why ice floats in water For more, look at chapter 10 section 5

Pressure and what affects it

Pressure is the force per unit area on a surface At a constant temperature, as the volume increases, the pressure decreases and vice versa At a constant volume, as the temperature increases, the pressure increases and vice versa

Gas laws and relating each variable to one another

Combined gas law explains all the relationships between pressure (P), volume (V), and temperature (T) P1V1 T1 = P2V2 T2

Factors affecting salvation

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Types of solutions and how they are created

Unsaturated a solution that contains less solute than a saturated solution under the existing conditions Saturated a solution that contains the maximum amount of dissolved solute Supersaturated - a solution that contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution contains under the same conditions. This happens when a saturated solution is left to cool undisturbed and the excess solute does not separate.

Complete, net ionic equations/spectator ions

Net ionic equation includes only those compounds and ions that undergo a chemical change in a reaction in an aqueous solution

Spectator ions are ions that do not take part in a chemical reaction and are found in solution both before and after the reaction

Acids and their reactions with bases/metals

React with bases to produce salts and water Some react with active metals and release H2 gas

Conjugate acids and bases how do they come about?

Conjugate acids and bases are formed in acid/base reactions and are found on the products side of the equation A conjugate acid is the species that is formed when a Bronsted- Lowry bas gains a proton is the conjugate acid of that base A conjugate base is the species that remains after a Bronsted-Lowry acid has given up a proton is the conjugate base of that acid See page 483 for examples

Neutralizing reactions
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Neutralization reactions are when acidic compounds react with basic compounds and neutralize each other Neutralization results in the formation of water and salts

Reading balanced chemical equations in terms of moles

To read a balanced chemical equation in terms of moles, lets the coefficients in the equation represent the number of moles Ex: CS2 + 3O2 CO2 + 2SO2

o To read this in terms of moles, you would say 1 mole of CS2 and 3 moles of O2 make 1 mole of CO2 and 2 moles of SO2 pH scale, equation
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The pH scale is a scale that indicates the hydronium ion concentration of a solution The scale is numbered from 0-14, 0 being highly acidic and 14 beings highly basic 7 is neutral, anything under 7 is an acid, and anything over 7 is a base pH can also be defined as the negative of the common logarithm of the hydronium ion concentration

pH = log [H3O+]

Function of a calorimeter
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Measures the energy absorbed or released as heat in a chemical or physical change

Thermochemical equations how to read/exothermic vs. endothermic

A thermochemical equation is an equation that includes the quantity of energy released or absorbed as heat during the reaction as written Exothermic heat is released Endothermic heat is absorbed

Redox assigning oxidation numbers/identifying each species

Look at page 631

E=mc2 what does this mean?

Equation that shows what causes the loss in mass that causes mass defect Shows mass can be converted into energy, and energy can be converted into mass In words: energy = mass x speed of light 2

Calculating half-life
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Look at page 689

Comparing different types/forms of hydrocarbons

Saturated hydrocarbons each carbon atom in the molecule forms four single covalent bonds with other atoms Unsaturated hydrocarbons not all carbon atoms have four single covalent bonds Alkanes hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds Cycloalkanes alkanes in which the carbon atoms are arranged in a ring, or cyclic, structure Alkyl groups groups of atoms that are formed when one hydrogen atom is removed from an alkane molecule Alkenes hydrocarbons that contain double covalent bonds Alkynes hydrocarbons with triple covalent bonds Aromatic hydrocarbons have six-membered carbon rings and delocalized electrons (benzene is the primary aromatic hydrocarbon

Allotropes what does this mean? Examples?

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Reading and writing elemental symbols (i.e. mass/atomic numbers)

Mass number is superscript and atomic number is subscript (on the left side) Ex: 4 2 He

o 4 is the mass number o 2 is the atomic number Nuclear chemistry mass defect, completing and balancing nuclear equations, characteristics of different types of radiation
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Chapter 21 sections 1 and 2

Part 2 (Interpreting Data)

Graphing/plotting information from a table (know where the dependent and independent variables go on the correct axis) Interpreting information from the graph you created Intermolecular forces and BP Similarities and differences between isotopes Calculating atomic mass

Part 3 (Problem Solving)

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Specific heat equation and solving for the missing variable o Pages 532-534 Writing electron configurations for the ground and charged states of an atom o Pages 111-122 (chapter 4 section 3) for normal electron configurations. Not sure what she means by ground and charged states. Stoichiometry using a balanced equation o Pages 299-318 (chapter 9 sections 1,2, and 3) Identifying, completing a chemical equation (5 types of reactions) o Pages 276-287 (chapter 8 sections 2 and 3) Ideal gas law (solving for the missing variable) o Pages 383-385 Organic nomenclature and drawing o Pages 716-729 (chapter 22 section 2) Half-life calculations o Pages 688-689