JAKARTA GREEN BUILDING USER GUIDE

VOL. 5

WATER
EFFICIENCY

The Government of the Province of

Jakarta Capital Special Territory

Didukung oleh: IFC bekerjasama dengan:

CODE REQUIREMENTS

Water Efficiency (WE)

WE01 Minimum Water Fixture Efficiency
WE02 Sub-metering of Water Supply
WE03 Greywater Recycling

The calculation should be done using the calculator

available on this website
http://greenbuilding.web.id

Checklist for all code requirements lists the required

documents is also available on this website
http://greenbuilding.web.id
 JAKARTA GREEN BUILDING USER GUIDE
VOL. 5
WATER EFFICIENCY
table of contents

INTRODUCTION 2
Water Supply in Jakarta 3
Flooding and Fresh Water Loss 5
Groundwater Over-expliotation and Land Subsidence 5

01 C O D E R E Q U I R E M E N T 8
WATER EFFICIENT FIXTURES AND EQUIPMENT 8
ON SITE ALTERNATIVE WATER SOURCE 8
RAINWATER COLLECTION SYSTEM 10
SUB-METERING OF WATER SUPPY SYSTEM 10
OTHER RELATED CODES 11

02 D E S I G N P R I N C I P L E S 12
EFFICIENT FIXTURES 14
Water Efficient Flushing System 15
Water Efficient Fixtures 15
SUB-METERING OF ALL MAJOR WATER CONSUMING SYSTEMS 16
GREYWATER REUSE 17
COOLING TOWER WATER EFFICIENCY 19
CONDENSATE WATER HARVESTING 22
RAINWATER HARVESTING 23
Catchment Area 24 Filter 25
Gutter 25 Storage System 25
First Flusing 25 27
ABSORPTION WELL 28
Bioretention System

03
WATER EFFICIENCY

C A S E S T U D Y 30

APPENDIX 33

1
 Water Efficiency:
An Introduction
Water is an essential resource for life and good health, but about a third
of the global population does not have access to clean water to meet its
daily needs. Although a large portion of our planet contains water, most
of it is salty and thus not consumable. Freshwater comprises only
2.5% of the total water on earth, 70% of which is locked in glaciers
and permanent snow cover. This limited sources combined with
massive global demand of fresh water has led to global water scarcity.

F I G U R E . 0 1
Global Water Distribution1 Out of 100% Global Water in the world, 97.5% of it is unconsumable
Salt Water, and oly 2.5% is Freshwater.

68.9%
Glaciers & Permanent
Snow Cover

0.9%
Others (Incl. soil soisture,
swamp water, and permafrost)

29.9%
Ground Water

0.3%
Freshwater Lakes & River
Storage (Only this portion is
renewable)

The situation is getting worse as needs for water rise along with
population growth, urbanization, urbanization and increases in
household and industrial uses.

Almost one fifth of the world’s population (about 1.2 billion people)
lives in areas with water scarcity. Water scarcity can occur even in
areas with plenty of rainfall or freshwater, if it is not well protected,
WATER EFFICIENCY

used and distributed.

1
Water Resources Institute. (http://www.scienceforums.com)

2
F I G U R E . 0 2
Global Water Risk2

Low risk (0-1)

Low to medium (1-2)

Medium to high (2-3)

High risk (3-4)

Extremely high risk (4-5)

No Data

Jakarta faces multiple challenges related to water management and

efficiency, despite having ample natural supply through rivers and rainfall.
These challenges include diminished freshwater supply, flooding and land
subsidence due to excessive groundwater exploitation.

W A T E R Although Jakarta’s 2010 published per capita water consumption of 78

S U P P L Y I N litres/day3 looks quite good as compared to the average for 22 other
J A K A R T A Asian Cities (278 litres/person/day), it does not portray the entire picture.
It represents only the total volume of water sold by the water company,
which does not serve 46% of Jakarta’s water needs. This shortfall is
mostly met by extracting ground water. An unauthorised water supply
system supplies bottled ground water to a large segment of the market.
About 70% of households depend on ground water supply.

F I G U R E . 0 3
Jakarta’s Water Annual Water Use Water Supply in Jakarta
Supply and Usage
(in percentage)4
54%
51% Centralized
NRW Piped Water
Network
20%
Domestic

29% 46%
Non Domestic Ground Water

Source: The Asian Development Bank.

2
World Resources Insitute’s Aqueduct. (http://www.wri.org/our-work/project/
aqueduct)
WATER EFFICIENCY

3
Siemens Asian Green Cities Index 2013. (http://www.siemens.com/entry/cc/en/
greencityindex.htm)
4
Research report by The Asian Development Bank.2004. Water in Asian cities:
Utilities’ Performance and Civil Society Views. (http://www.adb.org/sites/default/
files/pub/2004/water_asian_cities.pdf)

3
 Moreover Jakarta loses an estimated 50% of its water supply to
leakage5, one of the highest rates in Asia.

Jakarta is blessed with 13 rivers that could potentially be used for its
water needs. Unfortunately, these rivers get heavily polluted after
entering the city and are not usable for raw water supply. Cleaning up
the rivers and diverting sources of their pollution could provide a viable
source for the city’s growing water needs. According to a 2011 report
by Jakarta Environmental Management Agency (BPLHD), 71% of the
city’s river water is heavily polluted, 20% is partly polluted, and 9% is
lightly polluted.

F I G U R E . 0 4
Jakarta Rivers Before and
After Entering the City6

Piped water supply in Jakarta is characterised by poor levels of access

and quality. Reliability, limited coverage of the piped network, the
low cost of groundwater, and water quality are important factors in
determining consumer preference for groundwater. This preference for
groundwater has led to excessive groundwater use and theft, which is
causing significant land subsidence, pollution and salinization of aquifers
and increased levels of flooding.7
WATER EFFICIENCY

5
Based on source water lost through network.
6
The World Bank.
7
Law, Environment and Development Journal LEAD Journal, Volume5/L, at
www.lead-journal.org

4
 F L O O D I N G & Jakarta experienced floods in 1996, 2002, 2007, and 2013 with
F R E S H W A T E R devastating consequences on human life and the socio-economic
L O S S conditions. The 2007 flood inundated more than 70% of the city and sent
about 450,000 fleeing their homes. Expenditure in flood control in the
period 1995 - 2001 amounted to about IDR 239 billion (USD 23 million).8

F I G U R E . 0 5
Flooding in Jakarta
in 2012-20139

Numerous reasons for the increased flooding have been put forward,
including:
• Drastic reduction in green open spaces resulting in increased water
runoff and sedimentation in rivers. The reduced infiltration is also
primarily responsible for the depleted groundwater table.
• Lack of an adequate garbage disposal system, resulting in pollution
and choking of rivers.

G R O U N D W A T E R Groundwater extraction in Jakarta significantly exceeds groundwater

O V E R - recharge, leading to a falling groundwater table and increased land
E X P L O I T A T I O N subsidence. Land subsidence was first identified when cracks were
A N D L A N D discovered in the Sarinah bridge in 1978. Within the past 20 years, land
S U B S I D E N C E has subsided up to 57 cm in North Jakarta and 28 cm in South Jakarta.
With the alarming average subsidence rate of 10 cm/year, combined with
rising sea water level, it is predicted that roughly 32.5% of Jakarta area
will be under the sea in 2050, displacing millions of people and rendering
most of the north Jakarta area uninhabitable (see Figure 6).
WATER EFFICIENCY

8
Law, Environment and Development Journal LEAD Journal, Volume5/L, at
www.lead-journal.org
8
The World Bank.

5
 F I G U R E . 0 6
Jakarta Topography With the assumption of constant subsidience rate from 2000 to 2050
Condition Prediction and the sea level rise is 6 mm/year
by 205010

Below average
sea level

Above average
sea level

2000 2007 2012 2025 2025

Around 5.1% Around 8.5% Around 12.1% Around 20.5% Around 32.5%
of Jakarta of Jakarta of Jakarta of Jakarta of Jakarta
Capital City Capital City Capital City Capital City Capital City
area is under area is under area is under area will be area will be
the average the average the average under the under the
sea level. sea level. sea level. average sea average sea
level. level.

Unfortunately, most of the high density buildings requiring deep

groundwater supply are located in the critical zones for groundwater.
This highlights the importance of reducing water consumption in
buildings and using reclaimed and alternate water sources to minimize
the negative ecological impacts.

F I G U R E . 0 7
Deep Groundwater Condition
in Jakarta in 200310

Critical Zone

Danger Zone 

Alert Zone
WATER EFFICIENCY

10
Firdaus, Indonesia Water Institute-2013.

6
 F I G U R E . 0 8
Shallow Groundwater
Condition in Jakarta in 200210

Critical Zone

Danger Zone 

Alert Zone

It is clear the water problems in Jakarta needed to be addressed by an

integrated approach of appropriate utilization & management of surface
water, ground water & rain, waste treated water.

This code attempts to address the water related challenges in Jakarta by:
• Reducing the demand for municipal and ground water (through
efficient fixtures, rainwater harvesting and recycling).
• Reducing the runoff (through rainwater collection and absorption
wells).

WATER EFFICIENCY

10
Firdaus, Indonesia Water Institute-2013.

7
 01 code requirement
C O D E R E Q U I R E M E N T 1
Water Efficient Fixtures and Equipment
A R T I C L E
1 5
(1) Faucets/fittings should not exceed the maximum flow rates and flush
capacities listed below.

T A B L E . 0 1
Water Fixure Flow Rate/Flush Capacity Requirements

PRO DU CTS /F IT T INGS Maximum Flow Rate/Flush Capacity Requirements

Shower Taps & Mixers 9 litres/min

Basin Taps & Mixers 6 litres/min
Sink/Bip Taps & Mixers 8 litres/min
Showerheads 9 litres/min
Flushing Cisterns (per Flush) Dual flush 4.5 litres (full flush)
Urinals & Urinals Flush Valve
(per Flush) 1.5 litres

All faucets/fittings should have pressure range from 0.5 to 5.5 bars.

C O D E R E Q U I R E M E N T 2
On site Alternative Water Source
A R T I C L E
1 7
(1) Recycled water from Sewage Treatment Plant should be used for
secondary water consumption.
(2) Air conditioning condensate harvesting should be used for secondary
water consumption.
WATER EFFICIENCY CODE REQUIREMENT

(3) Landscape irrigation should use water sources other than groundwater
and municipal water supply (PDAM).

The applications of alternative water sources and its usages should

follow the schematic diagram in Figure 9.

8
 F I G U R E . 0 9
Schematic Diagram of
roof rainwater
Clean and Recycled Water collection
System (Alternate 1)
condensate water floor drain, basin WC

condensate water floor drain, basin WC

condensate water floor drain, basin WC

clean water consumption

ground rainwater recycled water consumption

collection

water treated water

STP filter
collection storage
solid waste
(handled by IPLT)
(if out of
city absorbtion cappacity) raw water clean water
WTP
drainage well/pool storage storage
(for area with
high permeability
soil)
ground water PDAM
(if apply)

Alternatively, instead of having air condensate for graywater system,

it can be connected to the rainwater collection pipes to further reduce
consumption from PDAM and deep groundwater source.

F I G U R E . 1 0
Schematic Diagram of
roof rainwater
Clean and Recycled Water collection
System (Alternate 2)
condensate water floor drain, basin WC

condensate water floor drain, basin WC

condensate water floor drain, basin WC

clean water consumption

ground rainwater recycled water consumption

collection

water treated water

STP filter
collection storage
solid waste
(handled by IPLT)
(if out of
city absorbtion cappacity) raw water clean water
WTP
drainage well/pool storage storage
(for area with
high permeability
soil)
ground water PDAM
(if apply)

F I G U R E . 1 1
Schematic Diagram of
Recycled Water Use

surface hand clothes shower cooling

toilets
WATER EFFICIENCY CODE REQUIREMENT

irrigation basin washer bath tower

clean treated water

water storage
grey water

(if applicable)
black water

collection
filter STP point

solid waste

9
 C O D E R E Q U I R E M E N T 3
Rainwater Collection System
A R T I C L E
2 2
(1) Rainwater collection system needs to be provided. The volume of the
rainwater collection system (in m3) shall be 0.05 m (zero point zero five
meter) X ground floor area (in m2).
(2) Absorption wells and absorption pools should be provided as per
Governor Regulation No 20, 2013 on “Absorption Well”, shown in the
following table.

T A B L E . 0 2 B U IL D ING C O V E R A GE V O L U ME
(m2) (m3)
Volume of Absorption
Well Based on Building 50 2
Coverage 51 - 99 4
100 - 149 6
150 - 199 8
200 - 299 12
300 - 399 16
400 - 499 20
500 - 599 24
600 - 699 28
700 - 799 32
800 - 899 36
900 - 999 40

A R T I C L E
2 3
(1) Increase the size of the rainwater collection system as per the
description below, instead of providing absorption wells and pools in
locations where:
a. Depth of surface of ground water is ≤ 1.5 m (one point five meters) in
wet season; and/or
b. Soil with water permeability < 2cm/hour (two centimeters per hour).
(2) The rainwater collection system planning scheme shall follow the chart
as contained in Figure 9 or Figure 10 above.

C O D E R E Q U I R E M E N T 4
Sub-metering of Water Supply Systems
A R T I C L E
1 6
WATER EFFICIENCY CODE REQUIREMENT

(2) Planning should include planning for placement of measuring tools for
water consumption (water sub-meter) at the following locations:
a. water consumption system from the City Owned Water Supply
Company and/or ground water;
b. water consumption recycling system; and
c. other additional water supply system in the event the two above-
mentioned systems are insufficient.

10
 To meet the requirements, at least 4 sub meters should be installed
following the schematic diagrams shown in Figure 12 below:

F I G U R E . 1 2
Schematic Diagram of
Sub-metering System PDAM M
clean water clean water
storage consumption

WTP
M water meter ground water M
raw water
storage
rainwater M

black & grey

water
water
STP filter
collection
condensate
water

water recycled water

M
storage consumption

clean water clean water

PDAM M
storage consumption

WTP
ground water M

raw water
rainwater storage

M
condensate
water

black & grey water

STP filter
water collection

water recycled water

M
storage consumption

A more elaborated water metering system for better water

management and efficiency is discussed in the Design Principles
section of this guideline.

A P P L I C A B L E S T A N D A R D S
Other Related Codes

(1) Demand Management, Sub-metering of Water Supply Systems,

Groundwater Extraction Control (Governor Regulation Number 156
Year 2010 on Energy and Water Saving).
(2) Rainwater Harvesting System and Zero Run Off Policy (Governor
WATER EFFICIENCY CODE REQUIREMENT

Regulation Number 20 Year 2013 on Infiltration Well).

(3) SNI 03-6481 concerning Plumbing System.
(4) SNI 03-7065-2005 concerning Plumbing System Design Guideline.

11
 02 design principles
Understanding water utilization patterns in
buildings is important to develop efficient system
and effective water management strategies. The
charts below show typical water use break down
in typical commercial and instutitional facilities in
Singapore. The patterns in Jakarta are expected to
be fairly similar to these.

F I G U R E . 1 3
Typical Water Use Schools Government Office Buildings
Breakup in Singapore11

53.1%
31.0%
0.3% 28.0%
Toilet

Toilet &
pantry usage
46.6% 4.0%
General washing &
other amenities 37.0%

Irrigation

General washing &

irrigation
Commercial Office Buildings Hotels
Cooling system

Staff/worker

51.0% 39.0%
Swimming pool
12.0%
Laundry
8.0% 5.0%
2.0% 1.0%
Restaurant
3.0%
4.0%
Guest room 41.0%
34.0%
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

11
Singapore PUB (Public Utilities Board). The National Water Agency of Singapore.
2011. Water Efficient Building Design Guide Book. Singapore: Stallion Press.

12
 As Figure 13 shows, most water is used for non-potable purposes,
regardless of building types. This indicates a huge water saving
opportunity through reclaimed water system, rain water harvesting and
air conditioning condensate, which are suitable for non-potable uses such
as irrigation, general washing and cooling system.

Using rain water and air conditioning condesate as alternative water

source is particularly interesting as Jakarta is characterized by tropical
climate with relatively high rainfall and relative humidity.

Significant water saving can also be obtained through the utilization of

water efficient fixtures. As indicated in Table 3 below, installing efficient
fixtures and faucets in these areas can lead to substantial water saving.

T A B L E . 0 3
Areas of Main Improvement Potential12

Areas with Main Improvement Potential

B U ILDING
TYPE Heating/ Landscaping Streril-
Toilet Shower Sinks Laundry Kitchen Pools
Cooling lization
Residential • • •
Hotels • • • • • • • •
Hospitals • • • • • • •
Schools • • • •
Offices • • • •
Shopping Centres • • • • • •

Reducing water consumption from primary sources (e.g. PAM and deep
well) has multiple benefits. Due to increasing demand and diminishing
supply, cost of water supply is increasing. Any reduction in consumption
directly reduces the building’s water supply costs and wastewater
disposal charges. It can also reduce associated energy costs, such as
treatment, pumping and water heating. Building’s water supply, cleaning
and storage system can also be reduced in size, thus saving capital costs.

Some of the most effective ways of reducing potable water consumption

in buildings are:
1. Efficient Fixtures
2. Sub-metering of all major water consuming systems
3. Grey water reuse
4. Cooling tower water efficiency
5. Condensate water harvesting
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

6. Rainwater Collection

12
Arab Forum for Environment and Development (AFED). 2011. Water Efficiency
Handbook, Second Edition.

13
 E F F I C I E N T F I X T U R E S

Water efficient fixtures are now widely available. Reduction in water

consumption directly reduces the building’s water supply costs and
wastewater disposal charges. For example, 62% reduction in water
usage was achieved at a rest stop that was equipped with ultra-
low-flow toilets and waterless urinals.13 Table 4 below outlines the
recommended maximum flow rate or flush capacity to further reduce
water consumption.

T A B L E . 0 4
Typical Efficient Fixture

Maximum Flow Rate/Flush Capacity

PRODUC TS/
F ITTINGS Requirement Recommended

Shower Taps & Mixers 9 litres/min 7 litres/min

Basin taps & mixers 6 litres/min 4 litres/min
Showerheads 9 litres/min 7 litres/min
Sink/Bip Taps & mixers 8 litres/min 6 litres/min
Flushing cisterns 4.5 litres (full flush) 4 litres (full flush)
Urinals & urinals flush valve 1.5 litres 1 litres

Analysis for various building types in Jakarta has shown savings in

water consumption between 8% and 39% through the use of water
efficient fixtures.

F I G U R E . 1 4
Potential Saving by Using
Water Efficient Fixtures14
School 35

Apartment 39

Hospital 8

Hotel 25

Retail 14

Office 24

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

Percentage Reduction in Fresh Water Consumption

WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

13
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE). 2006. ASHRAE green guide: The Design, Construction, and Operation of
Sustainable Buildings. USA.
14
IFC analysis for Jakarta.

14
 W A T E R Among all the water consuming fixtures in typical commercial and
E F F I C I E N T residential buildings, toilet flushes consume the most amount of potable
F L U S H I N G water. In some cases, this can add up to 75% of the total water use in
S Y S T E M the building. Efficient dual flush systems that use only about 4.5 liters
for a full flush and 3 liters for a half flush, this consumption can be cut
down significantly.

F I G U R E . 1 5
Efficiency Using Water Consumption of Typical Toilet Flush System (m3/year)
Dual Flush System15
160

140
Single Flush

Dual Flush 120

100

80

60

40

20

0
18.9 11.4 7.6 3.8 3.8
litre/flush litre/flush litre/flush litre/flush litre/flush

Flushing of urinals can use a lot of water as well, according to an

estimate up to 20% of the total in a typical commercial building.
Waterless urinals completely eliminate water use in urinals using a one
way valve and a cartridge that prevents backflow and odors. For urinals
that use water, it is recommended to specify them with 1 Litre/flush
or less.

W A T E R Washing hands and ablution can use up a lot of water in typical

E F F I C I E N T Jakarta buildings. Faucets using up to 23 liters/min are still used in some
F I X T U R E buildings, even though efficient faucets that use as little as 7 liters/min
are available. Lower flow rates are possible if the faucets are fitted with
tap aerators. A study done by Singapore Public Utilities Board (PUB)
indicates that flow rates as low as 2 liters per minute may be sufficient
for normal washing purposes in toilets.
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Water Efficient Showerhead. A normal showerhead has a flow rate of

up to approximately 12 liters/min. A water efficient showerhead helps to
reduce the water usage without affecting the comfort level of the water
pressure for users.

13
The Renovator’s Supply, Inc. How a Dual Flush Toilet is Better than Standard Toilet.
(http://www.rensup.com/blog/post/dual-flush-toilets)

15
 S U B - M E T E R I N G O F A L L
M A J O R W A T E R C O N S U M I N G
S Y S T E M S
A very important strategy in water management is monitoring
consumption using sub-meters. While metering does not save any
water directly, it has an indirect impact of increasing user awareness of
consumption. Accurately measuring water use can help facility managers
identify areas for targeted reductions and to track progress from water-
efficiency upgrades. Submeters can also help identify leaks and indicate
when equipment is malfunctioning.

F I G U R E . 1 6
An Example of Water
Consumption Chart16 This sudden peak may indicate
a leak in the piping system

1200

1100

1000

900

800

700

600

500
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

October (2008)

Although the code regulates having sub-meters only for the supply
stream if multiple water sources are used, it is recommended to have
sub-meter for the water consuming systems. Metering and recording
water consuming systems assist the building manager in isolating over
consumption and leakage problems in each consuming system. For
example, installation of sub metering system in University of California,
Berkeley campus buildings in USA revealed that 71% of the water
fixtures used 7.6 - 15 liter/flush, more than the rated 6 liter/ flush.
This indicated leakages in the system, and fixing the problem led to
significant water savings.17
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

16
Singapore PUB (Public Utilities Board). The National Water Agency of Singapore.
2011. Water Efficient Building Design Guide Book. Singapore: Stallion Press.
17
The Green Initiative Fund. University of California, Berkeley. Water Metering and
Sub-Metering of UC Campus Buildings. (http://tgif.berkeley.edu/index.php/funded-
projects/projectstatuses/61-watermetering)

16
 F I G U R E . 1 7
A Schematic Diagram of the
Locations tf Water Meters Fire Fighting
System
Being Installed in Singapore
Potable

M Hosereel System
M water meter
M Cafetaria/Childcare

East Wiring
Potable M
M Cooling Tower
Water

M Flush Valve System

M Potable Water

M Landscape
NEWater M
M Cooling Tower

Source: The Renovator’s Supply, Inc. How a Dual Flush Toilet is Better than Standard
Toilet (http://www.rensup.com/blog/post/dual-flush-toilets)

G R E Y W A T E R R E U S E

In commercial settings where bath, dish, and laundry water is available,

grey water reclamation after solid waste removal can provide a reasonable
payback of investment. The reclaimed greywater can be used for
applications such as toilet flushing, condenser water, and site irrigation.

F I G U R E . 1 8
Simple Grey Water
Treatment Proses

surface hand clothes shower cooling

irrigation basin washer bath toilets tower

treated
water
storage
(if applicable)
grey water

AQUACELL UNIT
black water
Ultrastration
Disinfectant

collection
Ultraviolet

Treatment
Protection

Screening
Biological
Residual
Chlorine

Aerobic

point

(overflow)
sewer
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Greywater is typically not suitable for use as potable drinking water.

Greywater use for irrigation and HVAC condensing water should be
carefully evaluated as harmful chemicals can be used to treat the
reclaimed water.

17
 F I G U R E . 1 9
Plaza Indonesia Reclaimed
Used Water System18

Greywater systems require significant design effort and initial cost, and
also bring the risk of contamination and pollution if mismanaged. Running
costs for more complex systems can be high, with system payback
potentially extending for many years. System maintenance and upkeep
also play important factors in choosing this water conservation method.
Filters, pumps, and treating stations all require attention. Grey water
systems are typically cost-effective in hospitality and similar buildings
with high-volume, regular non-biological contamination usage, such as
laundry plants coupled with large non-potable loads like toilet flushing and
landscaping irrigation.

Plumbing system for greywater should be clearly separated from the

blackwater system to prevent contamination.

Residential greywater systems in urban areas are typically limited to the

water from bathrooms. An innovative solution from Japan (Figure 20
below), combines the wash basins with the water cistern.

F I G U R E . 2 0 The used water from the wash

Toilet with basin is collected in the cistern
Greywater System
and used for toilet flushing.

University of Texas at Austin

has focused on recovering
and reusing water from onsite
alternative sources to serve non-
potable water needs. Retrofits

include using air handler condensate, single-pass cooling water,

rainwater, and foundation groundwater for cooling tower make-up water
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

and lawn irrigation. Reduced potable water use by more than 33% and
saved more than 6 million m3 of water in total since the program began
in the 1980s.19

18
Firdaus and Indonesian Water Insittute. 2012.
19
Water Sense, a US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) program. 2012.
Watersense at Work: Best Management Practice for Commercial and Institutional
Facilities Guidebook.

18
 C O O L I N G T O W E R
W A T E R E F F I C I E N C Y
Cooling tower water use in commercial building located in hot and humid
climate can consume one-third to half of the total building water usage.
Some cooling towers can use greywater (and other kinds of recycled
water) if certain water quality criterion is met.

F I G U R E . 2 1
Two Types of Cooling Tower in Counterflow Cooling Tower Crossflow Cooling Tower
term of differences in air stream
direction; Counterflow Cooling warm moist air out warm moist air out

Tower (left) and Crossflow

Cooling Tower (Right)20

Cold Water Basin dry air in

Fill Media

Hot Water
dry air in
Distributuon
Air Inlet Louvre

cold water out cold water out

F I G U R E . 2 2
Two Types of Cooling Tower Closed Cooling Tower Open Cooling Tower
in term of the differences in
refrigeration circuit; Closed or warm moist air out warm moist air out

indirect Cooling Tower (left)

and open or dirrect cooling
tower (Right)21

Cold Water Basin

Fill Media centrifugal fan centrifugal fan

Hot Water
Distributuon
pump cold water out

cold water out

To reduce water usage at cooling towers, the designer should focus on

the two factors that can be controlled: drift (water droplets that are carried
out of the cooling tower with the exhaust air) and blowdown (the removal
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

of circulating water to maintain the amount of dissolved solids and other

impurities at and acceptable level designated by the electrical conductivity
of the water). Evaporation is integral to a cooling tower performance and
cannot be reduced without an acceptable reduction in performance.

20
Waterhouse Engineered Water. Tower Design. (http://engineeredwater.us/tower_
design)
21
Betterbricks Powerful Energy Ideas, Delivered by NEEA. Cooling Tower. (http://www.
betterbricks.com/building-operations/cooling-towers#TypesOfCoolingTowers)

19
 F I G U R E . 2 3
Four Ways of Water Leaves 3
Cooling Tower System
circulated
cooling water
1
Cold Water Basin 1 Drift Loss
Fill Media
2 Blowdown
Hot Water
Distributuon Evaporated Water

chiller
3
Air Inlet Louvre
4 Leaks & Overflows

make up
water suppy

4 2

Drift can be reduced by baffles or drift eliminators. Reducing blowdown

to the minimum level consistent with good operating practice can
conserve significant volumes of water. Reducing blowdown is the same as
increasing the condenser water cycles of concentration, which can be done
by multitude of ways. One way of increasing the cycle of concentration
while maintaining cooling tower and chiller performance is through
incorporating good water treatment program that includes chemical dosing
and careful monitoring of water parameters.

The relative water efficiency of a cooling tower is commonly measured

by computing the cycles of concentration. To measure cycles of
concentration, divide the conductivity of sump water by the conductivity
of the entering tap water. Many systems operate at two to four cycles
of concentration, while six cycles or more might be possible. Increasing
cycles from three to six reduces cooling tower make-up water by 20
percent and cooling tower blowdown by 50 percent.

F I G U R E . 2 4
Cooling Tower Water Cooling Tower Water Usage at Various Cycles of Concentration for 100-Ton Tower
Usage at Various
Cycles of Consentration 7.500

for 100-Ton Tower22 7.000

6.500
Gallons per Day

6.000

5.500

5.000
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

4.500

4.000

3.500

3.000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Cycles of Concentration

22
EPA Water Sense. 2012. Best Management Practice for Commercial and Institutional
Facilities.

20
T A B L E . 0 5
Percent of Make-Up Water Saved by Maximizing Cycles of Concentration23

N EW CO N CE N T R A T IO N R A T IO (CRf)

2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
1.5 33% 44% 50% 53% 56% 58% 60% 61% 62% 63% 64%
C ONC E NT R A T ION

2.0 - 17% 25% 30% 33% 38% 40% 42% 43% 44% 45%
R A T I O (Cn)
INIT IA L

2.5 - - 10% 16% 20% 25% 28% 30% 31% 33% 34%
3.0 - - - 7% 11% 17% 20% 22% 24% 25% 26%
3.5 - - - - 5% 11% 14% 17% 18% 20% 21%
4.0 - - - - - 6% 10% 13% 14% 16% 17%
5.0 - - - - - - 4% 7% 9% 10% 11%
6.0 - - - - - - - 3% 5% 6% 7%

These subtle improvements and modifications to the condenser water

system should be incorporated into the installation at the design level
to save significant amounts of water from the onset and provide an
efficient system. Minimizing the condenser water loss, ensuring proper
water treatment, and constant system service will save valuable
amounts of water.

The 1500 m2 Environmental Science Centre in Fort Meade, Maryland,

saved about 2,000 m3 of water and approximately $1,800 by reducing its
cooling tower blowdown.24

Additional Reference : In Australia, water efficiency of cooling tower is done by:

The Australian Institute • Correct assembly of float valves.
of Refrigeration, Air • Install meter conductivity and blow-down automation system at
Conditioning and Heating, conductivity level which has been determined in the water which will
Best Practise Guidelines. be recirculated.
Water Conservation in • Implement “performance-based” maintanance.
Cooling Towers • Reduce heat load by increasing building energy efficiency.
(http://www.airah.org.au/ • Increase whole air conditioning efficiency by system upgrading or
imis15_prod/content_files/ waste water treatment.
bestpracticeguides/bpg_
cooling_towers.pdf)
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

23
Water Sense, a US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) program. 2012.
Watersense at Work: Best Management Practice for Commercial and Institutional
Facilities Guidebook.
24
US Environmental Protection Agency. Top 10 Water Management Techniques.
(http://www.epa.gov/oaintrnt/water/techniques.htm)

21
 C O N D E N S A T E W A T E R
H A R V E S T I N G
In some airconditioning systems, it is feasible to collect condensate water
for uses such as irrigation, cooling tower make up, and toilet flushing.
In hot-humid climates, condensate from air conditioning can be a good
source of clean, cold water that is well-suited for reuse.

The volume of condensate generated depends upon the cooling load,

local temperature and humidity, make-up air volumes, and target indoor
temperature and humidity. As a rule of thumb, 0.1 to 0.3 gallons/hour of
condensate water can be generated per ton of cooling25. In hot-humid
climates, peak condensate production during summer months can be
assumed to be approximately 0.5 to 0.6 gph/1000 ft2 or 1.9 to 2.27
l/h/93m2 of cooled area.

Rice University in USA captures condensate water from many of its

buildings for use in the central plant’s cooling towers as make up water.
This systems is estimated to save at least 45.4 million liters of water per
year, which is equivalent to about 5 to 6% of Rice University’s annual
water consumption.

F I G U R E . 2 5
evaporation
Schematic Diagram of
Condesate Water for CAP AHU warm water

Makeup Cooling Tower26

condensate water from other AHUs

pre-cooling
cooling
coil

coil

condenser
Cold Water Basin

Fill Media

condensate
Hot Water
collector
Distributuon condensate
pump
Air Inlet Louvre
make up COOLING TOWER
water suppy
blowdown

evaporation

warm water
condenser

AHU AHU AHU AHU

condensate condensate pump

WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

collector

make up COOLING TOWER

water suppy
blowdown

25
Guz, Karen. 2005. Condensate Water Recovery. Publised in ASHRAE Journal. (Vol 47,
No. 6, June 2005).
26
Lucina and Sekhar, 2012. Energy and water conservation from AHU in hot and humid
climate. Energy and Building Journal volume 45.

22
 United World College (UWC) South East Asia - East Campus, Singapore,
harvested about 1400m3 of condensate water in the first 5 months
(August - December) of operation. The harvested condensate water
reduces potable water consumption for cooling tower make-up while also
reducing the temperature of condenser water for the HVAC.

The G+20 Floor building’s HVAC system consisting fresh air handling
units typically can produce 2600 liters condensate water in 24 hrs and
78000 liters in a month at an average summer outdoor conditions, which
can be utilized trim down the demand of potable water and saving a
substantial amount of energy and carbon emissions.27

R A I N W A T E R H A R V E S T I N G

Jakarta on an average gets about 1800 mm of rainfall annually, most of it

between November and April. For a roof area of 30 m2, a 5.5 m3 capacity
tank can provide daily reclaimed water supply of about 60 liters. This
highlights the potential of water saving through rain water harvesting.28

F I G U R E . 2 6
Average Rainfall 125

Data for Jakarta29

100
Percipitation (mm)

Precipitation (mm)
75
Average Rainfall Days

50

25

0
ar
y ry ch ril ay ne ly st be
r er be
r
be
r
nu ua ar Ap M Ju Ju gu ob
Ja br M Au te
m ct em cem
Fe p O ov De
Se N

Rainwater harvesting can be implemented by collecting water at the

roof (roof catchment), or at the ground (ground catchment). The stored
rainwater can be used for laundry, toilet and urinal flushing, car washing,
and ornamental water features. It can even be used for cooling tower
make-up. The benefit of rain water harvesting is two fold. Firstly, it
reduces the expense of municipal supply or ground water extraction.
Secondly, it also reduces water run off to the city sewage and drainage
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

system thus mitigating Jakarta’s perennial flooding problems.

27
Khan, Shahid Ali. 2013. Conservation of Potable Water Using Chilled Water
Condensate from Air Conditioning Machines in Hot&Humid Climate. Published in
International Journal of Enggineering and Innovative Technology Volume 3, Issue 2.
28
UN. Habitat. Blue Drop Series on Rainwater Harvesting and utilization-Book 2:
Beneficiaries and Capacity Building. (http://www.unwac.org/new_unwac/pdf/
WATSAN_Normative_Pubs/Blue_Drop_Series_02_-_Capacity_Building.pdf)
29
UN. Habitat. Blue Drop Series on Rainwater Harvesting and utilization - Book
2: Beneficiaries and Capacity Building. (http://www.unwac.org/new_unwac/pdf/
WATSAN_Normative_Pubs/Blue_Drop_Series_02_-_Capacity_Building.pdf)

23
 Figure 27 below outlines possible rainwater utilization based on
commercial building types and catchment areas.

F I G U R E . 2 7
Suitability of Commercial RAINWATER STORMWATER
(Roof Only) (Roof & Ground)
Rainwater Use30
Amenities/Bathroom
Acceptable Kitchen/Food Preparation
Possible
Hot Water System
Toilet Flushing
Not recommended
Laundry
Irrigation
Vehicle Washing
Cooling Tower
Pool Top-up Water
Other Process Water

C A T C H M E N T The size of the catchment area or roof will determine how much
A R E A rainwater that you can harvest. The area is based on the “footprint” of
the roof, which can be calculated by finding the area of the building and
adding the area of the roof’s overhang.

F I G U R E . 2 8
Roof Footprint31
Roof Footprint Roof Footprint Roof Footprint

Roof Footprint Roof Footprint Roof Footprint

Equation below provides a calculation for rainwater capture potential.

Conversion factor of 0.623 is included to take into account capture
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

efficiency because some of the rainwater is lost through evaporation,

splashing, or other means.

30
Davidson, Guenter Hauber; Water Conservation Group. Supplementing Urban Water
Supplies Through Industrial and Commercial Rainwater Harvesting Schemes. (http://
www.watergroup.com.au/download/P_RWH-integrUrbWatSuplyGHDv1a070308.pdf)
31
Texas A & M Agrilife Extension. Rainwater Harvesting, Catchment Area. (http://
rainwaterharvesting.tamu.edu/catchment-area/)

24
 Harvested water (m3) = average rainfall depth (m) x catchment area
(m2) x 0.623 conversion32

For example, with an annual average of 1800 mm rainfall in Jakarta, a

catchment area (e.g. roof) of 5,000 m2, could harvest 1.8 m x 5,000 m2 x
0.623 = 5,607 m3 of rain water annually or equal to an average of 15.36 m2
per day.

To avoid water pollution, walls, roofs and gutters should not use asbestos
or toxic paints.

G U T T E R Channels all around the edge of a sloping roof to collect and transport
rainwater to the storage tank. The size of the gutter should be according
to the flow during the highest intensity rain. It is advisable to make them
10 to 15 per cent oversized. As a rule of thumb, one square inch (6.4 cm2)
of downspout area should be provided for every 100 square feet (9.29 m2)
of roof area.

F I R S T A first flush device is a valve that ensures that runoff from the first spell
F L U S H I N G of rain is flushed out and does not enter the system. This needs to be
done since the first spell of rain carries a relatively larger amount of
pollutants from the air and catchment surface.

F I L T E R The filter is used to remove suspended pollutants from rainwater

collected over roof. A filter unit is a chamber filled with filtering media
such as fibre, coarse sand and gravel layers to remove debris and dirt
from water before it enters the storage tank or recharges structure.
Charcoal can be added for additional filtration. Filter chamber can be
made manually and commercial filters are widely available.

Further discussions on filters can be found on the web such as:

• Rainwater Harvesting Org. Components of A Rainwater Harvesting
System. (http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/Urban/Components.
htm)
• Freerain. Commercial Rainwater Harvesting Systems. (http://www.
freerain.co.uk/commercial-rainwater-harvesting-systems.html)
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

S T O R A G E Storage system is used to store rainwater for later uses. It is one of

S Y S T E M the most critical, and typically the most expensive component of the
rainwater system. Rainwater storage tank could be made of concrete,
wood, metal, clay or plastic.

32
Texas A & M Agrilife Extension. Rainwater Harvesting, Catchment Area. (http://
rainwaterharvesting.tamu.edu/catchment-area/)

25
 Storage tank must be opaque and painted to inhibit algae growth, must be
covered and vents screened, and must be accessible for cleaning (if used
for potable system). The storage tank needs to be placed as close to the
catchment area as possible and the size determined by calculations based
on the demand, frequency of rainfall, surface area, budget and aesthetics.

Some of the elements of a typical rainwater harvesting system are

highlighted in the figure below.

F I G U R E . 2 9
Rainwater Harvesting
System for Reuse33 1 Collection System/Catchment Area (Such
as roof)
2 Gutter around the building roof
1
2 3 Conveyance System (Infratructure that
transport the water)
4 Smart Pre-filter & First Flush

5 Storage System (Above & below

ground cistern) Wrapped in geotextile &
3
impremeable liner
tank access to raw
water storage FOR USE

4
overflow to
5 discharge
Inlet Seal
Floating Intake

Singapore offers interesting case studies of rainwater harvesting. Because

of low supply and high demand, country’s regulations have a strong
emphasis on rainwater collection. About 84% of the population lives in
high rise apartments. These buildings are required to collect rainwater in
cisterns on the roof. A recent study demonstrated an effective saving of
4% of the water used, the volume of which did not have to be pumped
from the ground floor. As a result of savings in terms of water, energy
costs, and deferred capital, the cost of collected roof water was calculated
to be S$0.96 against the previous cost of S$ 1.17 per cubic meter.

F I G U R E . 3 0
Rainwater Harvesting
System at Changi
Airport, Singapore34

Pumping Station
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Pipe

Supply

Tank

33
Toronto and Region Conservation, 2010. Performance Evaluation of Rainwater
harvesting Systems. (http://sustainabletechnologies.ca/wp/wp-content/
uploads/2013/01/FINAL-RWH-2011_EDIT3.pdf)
34
Rainwaterharvesting.org. Rainwater Harvesting in Singapore. (http://www.
rainwaterharvesting.org/international/singapore.htm)

26
 Singapore’s Changi airport collects rain falling on the runways and the
landscaped areas in two reservoirs, that are used for toilet flushing
and fire fighter drills. This amounts to about 30% municipal water
consumption savings equivalent to about S$ 390,000 per annum.35

A B S O R P T I O N W E L L

Absorption wells are intended to capture, store and recharge

groundwater, while at the same time reduce runoff to the city drainage
system. Absorbtion system is applied to areas that have typically
sandy soils with acceptable permeability rates and with ground water
level below 1.5 m. However, many parts some parts of Jakarta are not
suitable for the application of absorption well. Therefore, results of soil
investigation should be examined before applying absorption well.

Asoprtion system for unconfined aquifer (air tanah dangkal) can be

implemented using apsorption pit (Lubang Resapan Biopori) or shallow
absortion well, while deep apsorption well utilizing injection system can
be used for confined aquifers.

F I G U R E . 3 1
Biopori (left) and Shallow 10 - 30 mm
Absorption Well (right)36
gutter
80 - 100 cm

control pit

to sewer
filter

COMPOSTING

The depth of the well depend

organic material on ground water level
absorbtion
well
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

35
United Nations Environment Programme, Division of Technology, Industry and
Economics. Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization, An Environmentally Sound
Approach for Sustainable Urban Water Management: An Introductory Guide for
Decision-Makers. (http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/publications/urban/urbanenv-2/9.asp)
36
Peraturan Menteri Pekerjaan Umum No. 6 tahun 2011 tentang Pedoman Penggunaan
Sumber Daya Air.

27
 F I G U R E . 3 2
Deep Absorbtion Well37
gutter
concrete floor

Pipe

control pit
Cement from filter

Clay

to sewer
filter

Sand

Filter

Gravel

absorption
well

B I O Bio retention systems treat stormwater by filtering runoff through planted

R E T E N T I O N vegetation and percolating (drip feeding) the runoff through a filter
S Y S T E M S media, such as loamy sand. As the water is percolated through the soil,
pollutants are captured by fine filtration, absorption and biological uptake.
Excess water can be collected by under drain system and discharge to
the storm sewer system or directly into receiving water. Bio infiltration
systems typically are designed to store and treat run off from relatively
small storms. It should be located at least 3 metres away from buildings
to ensure water does not drain into the foundations.

F I G U R E . 3 3
Bioretention System

0,2-0,5 m

1-3 m
0,3-0,7 m Filter Media (sandy loam)

0,1 m Transition Layer (course sand)

0,15-0,2 m Drainage Layer (course sand/gravel)

WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Perforated Collection Pipe

Possible Impervious Liner

37
Forum Teknik Sipil dan Arsitektur. Pemanfaatan Air hujan. (http://www.
ilmutekniksipil.com/rekayasa-sumber-daya-air/pemanfaatan-air-hujan)
38
An Article about Bioretention System by Riversands. (http://www.riversands.com.au/
bioretention-system.php)

28
 A rain garden is a simple form of a bio-infiltration system, that is built in
shallow depressions or low-lying areas, with a planted or stone-covered
bed that is specifically designed to capture and absorb stormwater and
allow it to be slowly absorbed into the soil.

Rain gardens are suitable for sites that are sandy, gravellly, loam, or
a mix with up to 10 per-cent clay.Sites with mostly clay soil are not
suitable. The soil sould be permeable to depth of between 0.6-1.2 m
below the rain garden. The surface of depression should be at least 1 m
above seasonally high shallow groundwater. The rain garden also need
to be as level as posible, to ensure that water does not run over the
lower edge. If possible, slope greater than 12 percent should be avoided.
The placement of the rain garden could be at a low point or at a location
somewhere along the natural flow path.

F I G U R E . 3 4
Rain Garden Variation39

a) Planted with shrubs,

tall grasses, ferns, and
perennials.

b) Dry creek with pebbles,

river stones, boulders,
and plants.

c) On a slope, create a
depression on the upper
side and a berm on the
original slope lower side.

All options over sandy to loam soil with organic matter. Infiltration bed under
the surface as shown in option a) applies to all options.
WATER EFFICIENCY DESIGN PRINCIPLES

39
An Article about Rain Gaden by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation. (http://
www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/co/grho/grho_007.cfm)

29
 03 case study
P L A Z A I N D O N E S I A
Saving Clean Water Cost by Processing Used Water

Management of Plaza Indonesia (PI) has responded to the clean water

crisis faced by Jakarta due to insufficient clean water supply from
public water grid system (PAM Jaya) and relatively high cost of piped
water tariff (Rp. 12,550/m3). The problems of clean water supply for PI,
which has a total area of 404,100 m2, are exacerbated due to the new
regulation restricting deep ground water extraction and increasing tax.
Pergub DKI No 37, 2009 significantly increase deep ground water tax
from Rp. 4,400/m2 to Rp. 23,333/m2. This regulation is necessary to
mitigate the serious problem of land subsidence due to over extraction
of deep ground water in Jakarta.

F I G U R E . 3 5
Plaza Indonesia PI complex consists of Plaza
Indonesia Shopping Center
(4 floors, 62,750 m2), Grand
Hyatt Jakarta Hotel (26
floors, 447 rooms, 67,000
m2), and Plaza Indonesia
Extension (6 floors, 43,300
m2) equipped with an
underground parking facility
(Basement Parking) with an
area of 108,800 m2.
WATER EFFICIENCY CASE STUDY

Following the development and existing business opportunities, PI has

recently built Keraton Residential Tower (48 floors, 88 apartment units,
50,350 m2) and The Plaza Office Tower (47 floors, 62,650 m2), which
is going to increase the need for clean water and also the amount of
liquid waste generated. The facilities need at least 2,200 m3 of clean
water per day.

30
 To cope with the high demand of clean water supply, PI management
has decided to reclaim water from its wastewater as an alternative
non-potable water source for toilet flushing, irrigation and cooling
tower. Besides environmental benefit such as reducing wastewater and
mitigating water scarcity and land subsidence issues, reclaiming water
also offers financial benefit to PI.

F I G U R E . 3 6
Sample of the Clean
Water Resulted from the
Processed Wastewater
with the Background of
MBR Plaza Indonesia40

If the clean water is totally supplied by PAM Jaya, the cost will be at
least Rp. 10.08 billion (365 days/year x 2,200 m3/day x Rp. 12.550/m3)
annually. This figure significantly increases to Rp. 13.54 billion/year,
if 40% of the total requirement is taken from the deep groundwater.
In addition, PI must pay the cost to treat wastewater which by a
conventional system would cost at least Rp. 1.750/m3, leading to a
total cost of wastewater treatment to Rp. 1.12 billion/year (2.200 x 0.8
x 365 x Rp. 1.750/m3). Therefore, total cost for clean water supply and
wastewater treatment is estimated at least Rp. 11.2 billion/year.

By conducting a comprehensive retrofit of the wastewater treatment

systems, at least 1,500 m3 of a total of 2,200 m3 of the PI clean water
needs can be generated from the used water reclamation plant system
employing Membrane Bio Reactor technology (MBR) + Reverse
Osmosis Membrane. Total savings from reduction of clean water cost
is Rp. 2.92 billion/year plus the cost savings from wastewater treatment
at around Rp. 1.12 billion/year. So the total savings made by the
management of the PI is Rp. 4.04 billion/year. The total investment cost
to implement Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) retrofit at Plaza Indonesia
is around Rp. 15 billion with a payback period of about 3.7 years.
WATER EFFICIENCY CASE STUDY

40
Firdaus, 2013.

31
 T A B L E . 0 6
Payback Period Calculation of Used Water Recycling System

Consumption Waterfare Water Cost Water Cost per Saving Amount

N O ITEM
(m3/Day) (IDR/m3) (Million IDR/Day) Year (Billion IDR) (Billion IDR/Year)*

1 Pam Water 2,200 12,550 27,61 10,08 4,29

2 Deep Groundwater 2,200 23,333 51,33 18,74 12,95
3 Used Water Treatment Cost 2,200 1,400 3,08 1,12 -
4 Used Water Treatment Cost 2,200 7,211 15,86 5,79 0
5 Total Investment Cost of Used
Water Reclamation Plant 15.00

Payback Period (Year) 3,5/1,16

*) Note: Relative to the use of water resulted from the used water treatment
The calculation above is based on the used water total volume of 2200 m3/day.

Water reclaim system (grey water system) in high rise buildings in Jakarta
not only provides economic benefits (savings) as discussed above, but
also mitigates the problems of water pollution and helps overcome water
deficit in the deep ground water.
WATER EFFICIENCY CASE STUDY

32
 appendix
T A B L E . 0 1
Water Saving Device and Approaches: Flush Mechanisms41

FLUSH MEC HA N I SM ADVAN TA G ES D IS A D V A N T A GE S

S I PHON MEC HAN I SM

When the handle is pulled, It may be more effective (and cheaper) to • Compatibility with retrofit device depends
a piston lifts water to start a retrofit water saving devices to an existing on cistern design.
siphon, which empties the siphon-operated mechanism than opt for a • Lever operated rather than buttons. Dual
cistern into the toilet bowl. push-button, flush-valve mechanism because: flush not as well understood by users as
When the cistern is empty • There is less chance of leakage; push-button flush valves.
the siphon is broken and the • A faulty mechanism is easy to detect—the
cistern refills ready for the flush performance is poor;
next flush. • Low-flush available (4.5 litre); and
• Low cost.

PUS H-B UTTON F L U SH

Drop-valve Mechanism • Fast flush. • Valve will eventually leak (which can be
• Push-button operated rather than a lever for hard to detect).
flush action. • Poor installation can cause valve
• Separate buttons for full flush and short- mechanism to stick.
better understand by user. • Not as robust as the siphon mechanism.
• Allows lower flush volumes by giving a • May require maintenance to remove
higher flow rate. limescale deposits.
• Low cost. • If problems occur, the valve cannot be
replaced with a siphon mechanism.

V A RIABL E FL U SH

Siphon Mechanism • Retrofit available. • Occasionally need to flush more than once
When flush is initiated, the air • Easy to fit. to clear the pan.
valve lifted on the siphon is • Savings of up to 30% per flush. • Generally, not very robust.
open; when flush is complete, • Low cost. • Not always clear to user how to operate
the valve closed. the device correctly, so potential for double
flushing.
• Savings can be very variable.

DUAL FL US H

Siphon Mechanism • Two flush volumes. • Occasionally need to flush more than once
• Savings up to 30% per flush. to clear the pan.
• Low cost. • Not always clear to user how to operate the
device correctly.

Push-button Flush, Drop-valve • Choice of flush volumes (e.g.4/2.6, 6/3, 6/4 • Poor installation can cause the buttons to
Mechanism litres maximum/minimum flush). be misaligned, resulting in poor flushing.
• Can now be retrofitted to cisterns installed • Buttons need to be clearly labelled to avoid
before 1999. confusion and misuse.
• Low cost.
MAESNET SATPUPDEYN D I X

I N TER RUPTIBL E F L U SH

Siphon Mechanism • User stops the flush (releases lever) when • Not always clear to first time user how to
pan is clear. operate the device correctly.
• Savings of up to 30% per flush. • Potential for double flushing.
I ENNACGYE C

• Low cost.
CA
R TEEFRF IM

41
Working Together for a World Without Waste, Business Resource Efficiency Guide.
EA

Reducing Your Water Consumption. (http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/WRAP_

W A TW

Reducing_Your_Water_Consumption_0.pdf)

33
 T A B L E . 0 2
Water Saving Devices and Approaches: Other42

POTENTIAL
DEVIC E/ACTI VI TY WATER SAVINGS A D V A N T A GE S D IS A D V A NT A G E S

CIS TERN VO L U ME A DJ U STERS ( CV A ’S )

Also referred to as cistern 0.5 to 2 litres per • Low/no cost—can be • Some of these devices deteriorate over
displacement devices— flush. obtained from water supplier time and should be regularly checked and
CDDs at little or no extra cost. replaced if necessary, otherwise water
• Retrofit. use may increase.
• Easy to install. • Volume adjusters should not be used
in cisterns which were installed after
January 2001, as from this date, all
installed cisterns use a 6-litre flush. Using
a volume adjuster in these products will
result in a poor flush and can induce
double flushing.

CIS TERN DA M

A flexible synthetic material Up to 30% • Low cost. • Need to ensure a good seal—can be
partitions the cistern (between 1 • Retrofit. a problem where limescale builds
and 3 litres per • Easy to install. up.
flush). • Power of flush unaffected.

DEL AY ED A CT I O N I N L E T VA L VE

Up to 0.5 litres • No water inlet during • The delay period needs to be

per flush. flushing. checked.
• Retrofit.
WATER EFFICIENCY APPENDIX

42
Working Together for a World Without Waste, Business Resource Efficiency Guide.
Reducing Your Water Consumption. (http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/WRAP_
Reducing_Your_Water_Consumption_0.pdf)

34
 T A B L E . 0 3
The Main Advantages and Disadvantages of Urinal Water Saving Devices43

POTENTIAL
DEV IC E/ACTIV I T Y WATER SAVINGS A D V A NT A G E S D IS A D V A N T A GE S

MANUAL S HUT O F F

A single valve such as a quarter turn ball Typically around • Low cost. • Only applicable if work hours
valve can be installed in the pipework 70% but can be are predictable.
supplying the washroom. higher. • Requires staff reliability.

TI MER AND S O L EN O I D VA L VE

A timer and solenoid valve can be Typically around • Low cost. • Only applicable if work
installed on the pipework connected to 70% but can be hours are predictable.
the urinals, so that water supplied to higher.
the cistern is shut off during periods of
non use.

PRESSUR E-SEN SI TI VE H YDRAU L I C V A L V E

Typically around • Retrofit available. • Flushing is related to

70% but can be • Valve remains closed when occupancy of washrooms
higher. pressure remains unchanged rather than use of urinal.
(i.e.when urinal is not being
used).

PAS SIV E INFRARE D ( P I R) SEN SO R

A motion sensor is placed above the Typically around • Cost effective—at around £ • Dispose of the battery as
urinal to detect use. This controls a 70% but can be 170 and can be operated by hazardous waste.
solenoid valve to allow a present volume higher. battery (lifetime of between
of water into the cistern per use. When 3 and 4 years) or mains
the cistern is full, the auto-siphon will electricity.
automatically discharge and flush the
urinal.

WATERL ESS URI N AL S

Barrier liquid cartridge/trap—a cartridge Can reduce • Retrofit available. • Specialised cleaning.
containing a barrier fluid is inserted water use by • Easy to install. • Barrier fluid needs to be
into the urinal bowl. The urine passes 90%. replaced regularly.
through the oil-based barrier fluid, which • Microbial blocks dissolve
forms a seat preventing urine returning. and need to be replaced
regularly.
Deodorising pad—a pad impregnated
with a deodorising chemical which is
inserted into the urinal outlet.

Chemical and biological—a cartridge

containing a chemical and microbial
block is fitted into the urinal bowl or
through to break down urinal and
biofilm.

Chemical and microbiological blocks

combined with a one—way valve—these
products are similar to the microbial
blocks described above, but with the
addition of a one-way valve to seal the
waste pipe from the urinal.
WATER EFFICIENCY APPENDIX

43
Working Together for a World Without Waste, Business Resource Efficiency Guide.
Reducing Your Water Consumption. (http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/WRAP_
Reducing_Your_Water_Consumption_0.pdf)

35
 T A B L E . 0 3 (continued)
The Main Advantages and Disadvantages of Urinal Water Saving Devices

POTENTIAL
DEV IC E/ACTIV I T Y WATER SAVINGS A D V A NT A G E S D IS A D V A N T A GE S

WATERL ESS URI N AL S (continued)

Cartridge/trap inserts containing a Can reduce • Mechanical valve removes • Not available for retrofit;
mechanical siphon valve—this prevents water use by the need for a barrier liquid. intended for use in
urine that has passed through it from 90%. specifically designed
returning to the bowl. urinal bowls.

Vented—individual traps are replaced Can reduce • No chemicals. • Not suitable for retrofit.
by a single running trap installed at an water use by • Single trap easy to clean.
angle of 1:18 to allow rapid run off of 90%. • Fan uses the same power
urine. A low wattage fan provides air as mains-powered urinal
flow in the system to remove odours. controllers.
WATER EFFICIENCY APPENDIX

36
 T A B L E . 0 4
Common Types of Device and Approach that are Available to Reduce Water Use through a Tap44

I TE M A DVANT A G E S D IS A D V A N T A GE S

I SOLATING B A L L VA L VE

Screwdriver/lever actuated • Water savings typically around 50%, • Orifice may block with scale build-up.
Primary function is that of an isolating but dependent on end flow rate. • Does not regulate pressure.
valve. However, the flow through the • Retrofit available.
valve can be adjusted to reduce flow rate. • Cheap and easy to install.

S P R AY TAP

The tap nose contains small holes to force • Water savings typically up to 50%, but • Requires maintenance to prevent
water out in the form of a mist or spray. dependent on end flow rate. blockage.
• Can achieve typical flow rates of • There is a risk of Legionella if the tap
between 4 and 8 litres/minute. is not operated regularly.
• Retrofit spray-tap nose available. • Does not regulate pressure.

TAP AER ATOR

The design of the nozzle mixes air with • Water savings typically up to 50% • Not effective at pressure of less than
the water under pressure. When the if fitted with a flow regulator, but 1bar (100kPa).
water exits the nozzle the air expands, dependent on end flow rate. • Standard aerators do not regulate
increasing the apparent water flow. Tap • Retrofit available. pressure.
aerators are often integrated with a flow • No splashing.
regulator as a pressure compensating • Flow rate reduced to between 2 and 8
aerator (PCA). litres/minute.

S E LF -CL OS ING T AP S

Percussion taps/push-down taps • Retrofit available. • Mechanism can jam (hard water can
To deliver flow, the user pushes down • Automatically closes after use. be a contributor).
on the tap head. When the user removes • Water savings up to 50%, but • Delay cycle needs to be set correctly.
their hand, the pressure generated inside dependent on end flow rate and flow
forces the tap up and it automatically duration.
closes off the flow (after a delay period • Can achieve typical flow rates of
set of the time of installation). A delay between 4 and 8 litres/minute.
period of between 15 and 20 second is • Payback period can be a few months.
generally suitable for hand washing.

ELE CTRONIC S E N SO R TA P

An infrared sensor is located on the • Improved hygiene—tap does not need • Retrofit not applicable.
underside of the tap head. The sensor to be touched. • Requires energy – mains or battery to
is triggered when the user places • Water savings up to 70%, but are operate.
their hands under the tap head. The dependent on the end flow rate and • Scalding can be an issue if the
temperature is preset. flow duration. temperature control is incorrectly set.
• Can achieve typical flow rates of • If sensor is fouled by soap, then water
between 4 and 8 litres/minute. flow is continuous.
• Costs typically around £ 300/tap
means longer payback period.

MI X ER TAPS FI T T E D W I T H A W A T E R B R A K E

Relatively new, also known as ‘click’ • Provides user flexibility where faster • Full flow setting not pressure
or two stage taps. Flow rate typically filling is sometimes required. regulated.
between 5 and 10 litres per minute until a • Longer payback periods (between
resistance point is reached. To open the £150 and £200 per unit).
tap any further requires additional force.
WATER EFFICIENCY APPENDIX

Full flow setting typically between 10 and

20 litres/minute.

44
Working Together for a World Without Waste, Business Resource Efficiency Guide.
Reducing Your Water Consumption. (http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/WRAP_
Reducing_Your_Water_Consumption_0.pdf)

37
 T A B L E . 0 4 (continued)
Common Types of Device and Approach that are Available to Reduce Water Use through a Tap

I TE M A DVANT A G E S D IS A D V A NT A G E S

THER MOSTATIC M I X E R VA L VE ( T M V)

Changes in water pressure or • Water temperature is set—uses less • Longer payback periods for the more
temperature cause the thermostat water at initial draw-off. expensive valves (between £50 and
element to expand or contract. This in • Only one tap may be required. £200 per unit).
turn moves the slide valve which alters • Savings can vary.
the proportion of hot and cold water
entering the TMV, thus maintaining the
mixed water temperature.

POINT-OF -SOU RCE H E AT E R

Avoids long periods of running water to • Uses less water at initial draw-off. • Capital costs for installation of heater.
get the desired temperature. • Savings can vary.

FO AM SOAP

Soap dispenser delivers a ball of foam/ • Small amount of soap required per • May require new soap dispenser.
mousse. event (water saving of up to 50%).
• When user rubs hands together, foam/
mousse reduces to a small volume
that requires less water to rinse from
hands.

ECO-B UTTONS

Relatively new. They allow the user • Water savings typically 50% in water • Not always available as retrofit, often
to push a button to override a default saving setting. incorporated into existing tap ranges.
lower flow rate setting to provide a • Provides user flexibility where faster • Not water efficient in the override
higher flow rate delivery mode. The flow filling is sometimes required. mode.
rate is controlled by an integrated flow
regulator.

TAP F L OW R EG U L A T O R

Flow regulators are designed to maintain • Retrofit available, easy to fit.

a constant flow independent of supply • Regulates flow regardless of pressure.
pressure. Often integral in ‘water efficient’ • Flow regulators can be designed to
taps at time of purchase. operate at different flow rates.
• Low cost.
WATER EFFICIENCY APPENDIX

38
 T A B L E . 0 5
Common Types of Device and Approach that are Available to Reduce Water Use through a Shower45

I TE M WATER SAVINGS A D V A NT A G E S D IS A D V A N T A GE S

I SOLATING B A L L VA L VE

Screwdriver/lever actuated Typically 50%, • Retrofit available. • Only applicable if work hours
Primary function is that of an isolating but dependent • Cheap and easy to install. are predictable.
valve. However, the flow through the on water • Requires staff reliability.
valve can be adjusted to reduce flow rate. pressure.

S H OWER AERA T O R

The aerator is fitted between the hose Typically 50%, • Retrofit available. • Not effective at pressure
and the showerhead. The design of the but dependent • Flow rate reduced to below 1bar (100kPa).
aerator nozzle allows air to mix with on end flow between 6 and 10 litres/ • Not suitable for use with
the water under pressure. When the rate. minute. electrically heated showers.
water exits the nozzle the air expands, • Low flow may not provide
increasing the apparent water flow. user satisfaction—‘cold feet’
Shower aerators can be integrated effect.
with a flow regulator as a pressure • Standard aerators do not
compensating aerator (PCA). regulate pressure.
• There is a risk of Legionella
if the shower is not operated
regularly.

AER ATING S H O W ERH E AD

The design of the showerhead mixes air Typically • Retrofit available. • Not effective at pressure
with the water under pressure. When between 50% • Flow rate reduced to below 1bar (100kPa).
the water exits the showerhead the air and 70%, but between 6 and 10 litres/ • Low flow may not provide
expands, increasing the apparent water dependent on minute. user satisfaction – ‘cold feet’
flow. end flow rate. effect.
• Generally not suitable for
use with electrically heated
showers.

THER MOSTATIC M I X E R VA L VE ( T M V)

Changes in water pressure or Variable. • Water temperature is set— • Retrofit not available.
temperature cause the thermostat uses less water at initial • Longer payback periods for
element to expand or contract. draw-off. more expensive valves (up
to £200 per unit).
This in turn moves the slide valve
which alters the proportion of hot
and cold water entering the TMV,
thus maintaining the mixed water
temperature.
WATER EFFICIENCY APPENDIX

45
Working Together for a World Without Waste, Business Resource Efficiency Guide.
Reducing Your Water Consumption. (http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/WRAP_
Reducing_Your_Water_Consumption_0.pdf)

39
 T A B L E . 0 5 (continued)
Common Types of Device and Approach that are Available to Reduce Water Use through a Shower

I TEM WATER SAVINGS A D V A NT A G E S D IS A D V A N T A GE S

PUS H-B UTTON SH O W ER

Mechanical timed flow control. Usually Typically up • Automatically closes after • The delay cycle (‘bleed’)
works through controlled bleed from to 50%, but use. needs to be correctly set.
one side of a diaphragm to the other dependent on • Flow rate reduced to • If the mechanism operates
via a pinhole and it is the length of end flow rate. between 6 and 10 litres/ through the use of a pinhole
time that water is delivered through the minute. in a diaphragm, the hole can
showerhead. • Cartridge mechanism become blocked by scale
uses a groove (rather than build-up.
a pinhole) to pass the
water from one side of the
diaphragm to the other.
• Actuating the valve pushes
a rubber washer down
the length of the groove,
cleaning away any scale
deposits or other build-up
as it moves.

PO INT-OF-SOU RCE H E AT E R

Avoids long periods of running water to Variable. • Uses less water at initial • Capital costs for installation
get the desired temperature. draw-off. of heater.

SHOWER R EGU L AT O RS

The regulator is fitted between the hose Typically 50%, • Retrofit available, easy to • Not suitable for use with
and the showerhead. but dependent fit. electrically heated showers.
on end flow • Regulates flow regardless
rate. of pressure.
• Flow rates of between 6
and 10 litres/minute can be
achieved.
• Low cost.

ELECTROMAGN ETI C ( SE N SO R) T AP S

As electromagnetic valve works with • Up to 70%, • Improved hygiene—tap • Requires energy—mains or

a sensor device (infrared). When the but dependent does not need to be battery operated.
sensor is activated the shower runs for on the end touched. • If sensor is fouled by
a set period of time before shutting off. flow rate and • Can achieve flow rates of soap then waterflow is
flow duration between 6 and 8 litres/ continuous.
setting. minute. • Costs typically around £300/
• Can achieve tap means longer payback
typical flow period.
rates of
between 6 and
8 litres/minute.
WATER EFFICIENCY APPENDIX

40
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